Industrial Measurement

and Instrumentation

KJS 3113

CLO 2: Determine the instruments

performance characteristic and discuss
the overall performance system of an
instrument statistically
Mazian Mohammad
Dept of Engineering,
Fac of Engineering & Life Sciences
Unisel
2 Performance Characteristic

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3 STATIC DEFINITION

 The steady state relationship between input and

output of an instrument
 Measurement of quantities that are constant or vary
quite slowly with respect to time.
 It does not involve differential equations.
 All the static performance characteristics are
obtained by one form or another via a process called
static calibration.

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4 Performance Characteristics

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 5 1. Errors & Uncertainties
• Error can be systematic or random
• Systematic error can be rectified if discovered,
because its source is understood
• A common example is where an remote
sensing instrument consistently measures data
erroneously because of bad calibration—if the
problem in calibration can be understood and
accounted for, then that error is called
systematic
• Another example: projecting map data using
the wrong zone would result in consistently
wrong data KJS
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6 Errors & Uncertainties
• Random error cannot be controlled
for because its source is not
understood.
• Random errors are often introduced in
little bits at each stage of data
collection and processing
• Sources can range from slight air
turbulence when an airplane is
collecting RS data to a file getting
corrupted in data transfer
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7

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8

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9 SYSTEMATIC /CUMULATIVE ERRORS

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10 SYSTEMATIC /CUMULATIVE
ERRORS

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11 RANDOM ERRORS

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12 Errors Measurement

Error is the degree to which a

measurement nears the expected
value. It can be expressed as:
• Absolute error, e
• Percentage of error, %E

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13
Errors Measurement
Absolute error may be defined as the
difference between the expected value of
the variable and the measured value of the
variable:

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14 Errors Measurement
Percentage of errors

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15 Performance Characteristics
Precise & Accurate
Measurements that are close to
each other are precise
Measurements that are close to
the true value are accurate
Measurements can be:
Precise but inaccurate
Neither precise nor accurate
Precise and accurate
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 Examples:
16Three industrial robots were programmed to place components
at a particular point on a table. The target point was the center
of a circle shown below. The results are:

(a) Low precision, (b) Precise not

low accuracy accurate

(c) Precise and accurate

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17
Output of device 2. Accuracy

Ideal device

40
20 Accuracy at % of FS
0

20 40
Value of measurand
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18
Accuracy
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
% 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 = X 100
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

% 𝐹𝑆𝐷 = X 100
max 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

FSD=full scale deflection

* % FSD is less accurate than % TV

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19
Accuracy

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20
Accuracy

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21 3. Precision
 The Precision of a measurement is a quantitative or
numerical indication of the closeness with which a
repeated set of measurements of the same variable
agrees with the average of the set of
measurement.
xn  xn
Precision  1 
xn
 Where :

xn
= Value of the nth measurement

xn KJS
= Average of the set of n measurement
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22 Example 1

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 Direct Analysis
23
SOLUTION

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24 Exercise 1

Example 2.1: An analog voltmeter is used

to measure voltage of 50V across a
resistor. The reading value is 49 V. Find
a) Absolute Error
b) Relative Error
c) Accuracy
d) Percent Accuracy

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25 Exercise 1
Solution

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26 Exercise 2
From the table, calculate the precision of
6th measurement?

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27 Exercise 3
Example 2.2: An experiment conducted to measure 10
values of voltages and the result is shown in the table
below. Calculate the accuracy of the 4th
experiment.

No. (V) No. (V)

1 98 6 103

2 102 7 98

3 101 8 106

4 97 9 107

5 100 10 99

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28
Exercise 3
Solution:

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 4. Repeatability

a measure of how well the output returns to a given value when

the same precise input is applied several times. Or the ability of an
instrument to reproduce a certain set of reading within a given
accuracy.
maximumminimum
repeatability  100%
fullscale

largest deviationaverage
repeatability  100%
fullscale

How about: a transducer that is repeatable but not overly accurate

 Static Characteristics
Load cellA Load cell B Load cell C
• Global accurate but not repeatable • Not accurate but repeatable •Accurate and repeatable
Max.

