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An Overview of Orthodontic Wires

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Review Article

An Overview of Orthodontic Wires

Ravichandra Sekhar Kotha1, Rama Krishna Alla2,*, Mohammed Shammas3, Rama Krishna Ravi4
1
Department of Pedodontics, Dr. Sudha Nageswararao Pinnamaneni Siddhartha Dental College & Hospital,
Gannavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
2
Department of Dental Materials, Vishnu Dental College, Bhimavaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
3
Department of Prosthodontics, Sri Rajiv Gandhi College of Dental Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
4
Professor, Department of Conservative Dentistry & Endodontics, SB Patil Dental College, Bidar, Karnataka, India
*Corresponding author: Rama Krishna Alla: ramakrishna_dentalmaterials@rediffmail.com

Received 18 September 2013; Accepted 1 December 2013; Available online 1 March 2014

Orthodontic wires are components of fixed appliances used to carry out the necessary tooth movements as part of orthodontic
treatment. A variety of materials like metals, alloys, polymers and composites are used to produce orthodontic wires. The
properties of orthodontic wires are evaluated by various laboratory tests like tensile, torsional, and bending tests. However, oral
conditions may influence their behaviour and it is important for the clinician to understand the properties of orthodontic wires
as well as their clinical implications to turn out optimal results. This article reviews different materials used for manufacturing
orthodontic wires and their properties along with clinical implications.

Introduction plan. Earlier gold was most commonly used as

The aim of orthodontic treatment is to move the teeth to
a targeted position by the application of forces to them.
An ideal force is the one that produces rapid tooth
movement without damage to the teeth or periodontal
tissues. Different biological and other factors like the
type of movement and tooth size are the important factors
to be considered during application of the force, but it is
difficult to precisely determine the value of the ideal force
[1], orthodontic/orthopedic forces usually range from
01.5-5 N [2,3]. Application of lower forces produces the
optimal results and application of excessive force
exceeding vascular blood pressure reduces cellular
activity in periodontal tissues and slows down or stops
tooth movement at least for a period of time [4].
The quality and performance of treatment can be
improved by the application of lower forces and achieves
a wider range of movements between sessions. During
orthodontic treatment, orthodontic wires are used as fixed
appliances to apply forces to the teeth. They release the
energy stored upon its placement by applying forces and
torque to the teeth through the appliances placed on them
[5]. Therefore, an orthodontist should have adequate
knowledge of the biomechanical behaviour and clinical
applications of orthodontic wires to design the treatment
32
orthodontic wire. These gold wires were expensive. After
gold wires, stainless steel wires were commonly used
since they are inexpensive and had improved mechanical
properties. Cobalt-chromium, nickel-titanium, beta-
titanium and multistranded stainless steel wires have been
developed with extensive range of properties due to the
advancements in the recent technology.
Tension, bending and torsional tests are used to measure
the properties of orthodontic wires and all these tests are
completely different stress states investigating different
characteristics related with wire performance [6-8]. The
clinician should consider a variety of wire parameters
and characteristics as necessary since no wire is
appropriate for all treatment stages and no wire is ideal.
The ideal requirements of orthodontic wires are discussed
in table 1.
Types of Orthodontic Wires
Stainless Steel (SS) Wires
The austenitic 18-8 stainless steel type is most commonly
used. It contains chromium and nickel content of
approximately 18% and 8%, respectively. The most
important quality of 18-8 stainless steel is its high
resistance to corrosion by the formation of a passivated
 An Overview of Orthodontic Wires

