Social Justice Analysis Paper

Molly Tuttle

University of North Carolina at Pembroke

SWK:4600-800: Social Justice and Practice Ethics

Professor Leon Williams

May 6, 2022
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Although some may agree that paid parental leave is not as significant of an issue as

racial equality, the rights of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning,

intersex, and asexual (LGBTQIA) community, or affordable healthcare, it is in fact a significant

social injustice because it is a gender equality injustice. Gender equality injustice itself will be

examined throughout the literature, as well as how it aligns with the NASW Code of Ethics,

current advocacy for the injustice, and interventions on the macro and micro levels.

Social Injustice

Paid parental leave in the United States is rooted in systemic racism and classism but is

also not gender specific (Hanks et al., 2018). While biological mothers need paid parental leave

to recover from childbirth, biological fathers and adoptive parents or guardians also deserve paid

parental leave to bond with their new child and adjust to the major life change that just occurred.

As the societal norms of a “traditional family” continue to change, families are no longer just a

biological mother and a biological father. Families now consist of biological parents, adoptive

parents, guardians, same-sex parents, transgender parents, and single parents. The fight for paid

parental leave is not limited to just biological mothers. By not offering men paid parental leave,

it reinforces gender stereotypes and the idea that fathers are the “secondary” parent meaning they

are not as valued or important (Ferrante, 2019). Although American culture typically views the

mother as the primary caregiver, many fathers have a deep desire to engage with their new child

and to support their partner (Waldfogel et al., 2019). Rather than supporting the idea that two

parents are better than one, it subtly supports one parent being the primary caretaker which

typically falls on the mother (Pew Research Center, 2015).

Nearly 30 years ago in 1993, the United States passed the Family Medical Leave Act as a

national labor law which requires companies and businesses with 50 or more employees to
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provide eligible employees (those employed a minimum of 12 months and employed within 75

miles of their employer) with 12 weeks of unpaid leave for specific family or medical reasons

(Snyder, B., 2020). In the United States, the option of paid parental leave is left up to the

individual state and/or the individual employer. When comparing the United States parental

leave policies to those of other countries around the world, the United States ranked last among

ninety other countries (Sholar, 2016). There are only eight countries in the world that do not

guarantee paid leave at a national level and the United States, one of the wealthiest countries in

the world, is eighth on the list (Sholar, 2016). The other countries that do not offer guaranteed

paid parental leave at a nation level include Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Papua

New Guinea, Suriname, and Tonga (Sholar, 2016). According to information gathered from a

UNICEF study in 2016, Estonia offers an astounding 85 weeks of paid maternity leave, and

Japan offers a staggering 30 weeks of paid paternity leave (Ferrante, 2019). The minimum

average for paid maternity leave in developed nations is 14 weeks and currently, almost ninety

countries around the world provide paid paternity leave (Sholar, 2016).

According to the North Carolina Office of Human Resources, paid parental leave is

available for employees who “become a parent by birth, adoption, foster care, or other legal

placement of a child (Paid Parental Leave | NC Office of Human Resources, 2019). Eligible state

employees who give birth will receive eight weeks of paid leave to recover from the birth and to

bond with and care for their newborn. Other eligible state employees will receive four weeks of

paid leave to bond with and care for the child. Paid Parental Leave will be paid at 100% of the

eligible employee’s regular pay.” (Paid Parental Leave | NC Office of Human Resources, 2019).

Non-state employees are subject to their individual employer's leave policies regarding the birth

or adoption of a new child but most fall back on FMLA leave.

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Paid parental leave is vital to the health of mother and baby, especially for Black women

and babies (Goodman et al., 2021). Regarding infant mortality rates, non-Hispanic Black

women, Hispanic women, and Asian/Pacific Islander women have consistently higher rates of

maternal morbidity or life-threatening pregnancy complications than non-Hispanic white women

that has increased in recent decades (Goodman et al., 2021). Specifically, infant mortality is

twice as high in Black infants than it is in white infants. (Goodman et al., 2021). Black infants

are significantly less likely to breastfeed and those who do breastfeed are less likely to do so for

at least six months (Goodman et al., 2021). This is due largely to a lack of education and

awareness tied to systemic racism. Black women often receive poorer quality health care, are

more likely to deliver at poor quality hospitals, and are taken less seriously when reporting pain

or other health concerns and emergencies than white women (Goodman et al., 2021). Lack of

access to free or affordable healthcare means fewer prenatal and postnatal visits which help to

ensure the proper health of both mother and baby. Mothers are also affected after birth because

they are not given a proper amount of time to deal with postpartum pregnancy symptoms which

may include postpartum anxiety and/or depression as well as physically healing from a major

body change and lack of adequate sleep (Abrams, 2022).

