Module in Structures of English 1

College of Education Structure of English
STRUCTURES
OF
ENGLISH
Prepared by: Mr. Rydwan A. Tanjili, LPT

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1
WORDS: THE DEFINITION AND CRITERIA
Definition of a Word ……………………………………………. 4
Criteria for Word Classes ……………………………………… 5
UNIT 2
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
Nouns ……………………………………………………………. 8
Pronouns ………………………………………………………… 12
Adjectives ……………………………………………………….. 19
Verbs …………………………………………………………….. 22
Adverbs …………………………………………………………. 31
Prepositions ……………………………………………………. 36
Conjunctions …………………………………………………… 40
Interjections ……………………………………………………. 42
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Module 1
STRUCTURES OF ENGLISH
Introduction
The interplay among semantics, morphology and syntax are building blocks of
the language system. Language’s structure basically refers to the word form, word
meaning and word order. Thus, language encompasses a number of elements which
are structurally integrated and patterned by grammar to provide rules governing
communication in that language.
The words follow a hierarchy of positions and occupations when constructed

altogether to form phrases, clauses and sentences. The way words are put together,
according to grammatical category, defines how various utterances and statements
can be made and understood. This requires the comprehensive application of
grammar as a centerpiece of understanding the structure of language.
Moreover, identifying each of the constituents in the sentence, and interpreting

its grammatical attribute can deepen awareness, cultivate adeptness and grasp
mastery toward demonstrating grammatical fluency and accuracy. Through that, one
is able to elaborate complexities and aid confusions in grammar.
Overview
As English teachers-to-be embark on this subject, they will be taught about the
components of grammar, which are called the parts of speech: noun, pronoun,
adjective, adverb, verb, conjunction, preposition and interjection. Punctuation usage
is also included. In addition, sentential or propositional connectives and analysis of
syntactic structure, such as logic in sentence composition and hierarchical
classification of sentence constituents, will be introduced to expand grammatical
awareness into the range of complexities of grammar.
Specifically, the parts of speech refer to the naming words, substituting naming
words, descriptive or modifying words, action words, connecting and relating words
and interjectory words; and these will be discussed comprehensively in order to solidify
retention on the rudiments of grammar and to ensure consistency and precision of
usage.
Pre-conceptualization
 What is the difference between diction and vocabulary?

 Describe how a person’s choice of words develops.
 Describe how we are built to learn language in relation to “mental grammar”.
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UNIT 1: WORDS: THE DEFINITION AND CRITERIA
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. discuss how words are formed; its mechanism and process, and
2. reflect on how word meaning changes when used in varied contexts.
Preparation
Watch this video on TED Talks website:
https://www.ted.com/talks/erin_mckean_go_ahead_make_up_new_words?language=en#t-102253
1. What are ways to create new words?
2. What differs usage from grammar?
3. Describe how language is dynamic.
4. Do you think you have flexibility and versatility in

using words?
Presentation Image from Google
WHAT IS A WORD?
In traditional grammar, word is the basic unit of language. Words can be

classified according to their action and meaning, but it is challenging to define.
A word refers to a speech sound, or a mixture of two or more speech sounds

in both written and verbal form of language. A word works as a symbol to
represent/refer to something/someone in language to communicate a
specific meaning.
"[A word is the] smallest unit of grammar that can stand alone as a
complete utterance, separated by spaces in written language and potentially by
pauses in speech."
(David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

Cambridge University Press, 2003)
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There are several criteria for a speech sound, or a combination of some speech
sounds to be called a word.
 There must be a potential pause in speech and a space in written form between
two words.
For instance, suppose ‘ball’ and ‘bat’ are two different words. So, if we use them
in a sentence, we must have a potential pause after pronouncing each of them.
It cannot be like “Idonotplaywithbatball.” If we take pause, these sounds can be
regarded as seven distinct words which are ‘I,' ‘do,' ‘not,' ‘play,' ‘with,' ‘bat,' and
‘ball.'
 Every word must contain at least one root. If you break this root, it cannot be a
word anymore.
For example, the word ‘unfaithful’ has a root ‘faith.' If we break ‘faith’ into ‘fa’ and
‘ith,' these sounds will not be regarded as words.
 Every word must have a meaning.
 For example, the sound ‘lakkanah’ has no meaning in the English language. So,
it cannot be an English word.
CRITERIA FOR WORD CLASSES
We use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a

word:
1. The meaning of the word

2. The form or `shape' of the word
3. The position or `environment' of the word in a sentence
1. Meaning
Using this criterion, we generalize about the kind of meanings that words
convey. For example, we could group together the words brother and car, as well
as David, house, and London, on the basis that they all refer to people, places, or
things. In fact, this has traditionally been a popular approach to determining members
of the class of nouns. It has also been applied to verbs, by saying that they denote
some kind of "action", like cook, drive, eat, run, shout, walk.
This approach has certain merits, since it allows us to determine word classes
by replacing words in a sentence with words of "similar" meaning. For instance, in the
sentence My son cooks dinner every Sunday, we can replace the verb cooks with
other "action" words:
1. My son cooks dinner every Sunday.

2. My son prepares dinner every Sunday.
3. My son eats dinner every Sunday.
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4. My son misses dinner every Sunday.
On the basis of this replacement test, we can conclude that all of these words
belong to the same class, that of "action" words, or verbs.
However, this approach also has some serious limitations. The definition of a
noun as a word denoting a person, place, or thing, is wholly inadequate, since it
excludes abstract nouns such as time, imagination, repetition, wisdom, and chance.
Similarly, to say that verbs are "action" words excludes a verb like be, as in I want to
be happy. What "action" does be refer to here? So although this criterion has a certain
validity when applied to some words, we need other, more stringent criteria as well.
2. The form or ‘shape’ of a word
Some words can be assigned to a word class on the basis of their form or
`shape'. For example, many nouns have a characteristic -tion ending:
action, condition, contemplation, demonstration, organization, repetition
Similarly, many adjectives end in -able or -ible:
acceptable, credible, miserable, responsible, suitable
Many words also take what are called INFLECTIONS, that is, regular changes
in their form under certain conditions. For example, nouns can take a plural inflection,
usually by adding an -s at the end:
car – cars
dinner – dinners
Verbs also take inflections:
walks – walks – walked – walking
3. The position or `environment' of a word in a sentence
This criterion refers to where words typically occur in a sentence, and the
kinds of words which typically occur near to them. We can illustrate the use of this
criterion using a simple example. Compare the following:
[1] I cook dinner every Sunday

[2] The cook is on holiday
In [1], cook is a verb, but in [2], it is a noun. We can see that it is a verb in [1],
because it can take the inflections which are typical of verbs:
I cook dinner every Sunday

I cooked dinner last Sunday
I am cooking dinner today
My son cooks dinner every Sunday
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We can see that cooks in [2] is a noun, because it takes the plural –s inflection.
The cooks are on holiday
If we really need to, we can also apply a replacement test, based on our first
criterion, replacing cook in each sentence with "similar" words:
Practice
Read an article on “How New Words Are Born” by Andy Boodle:

https://www.theguardian.com/media/mind-your-language/2016/feb/04/english-
neologisms-new-words, and answer the following questions.
a. How are new words formed?

_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b. How are words formed?

_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c. How many new words are created every day?

_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d. What are some mechanisms in forming new words?