Table 1: Ideal requirements of orthodontic wires

Property Requirements
Biological Should be nontoxic.
Chemical Should be resistant to corrosion and tarnish.
Modulus of elasticity should be high. It enables the wire to apply more force for tooth movement.
Formability should be high so as to bend the wire into desired configuration without fracture.
Spring back should be high which results in an increase in its range of action. Spring back is the
measure of how far a wire can be deflected without causing permanent deformation. It is also called
elastic deflection.
Mechanical Stiffness should be lower. It provides the ability to apply lower forces constantly for a lower time.
Resilience should be high. It increases the working range.
It should be soldered or welded.
Ductility should be sufficient to allow fabrication of appliance.
Should provide least friction at bracket – wire interface. Otherwise it leads to undue strain, which limits
the tooth movement
Should maintain the desirable properties for extended period of time after manufacture.
Other Should be inexpensive.
Should be easy to handle.

oxide layer, which blocks the further oxygen diffusion to
the underlying mass [9].
Commercially available stainless steel wires have a range
of values both for elasticity and yield strength related to
the change in different parameters at their production stage
such as freezing and incandescence during cold working.
Stainless steel wires produce higher forces applied during
shorter time periods since they have lower spring back
ability and also store less energy compared to those of
beta-titanium or nickel-titanium [10].
Stainless steel wires can be soldered with different
biomechanical attachments, using a fastening agent. New
welding techniques such as LASER or tungsten inert gas
(TIG) are recommended for use in orthodontics without
a fastening agent to produce satisfactory results. But, they
are too expensive and require the use of sophisticated
laboratory equipment [11].
The corrosion resistance of stainless steel is good in
general, but releases nickel and chromium in fewer
amounts and may induce hypersensitivity reactions [12].
In a study, Kolokitha et al., concluded that orthodontic
treatment is not related to an increased likelihood of
hypersensitivity reactions to nickel unless there is a history
of skin piercing [13].
Stainless steel wires have a lower bracket-wire friction
than other types of wires [14-16], and this friction can be
further reduced by using nanotechnology applications
[17]. Australian wires are a kind of stainless steel wires
available in different grades with gradually increasing
stored energy values (resiliency). These wires contain
more amount of carbon content that is up to 10 times
higher than that in a standard stainless steel orthodontic
wire (up to 0.20%) and this results in increased surface
roughness, hardness, porosity, and susceptibility for
breakage during clinical bending, particularly for higher
grades [18]. So their use is restricted to biomechanical
attachments.
Recently, super stainless steels have been developed with
a lower nickel content, higher corrosion resistance, and
improved mechanical properties. These properties have
made these wires to be chosen instead of titanium wires
since titanium wires are expensive. [19].
Cobalt-chromium wires
A cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy known as elgiloy is
available in wire and band forms for various dental
appliances. These alloys were originally developed for
use as watch spring by ELGIU national company. These
wires are available in different tempers depending on
amount of cold work that has been done [20] and are
usually color-coded. High spring tempers (red),
semispring temper (green), soft or ductile tempers
(yellow) are the different types available. They are easy
to bend. They can be heat hardened at 482° C for about 7
minutes after manipulation to increase hardness (strength)
approximately equal to that of stainless steel. Non-heat
treated cobalt-chromium wires have a smaller spring-back
than stainless steel wires [21]. These wires have excellent
resistance to tarnish and corrosion, are inexpensive and
can be soldered (fluoride fluxes are used) and welded.
High formability combined with increased elasticity and
yield strength following heat treatment by 10% and 20-
30%, respectively, have made Blue Elgiloy, a cobalt-
chromium wire type, popular in clinical practice.
Beta-titanium wires
These wires are also known as titanium-molybdenium
alloy (TMA) (ORMCO, Orange, CA, USA) or Titanium-
Niobium (ORMCO, Orange, CA, USA), and were
introduced in 1979 as an orthodontic wire [22,23].
Modulus of elasticity of these wires is lower than half of
stainless steel wires and almost twice that of Nitinol
[24,25].
These wires demonstrate good formability, but should not
be strongly bent for there is a risk of breaking. Electrical
welding of biomechanical attachments is possible, but
overheating should not be done as it makes the wire more
brittle. According to a recent study, beta-titanium wires

