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Ethical Considerations of Private Human Spaceflight

Chris A. Clark

University at Buffalo
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Abstract

A recent flurry of private company proposals to launch humans into space raises a number of

ethical questions. Questions of flightworthiness are addressed by a number of aviation agencies

and organizations. Innovative solutions have been designed to protect astronauts from radiation.

Recruiting volunteers who will waive some protection will enable one venture to establish a

Martian colony without guaranteeing the colonists a return to Earth. As corporations have begun

to explore suborbital and low-earth orbits, there are increasing risks of collisions. Calls are

already coming for the preservation of unique pristine space environments and historic

exploration sites. Though United Nations members are bound by a treaty that prohibits outer

space sovereignty claims, this does not apply to private companies who may extract what they

wish from celestial bodies as they achieve that capability. Harvesting space minerals will affect

world markets and could change or cripple some economies, yet also could bring new riches to

all. Despite these concerns, the promises of new discoveries, new technologies, pride in

achievement, the solace of knowing humanity is safe from world-wide catastrophe,

overcrowding relief, and the gifts of opportunities to our progeny not only overcome any

objections, but tell us it would be unethical not to pursue off-world human colonies.
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For over fifty years, world governments have been sending humans into space (NASA).

While they have dealt with some ethical concerns, they have been able to circumvent others in

the interests of national security. In the past decade private companies have begun to send

people into space (Space Adventures; SpaceShipOne) and dozens more have proposed future

plans to launch others (Wall; Booking). They are mandated by regulations and insurance

companies to respond to some ethical problems, but it is unclear if any have answered all the

concerns that their endeavors will bring.

One could begin by asking whose ethical standards we should accept (Livingston).

Answers to this type of question typically involve the participants themselves, the organizations

they work for, and the hierarchy of umbrella organizations above those, up to and including the

home nation. As this lies outside the scope of this paper, let’s assume the aforementioned and

begin with the ethical considerations.

First and foremost is the concern for human safety. Every space traveler, whether

astronaut, private crew, or space tourist, is essentially a human research subject. Private

companies sending people into space must provide them with a safe environment and the

necessities of life such as air, clean water and healthy food. Of course, they must also assure that

their craft are flightworthy and that their basic operation will not endanger the passengers nor

people on the ground. They must also take steps to protect them from the dangers of space

including radiation and micrometeors.

The viability of any craft falls under the auspices of its nation’s regulatory agencies

(Thirty). In the United States, this domain is primarily that of the Federal Aviation

Administration, specifically its Office of Commercial Space Transportation which was created in
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1984 (About the Office). Companies are further self-policed by the industry organization known

as the Commercial Spaceflight Federation (About Us).

Radiation is of such a concern that NASA sets a lifetime limit for its astronauts’ exposure

(Managing). Once an astronaut reaches this limit, he or she is banned from all future flights

(Dreifus). Would it be ethical for a private company to launch passengers with a variable

radiation shield that would be removed and replaced throughout the duration of the flight?

Dennis Tito, who flew to the International Space Station as the first self-funded space tourist

(BBC), has proposed sending a couple on a Mars fly-by in a craft shielded with the food and

water store needed for the seventeen-month trip. As the food and water are consumed, they will

be replaced by bags of the astronauts’ waste (McAllister).

Would it be ethical to ask travelers to sign away their health and safety rights? The

Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 requires participants to sign a waiver releasing the

United States of any liability (Timberlake). Unlike the Golden Spike Company’s plans to launch

expeditions to the Moon (Company), and unable to guarantee them a safe return, Bas Lansdorp’s

Mars One is offering its astronauts a one-way trip to Mars (Mars One). Comparing it to previous

historical emigrations to settle distant lands, the company claims it is completely ethical. It is

honest about its astronauts’ prospects, yet has already received hundreds of applicants to help

build a Martian colony (Is This Ethical).