Lack of paid parental leave for Black women also means new mothers must return to the

workforce as soon as physically possible (Abrams, 2022). Since there are no financial safety nets

available, new mothers are not afforded a proper amount of time to bond with their baby and

recover mentally and physically (Abrams, 2022). This creates an additional strain on new

mothers who now are also financially responsible for the egregious cost of childcare. According

to information from the National Women’s Law Center, Black women earn $0.63 for every

$1.00 their non-Hispanic male counterpart earns, meaning they would have to work 579 days to
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make what their non-Hispanic male counterparts make in 365 days (Epperson, 2021). Regarding

income inequality, a full-time Black woman earns $24,110 less per year than a non-Hispanic

male doing the same job (Epperson, 2021). Adding insult to injury, in the United States, the

average cost for an infant in a childcare center, rather than a home setting, is $1230 per month

(Workman et al., 2018). This again is where financial privilege plays a role where higher-income

families can typically afford better quality daycares and can afford to pay out-of-pocket

(Workman et al., 2018). Families who are not as fortunate, have no other options but to apply for

childcare vouchers from social services to offset the cost (Workman et al., 2018). Ultimately, the

benefits of working do not outweigh the cost of childcare for many Black women. This

inevitably throws them into a vicious cycle of poverty and reliance on government assistance

programs that is difficult to break free from.

Alignment with Social Work Values and Ethics

The absence of paid parental leave from society aligns with the NASW Code of Ethics

value of social injustice because multiple populations are affected through race and poverty

(National Association of Social Workers, 2021). The single act of not providing paid parental

leave can further project new parents into poverty due to the absence of income from the amount

of time they are away from their job due to a new child (Abrams, 2022). In Ethical Standard 6.01

Social Welfare, “social workers should advocate for living conditions conducive to the

fulfillment of basic human needs and should promote social, economic, political, and cultural

values and institutions that are compatible with the realization of social justice.” (National

Association of Social Workers, 2021). In 6.04 b. Social and Political Action “Social workers

should act to expand choice and opportunity for all people, with special regard to vulnerable,
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disadvantaged, oppressed, and exploited people and groups.” (National Association of Social

Workers, 2021).

Social workers should consider the lack of paid parental leave to be a social injustice

because of the negative effects it has on the Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC)

community as well as the LGBTQIA+ community. Specifically, a minimum of six weeks of paid

parental leave would help ensure that a new parent’s basic needs could be met (Family Forward

NC, 2018). Such needs include the ability to buy groceries, pay rent and utilities, and have

money for transportation to get the new child to and from the doctor’s office for mandatory

checkups (Shabo, 2021). With increased inflation rates and an increased cost of living in 2022,

social workers must advocate for federal change requiring employers to offer paid parental leave

at 100% of an employee’s salary or pay rate, regardless of full-time employment status, so new

parents can simply meet their basic needs.

Current Advocacy and Social Justice Efforts

In North Carolina, the senate has filed a new bill, SB 564, called the North Carolina Paid

Family Leave Insurance Act which aims to offer paid family and medical leave insurance

benefits to eligible workers (North Carolina General Assembly, 2022). Effective January 1,

2023, benefits are payable to an individual who is “covered” and meets a specific requirement

such as the birth, adoption, or placement of a child through foster care, caring for a family

member with a serious health condition, has a serious health condition and a few other

circumstances listed in the bill description (North Carolina General Assembly, 2022). The bill

further states that the weekly benefit should be equal to or less than 100% of the state average

weekly wage and shall be replaced at 90%, for self-employed individuals, the replacement rate is

50% (North Carolina General Assembly, 2022). The minimum weekly benefit shall not be less
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than $100 and is based upon an individual’s weekly wage during the 12 months prior to the

application (North Carolina General Assembly, 2022). Research and recommendations gathered

from national organizations recommend a minimum of six weeks of paid leave up to a minimum

of one year of paid leave (Family Forward NC, 2018). “The American Public Health

Association, the Society of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, the American Academy of Pediatrics, and

the Pediatric Policy Council recommend a minimum of 12 weeks of paid leave while the

American Congress of Obstetrics and Gynecology recommends a minimum of six weeks of paid

leave. The Better Life Lab is a program of the nonpartisan think tank, New America, which

recommends a minimum of six months of paid maternity leave for maternal health and one year

of paid leave split evenly between parents for infant health and well-being.” (Family Forward

NC, 2018).