33
 R.S. Kotha, R.K. Alla, M. Shammas, R.K. Ravi
are better in terms of joinability than stainless steel wires
since they demonstrate higher resilience and better surface
and structural characteristics, which indicates only a
minor change in wire properties after welding [26].
Resistance to corrosion is similar to that of cobalt-
chromium and stainless steel wires and also is a good
biocompatible material due to the absence of nickel. Their
resistance to corrosion is due to the formation of a surface
passivation oxide layer [27], but exposure to fluoride
agents leads to the degradation, subsequent corrosion, and
qualitative alteration of the wire’s surface [28]. The
duration of wire exposure to fluoride agents appears to
play a major role [29]. These wires are highly expensive
and more bracket-wire friction than any other alloy [15,16,
30].
Alpha-beta titanium alloy has been introduced recently.
Alpha-beta titanium alloy is also called as TiMolium, it
has stiffness and other characteristics (such as elasticity
and yield strength) are between the values set for stainless
steel and beta-titanium wires [16].
Nickel-titanium (Ni-Ti) wires
A wrought Ni-Ti alloy known as Nitinol (Nickel-Titanium
naval ordinance laboratory) was introduced in 1972. It is
characterized by its high resiliency, limited formability,
shape memory or thermal memory, and pseudoelastic or
superelasticity. Two major phases and one intermediate
phase can be found in Ni-Ti alloys at different
temperatures. Major phases are austenitic at higher
temperature that is in body centered cubic structure (BCC)
and the other one is martensitic phase at lower temperature
that is in hexagonal close packed structure (HCP). The
intermediate phase, delays the transition from austenite
to martensite upon cooling until lower temperatures are
achieved [31].
Phase transformation (from BCC austenitic to HCP
martensitic) can be seen by decreasing the temperature
from an elevated temperature and can also be induced by
the application of stress and a volumetric change is
associated during this transition. This transformation
results in two unique features such as shape memory and
pseudoelasticity or superelasticity [32].
Shape memory is achieved by first establishing a shape
at temperatures near 482° C if the appliance wire is then
cooled and formed into a second shape and heated through
a lower transition temperature range (TTR), the wire will
return to its original shape. The cobalt content is used to
control the transition temperature range, which can be
near mouth temperature. Inducing the austenitic to
martensitic transformation by stress can produce
superelasticity, a phenomena that is employed with Ni –
Ti wires. This definition was based on structural changes
occurring in the wire (phase transformation) during
changes in temperature or its loading process [33].
The Chinese NiTi (Ormco, Orange, CA, USA) wires were
34
recommended by Burstone et al in 1985. They exhibited
4.4 times the spring-back of stainless steel wires and 1.6
times the spring-back of the original Nitinol wires if a
constant force in the middle of its deactivation range [34].
The Japanese NiTi (Sentalloy, DENTSPLY GAC
International, Bohemia, NY) wire was introduced by
Miura et al. in 1986 [35]. Their properties were almost
similar to Chinese NiTi wires [36]. NeoSent alloy wires
and Copper-Nickel-Titanium alloy (Cu-Ni-Ti) wires were
developed in early 1990s. The NeoSent alloy wires have
a pure shape memory in oral cavity temperature [31].
NeoSent alloys always have the austenitic structure at
oral temperature since those alloys attain the complete
austenitic structure below the oral temperature. Nitinol
wires attain austenitic structure at much higher than oral
temperature. Copper- Nickel-Titanium wires (Cu-Ni-Ti)
attain austenitic structure at different temperatures (270
C, 350 C and 400 C). Nitinol SE (Nitinol Super Elastic)
wires are superplastic. They have a pure shape memory
and are highly sensitive to changes in temperature
affecting their mechanical properties [37], but in vivo they
do not have a thermoelastic shape memory [9].
Nickel-titanium wires have a higher energy storage
capacity than beta-titanium or stainless steel wires when
activated with the same amount of bending [9,10]. The
chief advantage of these wires is their increased elasticity
that allows a wide deflection and activation range by
delivering low forces [38], and their corrosion resistance
[39]. The disadvantages include low formability, they are
expensive and cannot be welded or fused [9]. The friction
develops at bracket-wire interface is more with Nitinol
wires followed by beta-titanium, stainless steel and
chromium-cobalt wires [15]. Nitinol wires are more likely
to fail due to normal wear if they remain in the oral cavity
for many days. This kind of wear is more with larger or
rectangular section wires than smaller section wires [40].
Stainless steel wires and Nitinol wires have good
resistance to corrosion since they can form a passivation
oxide layer such as chromium oxide and titanium oxide
layers respectively [39].
Multistranded wires
Multistranded wires are made of a varying number of
stainless steel wire strands coaxially placed or coiled
around each other in different configurations. The
important characteristics of these wires are development
of low forces, low stiffness and a resilience [37, 41], and
these wires are inexpensive than titanium alloys [42].
They develop higher friction at bracket-wire interface
compared to NiTi wires and single-stranded stainless steel
wires [43].
Esthetic wires
Fiber-reinforced composite arch wires
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites have been used as
 An Overview of Orthodontic Wires