There are also environmental concerns, both old and new. We are familiar with earthly

problems like pollution and wasted resources that must be minimized, but moving beyond

Earth’s surface brings new questions. Who owns space? Does Robert Bigelow have the right to

park a hotel in orbit and mar everyone’s view of the night sky (McGarry)? What about space

artists launching orbiting exhibitions? Does Peter Diamandis have the right to profit from
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mining minerals from the asteroids (Planetary)? Can Buzz Aldrin extract helium-3 from the

moon to power clean fusion reactors on Earth (Whittington)?

Though the United Nations has created an office to assist member states with various

aspects of space law (International), it has historically held little real influence. Ultimately space

belongs to whoever can claim it. If Bigelow can succeed in placing his resort in an unoccupied

orbit, he’ll effectively own that orbit. The United States Space Surveillance Network tracks over

8000 spacecraft, satellites, spent rocket bodies and other orbital debris to help prevent future

collisions, but has no authority over what is up there (Space Surveillance). The International

Dark-Sky Association encourages the reduction of light pollution from ground sources (About

IDA), but has yet to take a position on the visibility of orbiting structures such as the hotel or

various art projects that have been proposed (Woods).

A similar concern is the preservation of the pristine, unspoiled expanses of space (Lin).

As with movements on Earth that seek to protect portions of rainforests, wetlands, coral reefs

and any number of other natural habitats, we must identify and safeguard unique environments in

space. Some are now calling for the preservation of historic sites in space such as the Apollo

lunar landers, flags, scientific experiments and the astronauts’ footprints and moon buggy tracks

surrounding them, though the government is wary of demanding it because of the precedent and

ramifications it might have with other countries (Chang). Still they have asked future visitors

politely not to disturb these sites and several state historical agencies have taken what steps they

can to help protect them.

Ownership of the moon, asteroids, and other celestial bodies is another matter. The 1967

United Nations Outer Space Treaty prohibits ownership of space properties by member nations,

but does not address ownership by corporations or individuals (Who). Diamandis’ company,
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Planetary Resources, is currently developing the resources and technology to mine asteroids with

both robotic and crewed vehicles (Planetary). The UN treaty does call for authorization and

supervision of such private activities by the appropriate State Party to the Treaty (Franzen), but

ownership of the harvested minerals may ultimately belong to whomever develops the capability

to gather them (Who).

The harvesting of asteroidal minerals and returning them to Earth raises other concerns.

Some countries, particularly poorer ones as those in Africa, depend on the export of their

minerals for their economic survival (Davis). A sudden influx of megatons of iron and nickel on

the world market could cripple third-world economies. A rush of gold, platinum and other

precious metals could devastate commodities trading the world over. Conversely, a flow of

helium-3 mined from the Moon as Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin proposes (Kaplan) could

provide all nations with a supply of clean energy.

For some, the greatest ethical concern is not that we are moving toward extraterrestrial

colonization, but that we might not. The sociological and psychological effects of space

exploration are profound. The U.S. space program is perhaps Americans’ greatest source of

national pride (Ross). An off-world colony will generate many new technologies and discoveries

so its major export may turn out to be knowledge (Asimov, 1975, p. 189). Because humanity is

the only intelligence of which we know in the Universe, and because it could be wiped out by a

cometary strike of the sort which killed the dinosaurs or activity of mankind such as nuclear war,

some take comfort in the thought that an independent self-supporting extraterrestrial human

colony will preserve and remember the history, culture, and knowledge of humanity (Asimov,

1989, p. 63). Lin raises the argument that a backup planet may encourage us to take more risks

with our original one, but then he quickly dismisses that, saying risk-takers are less forward-
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looking and would likely take the risks with or without the backup. More important, he says, is

the possibility for future alleviation of overcrowding and diminishing resources. As Joseph

Angelo concludes, “Without a focused decision to support off-planet expansion, our species

elects to isolate itself on a single world and denies future generations the rich technical and

cultural opportunities of a multiworld, solar-system-level civilization.” It would be unethical for

us not to pursue extraterrestrial human colonies as soon as humanly possible.

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