_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
e. Which word formation process is the source of the English word modem?
________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
UNIT 2: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES
Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe and analyze meaning, and use of various noun and pronoun structure.
Preparation
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Match the following parts of speech to their correct definition.
Noun – _____________________________________________________________
Verb – ______________________________________________________________
Pronoun – ___________________________________________________________
Adverb – ____________________________________________________________
Preposition – ________________________________________________________
Adjective – __________________________________________________________
Interjection – _________________________________________________________
Conjunction – ________________________________________________________
Words that modify nouns or pronouns
Words that describe a relationship between a noun or pronoun and another element
in the sentence
Words that show emotion
Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses
Words that take place of a noun
Words that show action or a state of being
Words that modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs
Words that name people, places, things, or ideas
NOUNS
Nouns - refer to persons, animals, places, things, ideas, or events, etc. Nouns
encompass most of the words of a language.
Proper noun - is a name which refers only to a single person, place, or thing
and there is no common name for it. In written English, a proper noun always begins
with capital letters. For example, Philippines (it refers to only one particular country),
Nonoy (it refers to only one person who owns that name).
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Common noun - is a name for something which is common for many things,
person, or places. It encompasses a particular type of things, person, or places. For
example: Country (it can refer to any country, nothing in particular), man (it can refer
to any male person).
Abstract noun - is a word for something that cannot be seen but is there. It
has no physical existence. Generally, it refers to ideas, qualities, and conditions. For
example, truth, lies, happiness, sorrow, time, friendship, humor, patriotism, etc.
A concrete noun is the exact opposite of abstract noun. It refers to the things
we see and have physical existence. For example, chair, table, bat, ball, water, money,
sugar, etc.
The nouns that can be counted are called countable nouns. Countable nouns
can take an article: a, an, the.
The nouns that cannot be counted are called non-countable nouns.
Collective noun - is a word for a group of things, people, or animals, etc. For
example, family, team, committee, jury, etc.
Compound noun – is a noun that is made with two or more words. A compound
noun is usually [noun + noun] or [adjective + noun], but there are other combinations:
[noun + adjective] = fruitful, beautiful, creative, accessible

[verb(ing) + noun] = breakfast, washing machine, swimming pool
[noun + verb (ing)] = sunrise, haircut, moon sighting
[verb + preposition] = check out, check in
[noun + prepositional phrase] = mother-in-law
[preposition + noun] = underworld
There are three forms for compound nouns:
1. Open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe)

2. Hyphenated - hyphen between words (six-pack)
3. Closed or solid - no space or hyphen between words (bedroom)
What are functions of nouns?
Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object of a

verb; as an object of a preposition; and as an adverb or adjective in sentences. Nouns
can also show possession.
Subject: The company is doing great. Roses are the flowers of love.
Direct object: I finally bought a new mobile.
Indirect object: Max gave Carol another chocolate.
Object of preposition: Roses are the flowers of love.
Adverb: The train leaves today.
Adjective: The office building faces the mall.
Possession: The lion’s cage is dangerous. My brother’s daughter is adorable.
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There are two kinds of tests to determine nouns: formal and functional — what
a word looks like (the endings it takes) and how a word behaves in a sentence.
 Formal Tests
Does the word contain a noun-making morpheme? organization, misconception,

weirdness, statehood, government, democracy, philistinism, realtor, tenacity, violinist
Can the word take a plural-making morpheme? pencils, boxes
Can the word take a possessive-making morpheme? today's, boys'
 Function Tests
Without modifiers, can the word directly follow an article and create a grammatical unit
(subject, object, etc.)? the state, an apple, a crate
Can it fill the slot in the following sentence: "(The) _________ seem(s) all right." (or
substitute other predicates such as unacceptable, short, dark, depending on the
word's meaning)?
The five cases of Noun
1. Nominative/Subjective case:
A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb.

(SUBJECT is the person or the thing who or which carries out the action of the verb in
the sentence)
Examples:
• Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy.

Mr. Ram is a proper noun in Nominative case.
• I am buying vegetables for my family.

“I" is a pronoun in Nominative case.
2. Objective case (or Accusative case):
Nouns or pronouns are said to be in Objective cases if they are the direct
objects of verbs or if they are the objects of preposition. (Direct object is the person or
the thing upon whom or upon which the action of the verb is carried out).
Examples:
• I met your sister.

“Your sister" is in objective case.
• The vendors sell mangoes.

“Mangoes" is in objective case.
• The book is on the table.
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“Table" is in objective case.

It is object of the preposition ‘on’.
• This is one of my policies.

“Policies" is in objective case.
It is object of the preposition ‘of’.
3. Dative case:
A noun is said to be in dative case if it is the Indirect object of the verb. (Indirect
object of the verb is the noun for whom or for which the action of the verb is carried
out). There should not be a preposition before the indirect object because in that case
it will be the object of that preposition.
Examples:
• The teacher gave the students few exercises.

“Students" is in dative case. It is the indirect object of the verb ‘give’.
• The Postman brought me a letter.

“Me" is in dative case.
• Get him a pen.

“Him" is in dative case.
4. Possessive case (Genitive case):
A noun is said to be in possessive case, if it denotes possession or ownership.

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun that follows it.
Examples:
• This is your pencil.

(“Your" is in possessive case.
• It is our idea.
“Our" is in possessive case.
• John’s sister has been hospitalized.

“John’s" is in possessive case.
5. Vocative case:
A noun or a pronoun is said to be in Vocative case if it is used to call (or to get

the attention of) a person or persons.
Examples:
• Mr. Bill, students are waiting for you in the main hall.
“Mr. Bill" is in vocative case.
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• You there, stand up.

“You" is in vocative case.
• Brother, a letter for you.

“Brother" is in vocative case.
• Chairman, all the letters are posted two days ago.

“Chairman" is in vocative case.
PRONOUNS
Pronoun - is used in place of a specific noun mentioned earlier in a sentence

so that you don’t have to keep saying/writing that particular noun.
Examples:
Michael is a good boy. He gets up early in the morning.
The coach selected several key points. He wanted the team to memorize them.
The word or phrase that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent of the
pronoun. In the previous example, original noun ‘the coach’ is the antecedent and the
pronoun ‘he’ is the referent because it refers back to the original noun. The
antecedent and the pronoun/s must agree in terms of number and gender.
PRONOUN TYPE EXAMPLES
1 PERSONAL PRONOUN I, you, he, she, it, we, they
2 POSSESSIVE PRONOUN mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
3 RELATIVE PRONOUNS which, who, that, whose, whom
DEMONSTRATIVE
4 this, that, these, those
PRONOUNS
EMPHATIC/INTENSIVE myself, yourself, himself, herself,

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PRONOUNS itself, ourselves
myself, yourself, himself, herself,

6 REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
itself, ourselves
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none, several, many, some, any,

7 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
somebody, nobody
8 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS which, who, what
9 RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS each other, one another
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
These pronouns do not refer to a specific person, place, or thing. In English,
there is a particular group of indefinite pronouns formed with a quantifier or distributive
preceded by any, some, every and no.
PERSON PLACE THING
ALL everyone everywhere Everything

everybody
PART (POSITIVE) someone somewhere Something

somebody
PART (NEGATIVE) anyone anywhere Anything

anybody
NONE no one nowhere Nothing

nobody
Indefinite pronouns with some and any are used to describe indefinite and
incomplete quantities in the same way that some and any are used alone.
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Indefinite pronouns are placed in the same location as a noun would go in the
sentence.
Noun Indefinite pronoun
I would like to go to Paris this I would like to go somewhere this

summer. summer.
Jim gave me this book. Someone gave me this book.
I won't tell your secret to Sam. I won't tell your secret to anyone.
I bought my school supplies at the I bought everything at the mall.

mall.
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
Agreeing in Person
Ex: I should go home to finish my essay for ENG 3430.