11.6 11.6
x x x 11.6
x xx x
Max. x x
11.4 11.4 x 11.4
11.2 x 11.2 Min.
11.2
11.0 x 11.0 11.0
x
10.8 10.8 10.8

Output (mV)
Output (mV)

Output (mV)
10.6 10.6 10.6
10.4 x 10.4 10.4
10.2 Ave. 10.2 10.2 Max.
x Expected output x
10.0 x 10.0 10.0 x
x x x x x x x x
9.8 9.8 9.8
9.6 9.6 9.6 Min.
9.4 x 9.4 9.4
x x
9.2 Min 9.2 9.2
9.0 x 9.0 9.0
0 2 3 6 78 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 5
1 4 5 9 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 10
9
Trial no. Trial no.
Trial no.

random error measured average

measured value

systematic error

true or expected output

Trail no.
31
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
5. TOLERANCE

 Closely related to accuracy of an equipment where

the accuracy of an equipment is sometimes referred
to in the form of tolerance limit.
 Defined as the maximum error expected in an
instrument.
 Explains the maximum deviation of an output
component at a certain value.

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32
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
6. RANGE OF SPAN

 Defined as the range of reading between minimum

value and maximum value for the measurement of an
instrument.
 Has a positive value e.g..:
The range of span of an instrument which has a
reading range of –100°C to 100 °C is 200 °C.

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33
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
7. BIAS

 Constant error which occurs during the

measurement of an instrument.
 This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias reading. This
equipment always gives a reading of 1 kg even
without any load applied. Therefore, if A with a
weight of 70 kg weighs himself, the given reading
would be 71 kg. This would indicate that there is
a constant bias of 1 kg to be corrected.
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34
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
8. LINEARITY

 Maximum deviation from linear relation between

input and output.
 The output of an instrument has to be linearly
proportionate to the measured quantity.
 Normally shown in the form of full scale percentage
(% fs).
 The graph shows the output reading of an
instrument when a few input readings are entered.
 Linearity = maximum deviation from the reading of
x and the straight line. KJS
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35
Linearity

Output
Readings

Measured Quantity
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36
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
9. SENSIVITY
 Defined as the ratio of change in output towards
the change in input at a steady state condition.
 Sensitivity (K) = Δθο
Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in input
Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum Resistance
Thermometer changes when the temperature
increases. Therefore, the unit of sensitivity for
this equipment is Ohm/°C.
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 Force, F Output, Vo (V)

Slope = 5 V/kN
Load Cell Output, Vo

Input, Fi (kN)
Block Diagram:

Input, F (kN) Output, Vo (V)

K

Sensitivity, K = 5 V/kN
 Sensitivity
38

Most sensitive

Variation of the physical variables

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39
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example 2:

Pressure sensor A with a value of 2 bar caused a

deviation of 10 degrees. Therefore, the sensitivity of
the equipment is 5 degrees/bar.
 Sensitivity of the whole system is (k) = k1 x k2 x k3 x
.. x kn

θi k1 k2 k3 θo

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40
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example:
Consider a measuring system consisting of a transducer, amplifier
and a recorder, with sensitivity for each equipment given below:
Transducer sensitivity 0.2 mV/°C
Amplifier gain 2.0 V/mV
Recorder sensitivity 5.0 mV/V

Therefore,
Sensitivity of the whole system:
(k) = k1 x k2 x k3
k = 0.2 mV x 2.0 V x 5.0 mV
°C mV V
k = 2.0 mV/°C
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 Example :

41 The output of a platinum resistance thermometer (RTD) is as follows:

Input(°C) Output(Ohm)

0 0
100 200
200 400
300 measurement 600
400 800

Calculate the sensitivity of the equipment.

Answer :

Draw an input versus output graph. From that graph, the sensitivity is the
slope of the graph.

K = Δθο graph = (400-200) ohm = 2 ohm/°C Δθi

slope (200-100) °C
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0 Instrument types and performance characteristics
42
Example 2.1
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured
at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument
in ohms/° C.
Resistance (ω) Temperature (° C)

307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290

Solution
If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-line relationship between resistance
change and temperature change is obvious.
For a change in temperature of 30° C, the change in resistance is 7 ω. Hence the
measurement sensitivity D 7/ 30 D 0.233 ω/ ° C.