On a national level, the non-profit corporation, Paid Leave for the United States, which

was founded by Katie Bethell in 2016, has already partnered with employees, employers,

consumers, and investors and won nearly 8 million dollars in paid family leave from companies

such as Walmart and Starbucks (PL+US, 2022). While still fighting for other large companies to

join in providing paid family leave for their employees, their current and largest campaign is to

win federal paid family and medical leave by 2022 (PL+US, 2022). In North Carolina, the NC

Families Care Coalition is comprised of over two dozen diverse organizations, including the

North Carolina chapter of the National Association of Social Workers, which advocates for

North Carolinians and their families to have family-friendly workplace policies (NC Families

Care Coalition, 2022). This includes paid sick and safe days, paid family medical and parental

leave, pregnancy accommodations, and living wages (NC Families Care Coalition, 2022). Like

many, the NC Families Care Coalition was extremely disappointed when in December 2021, the
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United States Senate failed to pass the Build Back Better Act which included four weeks of paid

family and medical leave (NC Families Care Coalition, 2022). From a statement they released on

their website, they encouraged supporters not to give up hope as they will continue fighting and

advocating on behalf of every working individual to secure federal paid leave as there is no

expiration date on a paid leave policy (NC Families Care Coalition, 2022).

Interventions on Macro and Micro Levels

The results of a study on California’s paid family leave policy showed that by providing

paid family leave, infant mortality rates were reduced by 6.5 deaths per 10,00 births which was

an improvement of 23% from the pre-policy baseline level (‌Snyder, B., 2020). Additional

implications affecting study outcomes include the education level of the mother and the lack of

study on partial wage replacement (‌Snyder, B., 2020). Research has proven that paid parental

leave policies increase leave-taking by both mothers and fathers (Waldfogel et al., 2019). It also

increases economic well-being for families, improves maternal mental health, prolongs

breastfeeding, increases engagement of fathers, and reduces rates of infant mortality, pre-term

birth, and low birth weight (Waldfogel et al., 2019). Paid parental leave also improves mental

and physical health in children, improves child safety, and even benefits seniors by offering

employment and financial protection for caretakers in order for adult children to help care for

elderly family members (Waldfogel et al., 2019). It was reported during extensive research that

“women who did not have paid leave were less likely to return to work after caring for an elderly

family member” (Waldfogel et al., 2019).

There is not a lack of support either when it comes to paid parental leave. In a study by

Pew Research Center, eight out of 10 Americans agreed that mothers should receive paid leave

following the birth or adoption of a child while seven out of ten agreed there should also be paid
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paternity leave (Waldfogel et al., 2019). The support for paid family leave has been clear ever

since the Family Medical Leave Act was passed in 1993 which requires employers to offer 12

weeks of unpaid leave (Snyder, B., 2020). With no emergency desire to forge a new path and

join the ranks of other developed countries around the world, some states within the United

States have taken it upon themselves to create their own paid family leave policies. California

began in 2004 offering 60-70% of an individual’s average weekly wages depending on their

income for a maximum of six weeks (Waldfogel et al., 2019). New Jersey followed in 2009

offering 67% of average weekly wages for six weeks but revised the amount in 2020 to 85% for

twelve weeks (Waldfogel et al., 2019). Rhode Island followed in third place in 2014 by offering

60% of average weekly wages for four weeks (Waldfogel et al., 2019). New York started in 2018

offering 50% of an individual’s average weekly wages for eight weeks which increased to 55%

in 2019 for ten weeks, 60% in 2020, and 67% in 2021 for twelve weeks (Waldfogel et al., 2019).

Washington state offers paid leave on a sliding scale which is based on an individual’s wages for

twelve weeks (Waldfogel et al., 2019). Massachusetts began in 2021 offering 80% of an

individual’s average weekly wages for those who earn 50% or less of the state average or 50% of

an individual’s average weekly wages if they do meet the state average for twelve weeks

(Waldfogel et al., 2019). By having other states and countries lead by example, there is beyond

enough data to prove that paid parental leave is a necessity not only for the workforce but also

for an individual’s physical, mental, and financial needs.

Critique and Reflection

When reviewing the Paid Leave for the United States and the NC Families Care Coalition

advocacy groups, the Paid Leave for the United States group has already proven to be effective

per the information provided on their website stating they have already secured over $8 million
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in paid family leave for employees from large corporations such as Walmart and Starbucks

(PL+US, 2022). Because they are a larger organization and are comprised of many successful

employees, they stand a better chance of having real results. This is not to say that the NC

Families Care Coalition is not successful, however, there was no information provided on their

website stating the success they have had for North Carolinians. When comparing the two, Paid

Leave for the United States is about getting results while the NC Families Care Coalition is about

supporting those who are working for results. While both organizations have a common goal of

paid leave for all, any organization that is advocating for paid leave should not only focus on the

federal level but should also look in their own backyard at the needs in their communities and

advocate for change on a state level. This is where some people and/or communities may fall

through the cracks. Sometimes advocacy groups become so fixated on the big picture, they forget

the big picture is made up of smaller puzzle pieces and all must work together for the common

goal.