You should go home to finish your essay for ENG 3430.
She should go home to finish her ENG 3430 essay.
Incorrect Ex: Psychologists should review their patients' records carefully

before you make a diagnosis.
Revised Ex: Psychologists should review their patients' records carefully before
they make a diagnosis.
Agreeing in Number
 When two or more antecedents are joined by the word "and," then the pronoun
referring to the antecedents should be plural.
Incorrect Ex: Helen and Allie showed us her Easter hat.

Revised Ex: Helen and Allie showed us their Easter hats.
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 When two or more singular antecedents are joined by the word "or" or "nor,"
then the pronoun referring to the antecedents should agree with the nearest of
the antecedents.
Incorrect Ex: Either the officers or Jeff will present their ideas at the meeting.
Revised Ex: Either the officers or Jeff will present his ideas at the meeting.
 A pronoun used as the subject of a sentence agrees in number with its

antecedent even though the antecedent comes after the pronoun.
Incorrect Ex: They are the tourist who signed up for the mountain hike.
Revised Ex: She is the tourist who signed up for the mountain hike.
 Collective nouns have either singular or plural pronouns, depending on the

situation. When the collective noun acts as a unit, use a third person singular
pronoun (it). When the individual members of the collective are acting
individually, use the third person plural (they).
Incorrect Ex: The committee is going to give their approval on Tuesday.

Revised Ex: The committee is going to give its approval on Tuesday. (In this case,
the committee is acting as a unit, so the singular pronoun is called for.)
 Indefinite pronouns like everyone, each, everybody, anyone, anybody,

everything, either, one, neither, someone, something refer to nonspecific
persons or things. They seem to be plural, but they are really singular. Use
singular pronouns.
Incorrect Ex.: Everyone wants to take their essay home to complete it.
Revised Ex.: Everyone wants to take his or her essay home to complete it.
Being Gender Sensitive
When the gender of an antecedent is not clear or not known, pronouns should not
automatically default to either gender. For instance, not all doctors are male or all
nurses female. Though not in itself an agreement issue, being gender sensitive
sometimes causes agreement problems, most often in number.
Incorrect Ex.: A professor should always write comments on his graded

assignments.
(This example is incorrect because it assumes that professors are men.)
Incorrect Ex.: A professor should always write comments on their graded

assignments.
(This example is incorrect because the attempt to correct has created a number
agreement problem—professor is singular and “their” is plural.)
Revised Ex.: A professor should always write comments on his or her graded
assignments.
Professors should always write comments on their graded assignments.
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Practice
Answer the following questions:
1. Grammar Truth or Dare:
Truth: Why collective nouns can’t be paired with plural verb as a general case?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
Dare: Write at least 3 sentences with collective nouns treated as plural. Explain why it
is correct.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between emphatic pronouns and reflexive pronouns?

Provide examples.
EP: _____________________________________________.
RP: _____________________________________________.
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
Choose the correct pronoun to fill the blank.
1.) I really like watching old shows. _________ are some of the best things on TV.
Those
That
This
These
2.) Please hand me __________ plate, spoon, and fork.

those
that
this
these
3.) _________ is some of the nicest weather we’ve had lately.

Those
That
This
These
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4.) After the parade, __________ met up in the town square.

something
everyone
anywhere
5.) Would you like __________ to drink.

something
everyone
anywhere
6.) I searched all over, but couldn’t find my notes __________ .

something
everyone
anywhere
7.) __________ flavor do you prefer?

Whom
Which
Who
8.) I heard someone at the door but wasn’t sure __________ it was.
what
which
whom
9.) __________ do you want for lunch?

what
which
who
10. I slipped on the sidewalk and hurt _________ .

himself
themselves
myself
11.) The kids rode the rollercoaster by _________ .

themselves
herself
himself
12.) She bought _________ a new car.

himself
myself
herself
13.) _________ am learning to speak better English.

I
Me
You
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14.) Thanks for the package! Please leave _________ on the table.
them
them
it
15.) Ben was surprised when _________ discovered that his friends were hiding in
the living room.
she
he
they
16.) I lost _________ phone last night.

mine
my
ours
17.) They bought new furniture for _________ house.

mine
their
ours
18.) We’re going to get _________ test results today.

mine
yours
our
19.) Dan and I waved hello to _________.

each other
one another
20.) The students talked to _________.

each other
one another
21.) The two boys threw the ball back and forth to _________.
each other
one another
22.) I’m always talking to _________.

themselves
myself
herself
23.) John likes to do things by _________.

myself
ourselves
himself
24.) You can do it _________.

yourself
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himself
themselves
25.) The tallest child, _________ was also oldest, was also most outgoing.
who
that
whose
26.) I don’t recognize the song _________ is playing.

which
that
who
27.) I rode my bike, _________ has a headlight, home in the dark.

that
whom
which
ADJECTIVES
“If you need an adjective, use it. But if it’s not pulling its weight, delete it.”
-Grammarly
What is an adjective?
Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of

nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe the quantity
of nouns: many, few, millions, eleven.
Most students learn that adjectives are words that modify (describe) nouns.
Adjectives do not modify verbs or adverbs or other adjectives.
Examples:
Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.

Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
My cake should have sixteen candles.
But adjectives can do more than just modify nouns. They can also act as a
complement to linking verbs or the verb to be. A linking verb is a verb like to feel, to
seem, or to taste that describes a state of being or a sensory experience.
Degree of Comparison
Adjectives come in three forms: absolute, comparative, and superlative.

Absolute adjectives describe something in its own right.
Examples:
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A cool guy
A cooler guy
The coolest guy
Coordinate Adjectives
Coordinate adjectives should be separated by a comma or the word and.

Adjectives are said to be coordinate if they modify the same noun in a sentence.
Examples: This is going to be a long, cold winter.

Isobel’s dedicated and tireless efforts made all the difference.
Cumulative Adjectives – are two or more adjectives that are chained one after the
other before the noun they describe.
Examples: A bright green metal mixing bowl
The place of adjective in relation to the noun
Attributive adjectives – these adjectives appear before the noun it describes.

Ex. old man, green coat, cheerful girl
Predicative adjectives – these adjectives appear after the noun it describes.

Ex. Jack is old. It looks green. She seems cheerful.
Postpositive adjectives – these adjectives appear immediately after the noun.