2.2.7 Threshold
If the input to an instrument is gradually increased from zero, the input will have toKJS
reach a certain minimum level before the change in the instrument output reading is
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of a large enough magnitude to be detectable. This minimum level of input is known

43 Sensitivity to disturbance

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such as temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of elasticity of a spring is
temperature dependent. Figure 2.7(b) shows what effect sensitivity drift can have on
the output characteristic of an instrument. Sensitivity drift is measured in units of the
form 44
Example
(angular degree/bar)/° C. If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity
drift at the same time, then the typical modification of the output characteristic is
shown in Figure 2.7(c).

Example 2.2
A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20° C and has the
following deflection/load characteristic.

Load (kg) 0 1 2 3
Deflection (mm) 0 20 40 60

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30° C and the following deflec-

tion/load characteristic is measured.

Load (kg): 0 1 2 3
Deflection (mm) 5 27 49 71

Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per ° C change in ambient temperature.

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 45
Pressure
(c)

Fig. 2.7 Effectsof disturbance: (a) zero drift; (b) sensitivity drift; (c) zero drift plussensitivity drift.

Solution
At 20° C, deflection/load characteristic is a straight line. Sensitivity D 20 mm/kg.
At 30° C, deflection/load characteristic is still a straight line. Sensitivity D 22 mm/kg.
Bias (zero drift) D 5 mm (the no-load deflection)
Sensitivity drift D 2 mm/kg
Zero drift/ ° C D 5/ 10 D 0.5 mm/° C
Sensitivity drift/ ° C D 2/ 10 D 0.2 (mm per kg)/° C

2.2.10 Hysteresis effects

Figure 2.8 illustrates the output characteristic of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis.
If the input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a negative
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value, the output reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a). If the input variable
is then steadily decreased, the output varies in the manner shown in curve (b). The
46
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
10. DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND

Output
Reading

- +

Measured
Variables

Dead Space

 Defined as the range of input reading when there is

no change in output (unresponsive system).

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47
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
11. RESOLUTION

 The smallest change in input reading

that can be traced accurately.
 Given in the form ‘% of full scale
(% fs)’.
 Available in digital instrumentation.

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Static Characteristics
Resolution: the smallest increment in the value of the measurand that results in a
detectable increment in the output. It is expressed in the percentage of the
measurand range
Resolution (%)  ∆x 100
xmax  xmin

If the input is increased from zero, there will be some minimum value below
which no output change can be detected, This minimum value defines the Threshold
of the instrument.

Each time the shaft rotates ¼ of a

revolution, a pulse will be generated.
So, this encoder has a 90oC resolution.

Simple optical encoder

Resolution -example
50 Example

 An analogue ammeter has a linear scale of 50

divisions. Its full-scale reading is 10A and half a scale
division can be read. What is the resolution of the
instrument?

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51 Solution

 1 scale division = 10/50 = 0.2 A.

 Thus resolution is ½ scale division,
 = 0.2X(1/2)
 =0.1 A.

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52
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

12. THRESHOLD

 When the reading of an input is increased from

zero, the input reading will reach a certain value
before change occurs in the output.

 The minimum limit of the input reading is ‘threshold’.

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Threshold
If the instrument input is very gradually increased
from zero there will be a minimum value required
to give a detectable output change. This minimum
value defines the threshold of the instrument.

Output

input
13. Hysteresis

Difference in the output of the sensors for a given input value x,

when x is increased and decreased or vice versa. (expressed in %
of FSO) (indication of reproducibility)
100 maximum
hysteresis
output (%FSO)

0
0 100
measurand (% range)
55

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 14. Linearity

Linearity: (also called Nonlinearity)Ameasure of deviation from linear of the

sensor, which is usually descried in terms of the percentage of FSO.
(1) best-fit straight line
(2) terminal-based straight line
(3) independent straight line

maximum
100 maximum 100 maximum 100 nonlinearity
nonlinearity nonlinearity
output (%FSO)

output (%FSO)
output (%FSO)

best-fit line independent line

terminal-base line

0 0 0
0 100 0 100 0 100
measurand (% range) measurand (% range) measurand (% range)
57  Increasing Input (Ib) Decreasing Input (Ib)
X Y X Y
 0.0 0.08 5.0 6.27
 0.5 0.2 4.5 5.74
 1.0 0.7 4.0 5.11
 1.5 1.18 3.5 4.34
 2.0 1.81 3.0 3.64
 2.5 2.49 2.5 2.68
 3.0 3.18 2.0 2.23
 3.5 3.84 1.5 1.7
 4.0 4.71 1.0 1.07
 4.5 5.35 0.5 0.61
 5.0 6.27 0.0 0.08