To propel the movement of federal paid family, leave forward, there needs to be more

women holding strong political power. Current Vice President Kamala Harris expressed

disappointment when twelve weeks of paid family leave was axed from President Biden’s

spending package in late 2021 but as the middle of 2022 quickly approaches, the idea of paid

family leave has once again been placed on a back burner of importance while other important

political issues take center stage such as voting rights and providing aid to Ukraine while

sanctioning Russia as a result of the war they have imposed on Ukraine. Still, there are too many

white men holding political power, from the United States House of Representatives to the

United States Senate, there should be an equal 50/50 amount of male and female representatives

which might would offer the support needed to finally pass into law federal paid family leave.
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After all, it is white men that usually have the most to say both in speech and law, when it comes

to women, their rights, and their bodies. One issue that may or may not be a true reason why

federal paid leave has not been passed or considered more important is because any parent that

holds a political seat powerful enough to pass or veto a bill or law providing federal paid family

leave, makes enough money in their salaried position as an elected official that the need for

federal paid family leave is almost useless to them. In other words, they do not have to struggle

enough to pay for childcare, pay rent and utilities, and buy groceries like most Americans to

understand just how dire and necessary it is to receive federal paid family leave.

Regarding paid family leave for rural populations, for areas that are considered rural or

food/service deserts, parents should be eligible for 100% of their weekly pay to compensate for

the lack of available services or lack of access to services. The same would apply to areas where

the cost of living is astronomical, such as New York City or San Francisco where every penny

counts. Social workers working on a micro-level should advocate for paid family leave if not for

themselves then for their coworkers because it is extremely likely that every social worker will

work with at least one person who is becoming a new parent in some form or fashion whether it

be through adoption or foster care or birth, and it should not matter if the coworker is a mother or

father, the availability of paid family leave should just exist. In many social service agencies

across North Carolina, there is no paid family leave, only unpaid leave once all accumulated sick

time has been exhausted. Social services is a local form of state and federal government so it

should be there that social workers advocate for paid family leave to help set an example for

other businesses within the state.

In conclusion, creating and authorizing federal legislation to provide paid family leave is

one significant step in creating racial and gender equality, improving systemic racism, and
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improving maternal and infant health. When all parents are provided with financial resources that

allow them time to bond with their baby while ensuring their basic needs are met, the gaps in

society begin to close where Black women specifically most often fall through the cracks.

Extensive research has proven that paid family leave offers nothing but benefits for parents and

baby and even for society when parents are willing to return to their jobs because they were

afforded paid time off. Advocacy groups both at the state and federal levels should not give up

on the push for federal paid family leave but should also work to advocate for employees of large

corporations and for smaller businesses in their communities who may stand a better chance of

getting paid family leave before the federal government provides it. Until families are not

financially penalized for taking time from work for the sake of a new child, the lack of required

paid family leave will remain a social injustice.

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References

Abrams, Z. (2022, April 1). The urgent necessity for paid parental leave. Apa.org; American

Psychological Association. https://www.apa.org/monitor/2022/04/feature-parental-leave

Epperson, S. (2021, August 3). Black women make nearly $1 million less than white men during

their careers. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/03/black-women-make-1-million-

less-than-white-men-during-their-careers.html

Family Forward NC. (2018). Parental Leave. Family Forward NC.

https://familyforwardnc.com/family-forward-policies/parental-leave/

Ferrante, M. B. (2019, June 21). UNICEF Study Confirms: The U.S. Ranks Last for Family-

Friendly Policies. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/marybethferrante/2019/06/21

/unicef-study-confirms-the-u-s-ranks-last-for-family-friendly-policies/?sh=264c8a6333ba

Goodman, J. M., Williams, C., & Dow, W. H. (2021). Racial/Ethnic Inequities in Paid Parental

Leave Access. Health Equity, 5(1), 738–749. https://doi.org/10.1089/heq.2021.0001

(Hanks et al., 2018)

National Association of Social Workers. (2021). Code of ethics of the National Association of

Social Workers. National Association of Social Workers.

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Carolina General Assembly. Www.ncleg.gov.

https://www.ncleg.gov/BillLookUp/2021/S564

‌Paid Parental Leave | NC Office of Human Resources. (2019). Oshr.nc.gov.

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https://oshr.nc.gov/state-employee-resources/benefits/work-life-balance/paid-parental-

leave

PL+US. (2022). PL+US. PL+US. https://paidleave.us/about

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‌Snyder, B. (2020). United States paid parental leave and infant mortality. The International

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Waldfogel, J., Doran, E., & Pac, J. (2019, July 2). Paid Family and Medical Leave Improves the

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