Ex. seats available, something good, seats available
The Order of Adjectives
When two or more adjectives are strung together, they should be ordered according
to the following list:
PLACEMENT TYPE OF ADJECTIVE EXAMPLES
 Article,
 a, an, the
 Demonstrative
1  this, that, those, these
Determiner, or
 my, your, his, our
 Possessive Determiner
2 Quantity one, three, ninety-nine
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beautiful, clever, witty, well-

3 Opinion or Observation
mannered
4 Size big, medium-sized, small
5 Physical Quality thin, lumpy, cluttered
6 Shape square, round, long
7 Age young, middle-aged, old
8 Colour/Color red, blue, purple
9 Origin or Religion French, Buddhist
10 Material metal, leather, wooden
L-shaped, two-sided, all-

11 Type
purpose
 Purpose, or  mixing, drinking, cooking

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 Attributive Noun  service, football, head
Example: our one shiny big rough round new blue American wooden dining table
Practice
Grammar Truth or Dare:
Truth: Why a number of adjectives in a given sentence should be accorded to a proper

sequence?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________.
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Dare: Write at least 3 sentences with cumulative adjectives without following the order.
Explain why it is acceptable or unacceptable.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
VERBS
A verb is a word or a combination of words that indicates action or a state of

being or condition. A verb is the part of a sentence that tells us what the subject
performs. Verb is the heart of English sentences.
Examples:
Jacob walks in the morning. (A usual action)
Mike is going to school. (A condition of action)
Basic Forms of Verbs
There are six basic forms of verbs. These forms are as follows:
 Base form: Children play in the field.

 Infinitive: Tell them not to play
 Past tense: They played football yesterday.
 Past participle: I have eaten a burger.
 Present participle: I saw them playing with him today.
 Gerund: Swimming is the best exercise.
Finite verbs - are the actual verbs which are called the roots of sentences.
It is a form of a verb that is performed by or refers to a subject and uses one of the
twelve forms of tense and changes according to the number/person of the subject.
Example:
Alex went to school. (Subject – Alex – performed the action in the past. This
information is evident only by the verb ‘went’.)
Robert plays hockey.
He is playing for Australia.
He is one of the best players. (Here, the verb ‘is’ directly refers to the subject
itself.)
Non-finite Verbs are not actual verbs. They do not work as verbs in the
sentence rather they work as nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc. Non-finite verbs do not
change according to the number/person of the subject because these verbs, also
called verbals, do not have any direct relation to the subject. Sometimes they become
the subject themselves.
The forms of non-finite verbs are – infinitive, gerund, and participle (participles
become finite verbs when they take auxiliary verbs.)
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Example:
Alex went abroad to play (Infinitives)

Playing cricket is his only job. (Present participle)
I have a broken bat. (Past participle)
Walking is a good habit. (Gerund)
Action verbs indicate what the subject of a sentence performs. Action verbs
can make the listener/reader feel emotions, see scenes more vividly and accurately.
Action verbs can be transitive or intransitive.
Regular verbs form their simple past and past participle by adding –d or -ed .
(agreed, dreamed, passed, moved, walked, studied, played, etc.)
Irregular verbs form their simple past or past participle by changing partly the
spelling which is does not follow the normal inflection. (built, became, awoke, blown,
brought, burnt, chose, began, etc.)
Transitive verbs must have a direct object. A transitive verb demands

something/someone to be acted upon.
Example:
I painted the car. (The verb ‘paint’ demands an object to be painted)

She is reading the newspaper. (The verb ‘read’ asks the question “what is she
reading?” – the answer is the object)
Intransitive/Ditransitive verbs do not act upon anything. They may be

followed by an adjective, adverb, preposition, or another part of speech.
Example:
She smiled. (The verb ‘smile’ cannot have any object since the action of ‘smiling’
does not fall upon anything/anyone)
I wake up at 6 AM. (No object is needed for this verb)
A linking verb adds details about the subject of a sentence. In its simplest
form, it connects the subject and the complement — that is, the words that follow the
linking verb. It creates a link between them instead of showing action. Often, what is
on each side of a linking verb is equivalent; the complement redefines or restates the
subject.
Generally, linking verbs are called ‘be’ verbs which are - am, is, are, was, were.
However, there are some other verbs which can work as linking verbs. Those verbs
are: Act, feel, remain, appear, become, seem, smell, sound, grow, look, prove, stay,
taste, turn.
Some verbs in this list can also be action verbs. To figure out if they are linking
verbs, you should try replacing them with forms of the be verbs. If the changed
sentence makes sense, that verb is a linking verb.
23
Example:
She appears ready for the game. (She is ready for the game.)
The food seemed delicious. (The food was delicious.)
You look happy. (You are happy.)
Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs. An auxiliary verb extends the
main verb by helping to show time, tense, and possibility. The auxiliary verbs are – be
verbs, have, and do. They are used in the continuous (progressive) and perfect
tenses.
Linking verbs work as main verbs in the sentence, but auxiliary verbs help main
verbs.
Do is an auxiliary verb that is used to ask questions, to express negation, to

provide emphasis, and more.
Example:
Alex is going to school.

They are walking in the park.
I have seen a movie.
Do you drink tea?
Don’t waste your time.
Please, do submit your assignments.
Modal Verbs:
A modal verb is a kind of an auxiliary verb. It assists the main verb to indicate
possibility, potentiality, ability, permission, expectation, and obligation. The modal
verbs are can, could, must, may, might, ought to, shall, should, will, would.
Example:
I may want to talk to you again.
They must play their best game to win.
She should call him.
I will go there.
Voices of the Verb:
Active Voice – the subject is the doer of the action in the sentence.
(John is challenging himself to overcome anxiety.)
Passive Voice – the subject is the receiver of the action in the sentence.
(John is being tested by the circumstances.)
Mood of the Verb:
1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or question:

Ex.: Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.
Ostriches cannot fly.
Have you finished your homework?
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2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice:

Ex.: Don’t smoke in this building.
Be careful!
Don’t drown that puppy!
3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses wish, doubt or something contrary to fact.

Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to a kind of
“mixed subjunctive” that makes use of helping verbs:
Ex.: If I see him, I will tell him.
May you have many more birthdays.
If I were you, I wouldn’t keep driving on those tires.
4. Infinitive Mood: expresses an action or state without reference to any subject. It

can be the source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks the
infinitive form is a fully-functioning verb.
When we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the basic form of
the verb with “to” in front of it: to go, to sing, to walk, to speak.
Verbs said to be in the infinitive mood can include participle forms ending in -
ed and -ing. Verbs in the infinitive mood are not being used as verbs, but as other
parts of speech.
Ex.: To err is human; to forgive, divine.

(Here, to err and to forgive are used as nouns.)
He is a man to be admired.
(Here, to be admired is an adjective, the equivalent of admirable.
It describes the noun man.)
He came to see you.
(Here, to see you is used as an adverb to tell why he came.)
Chart 1
EXPLANATION
USE MODALS EXAMPLES
OF USE
LOGICAL Those clouds
This use of modal
POSSIBILITY must mean that it
limits or weakens
will rain later.
the certainty of
action in a
As a result, the
sentence. On the
market will close
opposite end, can,
earlier than usual
may, could, and must, will, would,
today.
might are all should, may, can
equally weak and could, might
This naïve
show lack of
approach would
commitment and
not work well
confidence.
every day.
Strongest logical
Careful thought
possibility = most
should be put into
25
probable (but still important

not guaranteed) decisions.
This may
ultimately lead to
better outcomes.
Careless actions
can lead to
disastrous results.
Changing these
settings could
produce more
favorable results.
These factors
might contribute to
the success of the
process.
ABILITY This use shows The literature can
ability, which is be organized by
binary, rather than date, author, or
possibility, which argument.
falls on a
can, could
spectrum.
Strongest ability = A person who
most direct could interpret the
results assisted
the researcher.
OBLIGATION/ A closer
NECESSITY examination
reveals that the
subject must be
This use gives treated with great
advice or makes a care.
recommendation.
must, should Our findings
Strongest suggest that health
necessity = most care providers
direct should strive to be
sensitive to the
needs of their
patients.
PERMISSION This use asks or May I request a