arch wires for more than a decade. These materials have
got many advantages over the conventional metallic alloys
as they are highly esthetic [44,45], biocompatible [45-
47]. Other advantages include hydrolytic stability, less
water sorption [45,48], stiffness is same as metallic wires
[49], post processing formability [45,50] and sliding
mechanics [45,51] are good. However, there is a chance
of wearing of these arch wires at the interface [45,51],
chances of leaching of glass fibers within the oral cavity.
Teflon coated stainless steel arch wires
Teflon is coated on stainless steel wire by an atomic
process that forms a layer of about 20-25ìm thickness on
the wire that imparts to the wire a hue which is similar to
that of natural teeth [52]. Teflon coating protects the
underlying wire from the corrosion process. However,
corrosion of the underlying wire is likely to take place if
it is used for longer period in the oral cavity since this
coating is subject to flaws that may occur during clinical
use [53,54].
Bioforce wires
which comprises of 3 layers. Inner core is silicon dioxide
core, middle layer is made with silicon resin and the outer
layer is nylon layer. Core provides the force for moving
tooth, middle layer protects the core from moisture and
also provides strength and the outer layer prevents damage
to the wire and also further increases the strength. Optiflex
is very flexible and is effective in moving teeth using
light continuous force.
Marsenol
Marsenol is a tooth coloured elastomeric poly tetra
fluroethyl emulsion (ETE) coated nickel titanium wire.
The working characteristics of these wire are similar to
an uncoated super elastic Nickel titanium wire.
Lee White wire
Lee white wires were manufactured by LEE
pharmaceuticals. It is a resistant stainless steel or Nickel
titanium arch wire bonded to a tooth colored epoxy
coating. The epoxy coating which is completely opaque
does not chip, peel, scratch or discolour.

BioForce is aesthetic and is part of the first and only family
of biologically correct archwires. “Bioforce archwires’
were introduced by GAC. The Ni-Ti Bioforce wires apply
low, gentle forces to the anterior teeth and increasingly
stronger forces across the posterior teeth until plateauing
at the molars. The level of force applied is graded
throughout the arch length according to tooth size.
Optiflex
Optiflex is a most aesthetic orthodontic arch wire designed
by Dr. Talass and manufactured by ORMCO. It has highly
aesthetic appearance as it is made of clear optical fiber,
Conclusion
Metals, alloys, polymers and composites are the materials
used for producing orthodontic wires. Each type of
material has its advantages over the other. However, the
practitioner should have a thorough knowledge of the
mechanical and physical properties of wires to determine
their clinical behaviour and to achieve a satisfactory and
predictable outcome. Fiber reinforced composites are
regarded as the cutting edge of orthodontic materials due
to their excellent esthetics, strength and the ability to
customize their properties to the needs of the practitioners.

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