gives permission copy of the article
in the form of a may, could, can that you published
question. It almost in 1999?
never appears in
26
published Could you get

academic writing, back to me by
but frequently Tuesday?
appears in
academic Can you elaborate
correspondence on the significance
such as e-mails, or contribution of
proposals, or this?
revisions. The
strongest modal in
this use, may, is
the most polite and
indirect, whereas
can is the more
direct and slightly
impolite.
Strongest
permission = most
polite
Chart 2
Tenses of the Verb
The Past Tenses
Simple Past Tense is used to describe a completed activity that happened in the past.
Ex.: I ran to the shops.
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Past Progressive Tense is used to describe an ongoing activity in the past. Often, it
is used to set the scene for another action.
Ex.: I was running to the shops when I saw Bruno.
Past Perfect Tense. The past perfect tense is used to emphasize that an action was
completed before another took place. Ex.: I had run to the shops, but they were closed.
Past Perfect Progressive Tense is used to show that an ongoing action in the past
has ended. Ex.: I had been running to the shops, but I have now started walking.
The Present Tenses
Simple Present Tense is mostly used to describe facts and habits. Ex.: I run daily.
Present Progressive Tense is used for an ongoing action in the present. Ex.: I am
running to your house at the moment.
Present Perfect Tense is used for actions began in the past. (Often, the actions
continue into the present.) Ex.: I have run for 5 miles so far.
Present Perfect Progressive Tense is used for a continuous activity that began in
the past and continues into the present, or a continuous activity that began in past but
has now finished (usually very recently). Ex.: I have been running for hours.
The Future Tenses
Simple Future Tense is used for an action that will occur in the future. Ex.: I will run
to the shops tomorrow.
Future Progressive Tense is used for an ongoing action that will occur in the future.
Ex.: I will be running to the shops every day after today.
Future Perfect Tense is used to describe an action that will have been completed at
some point in the future. Ex.: I will have run to work by 12 o'clock.
Future Perfect Progressive Tense. The future perfect progressive tense is used for
an ongoing action that will be completed at some specified time in the future.
Ex.: I will have been running for 3 hours by 12 o'clock.
Practice
Fill in the blanks using the correct form of the verbs.
1. Hi, I ________ (be) Matt Rotell, a friend of Alice's.

2-3. Oh, yes. Alice _________ (mention) you the other day. Gee, you __________
(not look) like a detective.
4. Well, that's good, I _________ (guess).
5-6. I'm curious. Tell me, how __________ you ___________ (decide) to become an
undercover cop?
28
7-12. Well, when I ____________ (be) a kid, I ___________ (love) to read detective
novels. By the time I ___________ (be) ten, I ___________ (read) every book in
the Hardy Boys series. I _____________ (know) that I ____________ (want) to go
into law enforcement.
13. But according to Alice, you __________ (attend) law school nowadays.
14-18. Right. I _______ (get) married last month. I __________ (not mind) being on
the police force when I __________ (be) single, but ever since I _________ (meet)
Nicole, my wife, I _________ (want) to do something less dangerous.
19-21. I ______________ (understand). By the way, __________ you _________
(have) any encounter with those counterfeiters?
22-24. Well, I ________________ (follow) them for more than a month now, but so
far I __________________ (not able to) catch them in the act. Sometimes I
__________ (worry) that by the time they are caught, I’ll have my law degree and I’ll
be defending them!
25. Hardly had the minister finished his speech when the earthquake (shake)
the stadium.
26. Everybody will be at the office at about 08:30 tomorrow as the
meeting (start) at nine o'clock.
27. That candidate who we had been interviewed before we (speak) to all the
others is still my favorite.
28. While climbing onto the mountain top, I (encounter) a strange animal
which I'd never seen before.
29. The chairman was sure that his plan would work out fine as no other
member (oppose) it up to that time.
29. I wasn't surprised to hear that Monica (have) an accident as she is a very
reckless driver.
30-31. Since the very first day when the Umbrella Company embarked upon such a
dangerous and risky lab-research, very strange incidents (take place) within
the research complex.
32-33. Urbanization (always / be) a problem which causes several
environmental challenges ever since the rate of migration (increase) after the
industrial revolution.
34-35. When I (come) home this evening, my parents had gone out for a
walk.
36. By the time the troops (arrive), the war will have ended.
37. By the year 2020, linguists (study) the Indy-European language
family for more than 200 years.
38. Gasoline (become) a major problem for people for the last ten years,
therefore, during this time many people have preferred to sell their cars and buy
smaller ones.
29
39. By the time he was 14, Wolfgang Mozart (compose) an enviable number
of musical pieces.
40. Nothing in my life (be) so strong to stop me achieve my goals so far and i
don't think anything will be.
41. Archaeologists (explain) recently that an ancient underground city around
Cappadocia has long wide corridors where there are many special areas for making
cheese and wine.
42. I was amazed when he accepted a drink, since I (always / assume)
that he was a teetotaler.
43. I (play) tennis tomorrow but I won't be able to do that because I
have injured my right ankle.
44. We (visit) the seashore many times before but last summer we enjoyed
ourselves more than ever.
45. According to a survey, thousands of vending machines (have to
be converted) before the new coins have come into circulation.
Put in the blank ‘can’, ‘have to’, ‘may’, ‘might’, ‘must’, ‘need’,
‘should/shouldn’t’ or ‘be+(not) allowed to’ 'can', 'can't', 'could' or 'couldn't',
'mustn't' or 'don't / doesn't’.
1. George has travelled a lot. He speak many languages.

2. I can hear you quite well. You not shout.
3. I'm not sure where I will go for my holidays, but I go to Italy.
4. She ride her bike at night without lights. It's not allowed.
5. She not eat so much chocolate because it's bad for her figure.
6. I understand him.He should speak louder.
7. It's later than I thought. I go now.
8. You a better trainer if you want to improve yourself.
9. Talk to Ann about your problems. I'm sure she help you.
10. You not vacuum the carpets because Carol has already done it.
11. You be tired because you have worked very hard.
12. He come to my party because he is ill.
13. He go to the dentist when he has toothache.
14. It's not very important. You not do it now. You do it
tomorrow.
15. you speak many languages?
16. I don't know what I'm doing this weekend, but I go to London.
17. Smoking is very unhealthy. You stop it.
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18. Playing football in this park.

19. You have got plenty of time. You not hurry.
20. You have a passport to visit most foreign countries.
21.) We ____________ get to the meeting on time yesterday, because the train was
delayed by one hour.
22.) He _____________ arrive at the party on time, even after missing the train, so he
was very pleased.
23.) I ____________ drive a car until I was 34. Then I moved to the countryside, so I
had to learn.
24.) My grandmother ____________ use a computer until last month. Since then she's
been taking lessons at the library.
25.) When the car broke down I was really pleased because I ________________
solve the problem.
26.) You can borrow my new dress, but you ___________ get it dirty.
27.) I ___________ do my washing because my mother does it for me.
28.) We _______________ miss the train, because it's the last one tonight.
29.) They _____________ get up early today, because it's Sunday.
30.) We ____________ be late for the exam.
ADVERBS
What is an Adverb?
An adverb is a word that can modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Lots of adverbs end in "-ly." For example:
She swims quickly.

(Here, the adverb "quickly" modifies the verb "swims.")
She is an extremely quick swimmer.

(The adverb "extremely" modifies the adjective "quick.")
She swims extremely quickly.

(The adverb "extremely" modifies the adverb "quickly.")
Types of Adverb
When an adverb modifies a verb, it can often be categorized as one of the following:
Type Examples
Adverb of Manner An adverb of manner tells us how an action occurs.

(how)
 The lion crawled stealthily.
 Will you come quietly, or do I have to use
earplugs? (Comedian Spike Milligan)
31
(NB: Lots of adverbs of manner end "-ly.")
Adverb of Time An adverb of time tells us when an action occurs or how

(when and how often.
often)
 I tell him daily.
 What you plant now, you will harvest later. (Author
Og Mandino)
(NB: Adverbs of time that tell us how often something
occurs (e.g., "always," "often," "sometimes") are also
known as "adverbs of frequency.")
Adverb of Place An adverb of place tells us where an action occurs.

(where)
 I did not put it there.
 Poetry surrounds us everywhere, but putting it on
paper is, alas, not so easy as looking at it. (Artist
Vincent Van Gogh)
Adverb of Degree An adverb of degree tells us to what degree an action

(aka Adverb of occurs.
Comparison)
 He works smarter.
(how much)
 Doubters make me work harder to prove them
wrong. (Businessman Derek Jeter)
What do adverbs do?
When an adverb modifies a verb, it tells us how, when, where, why, how often,
or how much the action is performed. Here are some examples of adverbs modifying
verbs:
How: He ran quickly.

When: He ran yesterday.
Where: He ran here.
Why: He sits to rest.
How often: He ran daily.
How much: He ran fastest.
Not all adverbs are one word.
In the examples above, every adverb is a single word, but an adverb can be made
up of more than one word. For example:
How: He ran at 10 miles per hour.
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When: He ran when the police arrived.

Where: He ran to the shops.
Why: He ran to fetch some water.
How often: He ran every day.
How much: He ran quicker than me.
Adverbial Phrases and Clauses
In all the examples above, the adverbs have been single words, but multi-word
adverbs are common too.
Type Examples
Adverb of Manner An adverb of manner often starts with a preposition (e.g.,

"in," "with") or one of the following: "as," "like," or "the
way." (These are called subordinating conjunctions.)
 Money speaks, but it speaks with a male voice.

(Author Andrea Dworkin)
(This is called a prepositional phrase. It's also an
adverbial phrase.)
 People who say they sleep like a baby does usually

don't have one. (Psychologist Leo J. Burke)
Adverb of Time An adverb of time often starts with a preposition or one of

the following subordinating conjunctions: "after," "as," "as
long as," "as soon as," "before," "no sooner than," "since,"
"until," "when," or "while."
 A company like Gucci can lose millions in a

second. (Gucci CEO Marco Bizzarri)
 After the game has finished, the king and pawn go
into the same box. (Italian proverb)
Adverb of Place An adverb of place often starts with a preposition or one of

the following subordinating conjunctions: "anywhere,"
"everywhere," "where," or "wherever."
 Opera is when a guy gets stabbed in the back and,

instead of bleeding, he sings. (Ed Gardner)
 Some cause happiness wherever they go;
others whenever they go. (Playwright Oscar Wilde)
33
Adverb of Degree An adverb of degree often starts with one of the following
(aka Adverb of subordinating conjunctions: "than," "as...as," "so...as," or
Comparison) "the...the."
 Nothing is so contagious as enthusiasm. (Poet

Samuel Taylor Coleridge)
 Be what you are. This is the first step toward
becoming better than you are. (Writer Julius
Charles Hare)
Adverbs of An adverb of condition tells us the condition needed

Condition before the main idea comes into effect. An adverb of
condition often starts with "if" or "unless."
 If the facts don't fit the theory, change the facts.

(Theoretical physicist Albert Einstein)
 Age doesn't matter, unless you're a cheese.
(Filmmaker Luis Bunuel)
Adverbs of An adverb of concession contrasts with the main idea. An

Concession adverb of concession often starts with a subordinating
conjunction like "though," "although," "even though,"
"while," "whereas," or "even if."
 Although golf was originally restricted to wealthy,

overweight Protestants, today it's open to anybody who
owns hideous clothing. (Comedian Dave Barry)
 A loud voice cannot compete with a clear voice, even if

it's a whisper. (Writer Barry Neil Kaufman)
Adverbs of An adverb of reason gives a reason for the main idea. An

Reason adverb of reason usually starts with a subordinating
conjunction like "as," "because," "given," or "since."
 I don't have a bank account because I don't know

my mother's maiden name. (Comedian Paula
Poundstone)
 Since we cannot change reality, let us change the
eyes which see reality. (Greek author Nikos
Kazantzakis)
34
 (Point 1) Adverbs modify verbs, but they can also modify adjectives and
other adverbs.
 (Point 2) Although many adverbs end in "-ly," lots do not.

Ex. fast, never, well, very, most, least, more, less, now, far, there
 (Point 3) In real-life sentences, lots of adverbs are phrases or clauses

(i.e., not single words).
Practice
Complete each sentence using the words from the table in the correct
adjective or adverb forms.
careful complete continuous financial fluent
happy nervous perfect quick special
quickly
1. Our holiday was too short. The time passed very .
2. Tom doesn't take risks when he's driving. He's always .
3. Sally works . She never seems to stop.
4. Alice and Stan are very married.
5. Monica's English is very although she makes a lot of mistakes.
6. I cooked this meal for you, so I hope you like it.
7. Everything was very quiet. There was silence.
8. I tried on the shoes and they fitted me .
9. Do you usually feel before examinations?
10. I'd like to buy a car but it's impossible for me at the moment.
Choose the adjective or adverb form of the word.
11. The driver of the car was injured.

12. The driver of the car had injuries.
13. I think you behaved very .
14. Rose is upset about losing her job.
15. There was a change in the weather.
16. Everybody at the party was dressed.
35
17. Linda likes wearing clothes.

18. She fell and hurt herself quite .
19. Don't go up that ladder. It doesn't look .
20. He looked at me when I interrupted him.
Prepositions
 Prepositions indicate relationships between other words in a sentence.

 Many prepositions tell you where something is or when something happened.
The Role of a Preposition
Prepositions show how two words are linked. Lots of prepositions (e.g., "on,"
"in," "near," "behind," "under," "inside") tell us where things are relative to each other.
For example:
The cat sat on the mat.

The rat ran under the shed.
The Sun dropped below the horizon.
Often, prepositions (e.g., "during," "after," "before," "in," "on," "at") tell
us when things are. For example:
Eat your popcorn during the show.

The swans will leave in August.
I will clean the windows on Sunday.
She said the answer before you.
Expressing where and when are two key roles for prepositions, but they have
other roles too. For example, they might show possession or purpose.
These are the wishes of the people.

(Here, the preposition "of" shows possession.)
It is a device for opening jars.
(Here, the preposition "for" shows purpose.)
Here is a list of common prepositions:
above, about, across, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below,
beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into,
like, near, of, off, on, since, to, toward, through, under, until, up, upon, with, within
Types of Prepositions
Prepositions indicate direction, time, location, and spatial relationships, as well

as other abstract types of relationships.
36
Direction: Look to the left and you’ll see our destination.

Time: We’ve been working since this morning.
Location: We saw a movie at the theater.
Space: The dog hid under the table.
Examples of Prepositions that Tell Us Where
Here are some examples of prepositions that tell us where something is in

relation to something else (prepositions highlighted):
the boy behind the bush

(Here, the preposition "behind" tells us where "the boy" is in relation to "the bush.")
a mouse under the stairs
(In this example, the preposition "under" tells us where "a mouse" is in relation to
"the stairs.")
Examples of Prepositions that Tell Us When
Here are some examples of prepositions that tell us when something is in

relation to something else (prepositions highlighted):
the calm before the storm

(Here, the preposition "before" tells us when "the calm" is in relation to "the storm.")
one second after the bang
(In this example, the preposition "after" tells us when "one second" is in relation to
"the bang.")
Prepositions of Agents or Things:
Prepositions of agents or things indicate a casual relationship between

nouns and other parts of the sentence.
Of, for, by, with, about, etc. are the most used and common prepositions of
agents or things.
Example:
This article is about smartphones.
Most of the guests have already left.
I will always be here for you.
He is playing with his brothers.
Phrasal Prepositions/Prepositional Phrase:
A phrasal preposition is not a prepositional phrase, but they are a

combination of two or more words which functions as a preposition.
A prepositional phrase is made up of a preposition and the object of the

preposition (including any modifiers). Prepositional phrases are very common. They
function as either adjectives or adverbs.
37
Examples:
It is a message from Mark.
(Here, the prepositional phrase "from Mark" is functioning like an adjective because it
is describing "message.")
Mark is trapped on the island.

(Here, the prepositional phrase "on the island" is functioning like an adverb because
it is modifying the verb "is trapped.")
Along with, apart from, because of, by means of, according to, in front of,
contrary to, in spite of, on account of, in reference to, in addition to, in regard
to, instead of, on top of, out of, with regard to, etc. are the most common phrasal
prepositions.
Example:
They along with their children went to Atlanta.
According to the new rules, you are not right.
In spite of being a good player, he was not selected.
I’m going out of the city.
Practice
Complete the exercise with appropriate prepositions.
to
1. Nice meet you.
2. Don’t be late school.
3. Are you the new student Portugal?
4. Are you a teacher this school?
5-6. Jessica is vacation. She is Italy now.
7. What is this called English?
8. Look the flowers.
9. Adam's birthday is July.
10. Don’t run the classroom.
Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions.
w ith
1. Compare your answers your partner.
2. This key holder is very special me.
3. Apples and peaches are the same box.
4. Write me soon.
5. Have you got a piece paper?
6. What’s the calculator for? It is my exam.
38
7. I’m tall black hair and brown eyes.

8. We have a house a big backyard.
9. I come a big family.
10. Match the pictures the names.
11. Is your house the country?
12. Guess what I have my hand?
13. I have two color pens. What you?
Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions.
1. Most people agree that kindergarten contributes ---- the child's mental
development.
to
2. Since Jennifer was a year younger than her friends, she had a hard time keeping -
--- with them.
3. In most countries, children start the primary school ---- the age of six.
4. Although he studied hard, he couldn't succeed ---- getting a high score in his test.
5. There are different sets of language learning sets available ---- all age groups.
6. All candidates are looking forward ---- the announcement of our test scores.
7. Since I will be busy ---- my homework and prepare ---- the exam tomorrow, I don't
think I will be able to go out tonight.
8. The students walk five kilometers to school, so they need to get up very early ----
the morning.
9. Since our school was next to our house, I used to come home ---- lunch time.
10. I was born ---- the 23rd ---- April, so there is no school when it's my birthday.
Conjunctions
What Are Conjunctions?
Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.
Examples:
I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes afterward.
39
Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she insists on dancing till dawn.
Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the
choppiness of multiple short sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined by
conjunctions are parallel (share the same structure).
Incorrect: I work quickly and careful.

Correct: I work quickly and carefully.
List of Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Correlative Conjunctions: both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or
Some Subordinating Conjunctions: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much
as, as soon as, as though, because, before, by the time, even if, even though, if, in
order that, in case, in the event that, lest , now that, once, only, only if, provided that,
since, so, supposing, that, than, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where,
whereas, wherever, whether or not, while
Coordinating Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of

equal grammatical rank in a sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions
are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can remember them by using the
mnemonic device FANBOYS.
Examples:
I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch.

We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things and went to the
library.
Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by.
Notice the use of the comma when a coordinating conjunction is joining two
independent clauses.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some

examples are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.
Examples:
Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my history
essay.
I am finished with both my English essay and my history essay.
Subordinating Conjunctions
40
Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. A

subordinating conjunction can signal a cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or
some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common subordinating
conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas.
Sometimes an adverb, such as until, after, or before can function as a

conjunction.
Example: I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.
Here, the adverb until functions as a subordinating conjunction to connect two

ideas: I can stay out (the independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the
dependent clause). The independent clause could stand alone as a sentence; the
dependent clause depends on the independent clause to make sense.
The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence.

It has to be part of the dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come before
the independent clause.
Example: Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.
If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent
clause.
Examples:
I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty.

Because I was thirsty, I drank a glass of water.
Practice
Underline the conjunctions and the connector in the sentences below.
1. Although she was ill she went to work.

2. Their car broke down; nevertheless they managed to get to the garage.
3. They wanted to move to a new neighborhood; however they couldn’t afford it.
4. This child is very independent despite his young age.
5. Despite the low price I didn’t buy the suit.
6. We haven’t seen Sue since she came back from her holiday.
7. Jeremy is going to wear a suit in order to look smart.
8. Since the weather was bad we cancelled the flight.
9. His apology may be sincere. However, I don’t think it will be accepted.
10. He is watching the game, while the delivery man is knocking on the door.
Complete the sentences with adverbial clauses, using in turn each of the
conjunctions given:
41
As …,
When …,
Since …, the whole family made the decision to emigrate
Although …,
so that …,
in case …,
if …, You had better repeat your instructions carefully
before …,
while … ,
Interjections
Interjections are words used to express strong feeling or sudden emotion. They
are included in a sentence (usually at the start) to express a sentiment such as
surprise, disgust, joy, excitement, or enthusiasm.
An interjection is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.

In the following examples, the interjections are shaded.
 Hey! Get off that floor!

 Oh, that is a surprise.
 Good! Now we can move on.
 Jeepers, that was close.
Expressions such as "yes," "no," "indeed," and "well" are often used as
interjections.
42
Examples:
Indeed, this is not the first time the stand has collapsed.
Yes, I do intend to cover the bet.
Some interjections are sounds.
Examples:
Phew! I am not trying that again.
Humph! I knew that last week.
Mmmm, my compliments to the chef.
Some interjections are more than one word.
Examples:
Oh, really? I doubt that.
Holy moly! She won!
They're not always at the start of a sentence.
Example:
It is cold, indeed.
Real-Life Examples of Interjections
 I'm sure I don't know half the people who come to my house. Indeed, for all I
hear, I shouldn't like to. (Poet and playwright Oscar Wilde)
 Yes, it's absolutely true that anything worth doing is worth doing poorly until you
can do it well. (Author Zig Ziglar)
 Well, it's 1 a.m. Better go home and spend some quality time with the kids.
(Homer Simpson)
 Ah! Don't say you agree with me. When people agree with me, I always feel
that I must be wrong. (Playwright Oscar Wilde)
 It's smoke, and it's in flames now; and the frame is crashing to the ground, not
quite to the mooring mast. Oh, the humanity! (Radio journalist Herbert Morrison
reporting on the 1937 Hindenburg disaster)
Why Should I Care about Interjections?
There are two common questions related to interjections.
(Question 1) What punctuation follows an interjection?
Recognizing an interjection will help you to choose the punctuation that follows
it. If your interjection is not a question (and most aren't), you have a choice. You can
use a comma, a period (full stop) or an exclamation mark. Commas and periods are
used for mild interjections, while exclamation marks are used for stronger expressions
43
of emotion. Often, an interjection followed by an exclamation mark will be followed by

an exclamatory sentence (i.e., one with an exclamation mark).
Examples:
Jeepers! You scared the life out of me!
Crikey! Do you think before you speak?
The choice between a comma and a period depends on your desired flow of
text. In other words, choose what looks good to you. If your interjection is a question,
you must use a question mark.
Example: I always cheer up immensely if an attack is particularly wounding because

I think, well, if they attack one personally, it means they have not a single political
argument left. (Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher)
(When an interjection is in the middle of the sentence, you must offset it with
commas. It doesn't happen often.)
(Question 2) Can you use interjections in business writing?
As a general rule, you should avoid using interjections in business writing, but,
used very infrequently, they can be impactful and insert some pep into a document.
Too much interjection-invoked pep, however, could make you look a little scatty.
Practice
1.) For informal speech or writing, what makes interjections useful?
1.) Describe how you should use interjections in writing dialogue or conversational
lines.
2.) Do you think interjections, being considered as sentence fillers, are unnecessary?
Why or why not?
MIDTERM ASSESSMENT
Exchange
The topics provided in this module focus on the fundamental components of

grammar, such as the noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction
and interjection. These enable students to have a solidified grasp and keen awareness
on how a word is used in relation to its grammatical attribute.
44
References
Concrete Reference/s:
Philippine National Research Center for Teacher Quality (2020), pp. 36-45.
Prototype Syllabi for Pre-service Teacher Education Compendium Series;
Compendium 4: Bachelor of Secondary Education English Specialization Courses.
Teacher Education Council. Department of Education
Electronic Reference/s (URL):
https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/word-definition-n-criteria
https://www.ucl.ac.uk/internet-grammar/wordclas/criteria.htm
https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/noun
http://guidetogrammar.org/grammar/nouns.htm
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/compound-
nouns/?&utm_source=google&utm_medium=cpc&utm_campaign=11903461113&ut
m_targetid=aud-296016102454:dsa-
1233402314764&gclid=Cj0KCQjwkZiFBhD9ARIsAGxFX8AWSR4w2mfo5fonle6EXX
vWtMX9YQPR0bG1o2orKRE92O3grVcvx98aAsa1EALw_wcB&gclsrc=aw.ds
https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns-
compound.htm#:~:text=A%20compound%20noun%20is%20a,other%20combination
s%20(see%20below).&text=Each%20compound%20noun%20acts%20as,by%20adj
ectives%20and%20other%20nouns.
https://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/pronouns.htm
https://www.ef.com/wwen/english-resources/english-grammar/indefinite-pronouns/
http://www.english-for-students.com/Noun-
Cases.html#:~:text=NOUN%2DCASES%20is%20another%20topic,English%20there
%20are%20FIVE%20CASES.
https://www.gingersoftware.com/content/grammar-rules/pronouns-2/pronoun-
exercises/
https://www.learngrammar.net/english-grammar/verb
https://www.dailywritingtips.com/english-grammar-101-verb-
mood/#:~:text=English%20verbs%20have%20four%20moods,which%20a%20thoug
ht%20is%20expressed.
https://www.grammar-monster.com/glossary/tense.htm
45
https://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/adverbs.htm
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/prepositions/
https://www.grammar-monster.com/lessons/prepositions.htm
https://www.grammarly.com/blog/conjunctions/
https://www.grammar-
monster.com/lessons/interjections.htm#:~:text=Interjections%20are%20words%20us
ed%20to,other%20part%20of%20the%20sentence.
https://www.grammarbank.com/tenses-answer-key.html
https://www.grammarbank.com/verb-tenses-exercise.html
https://www.english-4u.de/en/grammar-exercises/modal-verbs3.htm
https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/modal-verbs-of-ability-exercise-1.html
http://www.edu.xunta.gal/centros/iesmonelos/system/files/BUILDING%20SENTENC
ES%20WITH%20ADVERBIAL%20CLAUSES_0.pdf
https://www.grammarbank.com/adjective-adverb-worksheet.html
https://www.grammarbank.com/english-prepositions-worksheet.html
46

Module in Structures of English 1

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Module in Structures of English 1

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College of Education Structure of English

Prepared by: Mr. Rydwan A. Tanjili, LPT

WORDS: THE DEFINITION AND CRITERIA

Definition of a Word ……………………………………………. 4

Criteria for Word Classes ……………………………………… 5

The words follow a hierarchy of positions and occupations when constructed

Moreover, identifying each of the constituents in the sentence, and interpreting

 What is the difference between diction and vocabulary?

UNIT 1: WORDS: THE DEFINITION AND CRITERIA

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. What are ways to create new words?

2. What differs usage from grammar?

3. Describe how language is dynamic.

4. Do you think you have flexibility and versatility in

Presentation Image from Google

In traditional grammar, word is the basic unit of language. Words can be

A word refers to a speech sound, or a mixture of two or more speech sounds

(David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.

 Every word must have a meaning.

CRITERIA FOR WORD CLASSES

We use a combination of three criteria for determining the word class of a

1. The meaning of the word

1. My son cooks dinner every Sunday.

4. My son misses dinner every Sunday.

2. The form or ‘shape’ of a word

action, condition, contemplation, demonstration, organization, repetition

Similarly, many adjectives end in -able or -ible:

acceptable, credible, miserable, responsible, suitable

Verbs also take inflections:

walks – walks – walked – walking

3. The position or `environment' of a word in a sentence

[1] I cook dinner every Sunday

I cook dinner every Sunday

The cooks are on holiday

Read an article on “How New Words Are Born” by Andy Boodle:

a. How are new words formed?

b. How are words formed?

c. How many new words are created every day?

d. What are some mechanisms in forming new words?

UNIT 2: GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES

Match the following parts of speech to their correct definition.

Words that modify nouns or pronouns

Words that show emotion

Words that connect words, phrases, or clauses

Words that take place of a noun

Words that show action or a state of being

Words that modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs

Words that name people, places, things, or ideas

The nouns that cannot be counted are called non-countable nouns.

[noun + adjective] = fruitful, beautiful, creative, accessible

There are three forms for compound nouns:

1. Open or spaced - space between words (tennis shoe)

What are functions of nouns?

Nouns can be used as a subject, a direct object, and an indirect object of a

Does the word contain a noun-making morpheme? organization, misconception,

The five cases of Noun

A noun is said to be in the Nominative case if it is the subject of a verb.

• Mr. Ram is an intelligent boy.

• I am buying vegetables for my family.

2. Objective case (or Accusative case):

• I met your sister.

• The vendors sell mangoes.

• The book is on the table.