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Static Characteristics-example
Example:Aload cell is a transducer used to measure weight.Acalibration record
table is given below. Determine (a) accuracy, (b) hysteresis and (c) linearity of the
transducer. If we assume that the true output has a linear relationship with the input.
Output (mV)

Load (kg) 0 Increasing

0.08 Decreasing
0.06 20
5 0.45 0.88
10
15 1.02
1.71 2.04
3.10
15
20 2.55 4.18

Output (mV)
25 3.43 5.13 Decreasing
30 4.48 6.04
35 5.50 7.02 10
40 6.53 8.06
Increasing
45 7.64 9.35
50 8.70 10.52
55 9.85 11.80
60 11.01 12.94 5
65 12.40 13.86
70 13.32 14.82
80 75 15.40
14.35 16.84
15.71 0
85 16.48 17.92 0 20 40 60 80 100
90 17.66 18.70
95 18.90 19.51 Load (kg)
100 19.93 20.02
 Static Characteristics
(a) Accuracy
True Output Actual Desired output = 0.2mV/kg x load
Load (kg) (mV) Output (mV) Error (mV) %FSO %reading 20
0 0 0.08 -0.08 -0.40 a
5 1 0.45 0.55 2.75 55.00
10 2 1.02 0.98 4.90 49.00
15 3 1.71 1.29 6.45 43.00 15
20 4 2.55 1.45 7.25 36.25
25 5 3.43

Output (mV)
1.57 7.85 31.40 Decreasing
30 6 4.48 1.52 7.60 25.33
35 7 5.50 1.50 7.50 21.43 10

Increasing
…

…
…
…

…
… 5

25 5 5.13 -0.13 -0.65 -2.60

20 4 4.18 -0.18 -0.90 -4.50 %FSO
15 3 3.10 -0.10 -0.50 -3.33 0
10 2 2.04 -0.04 -0.20 -2.00 0 20 40 60 80 100
5 1 0.88 0.12 0.60 12.00
0 0 0.06 -0.06 -0.30 a
Load (kg)
%reading

Accuracy: %FSO = 7.85% at 25 kg increasing

%reading = 55% at 5 kg increasing
Static Characteristics
(b) Hysteresis
Output (mV) 20

Load (kg) Increasing Decreasing Hysteresis

(%FSO)
0 0.08 0.06 0.10
15
5 0.45 0.88 2.15
10 1.02 2.04 5.10

Output (mV)
15 1.71 3.10 6.95
20 2.55 4.18 8.15
10
25 3.43 5.13 8.50
30 4.48 6.04 7.80 11.80 mV9.85 mV
100%  9.75%FSO
35 20mV
5.50 7.02 7.60
40 6.53 8.06 7.65
45 8.55 5
7.64
8.70 9.35
50 10.52 9.10
55 9.85 11.80 9.75
60 11.01 12.94 9.65
65 12.40 13.86 7.30 0
70 13.32 14.82 7.50 0 20 40 60 80 100
75 14.35 15.71 6.80
80 15.40 16.84 7.20 Load (kg)
85 16.48 17.92 7.20
90 17.66 18.70 5.20
95 18.90 19.51 3.05 Hysteresis = 9.75 %FSO at 55 kg
100 19.93 20.02 0.45
(c) Linearity: Terminal-based straight line (endpoint straight line)

Endpoint
line (mV)
Actual Output Linearity
(%FSO) 20
Load (kg) (mV)
0 0 0.08 -0.40
5 1 2.75
10 2
0.45
1.02 4.90
endpoint
3 6.45
15 1.71 15
20 4 2.55 7.25
5 7.85
25

Output (mV)
3.43
30 6 4.48 7.60
35 7 5.50 7.50
10 12 . 00 mV12 . 94 mV100%  4.70%FSO
…

…
…

40 8 6 3 3
20mV

0 8 0
65 13 13.86 -4.30 5
60 12 12.94 -4.70
5 . 00 mV 3 . 43 mV
55 11 11.80 -4.00 100%  7.85%FSO
20 mV
50 10 10.52 -2.60
45 9 9.35 -1.75
40 8 8.06 -0.30 0
35 7 7.02 -0.10 0 20 40 60 80 100
30 6 6.04 -0.20
25 5 5.13 -0.65 Load (kg)
20
15
4
3
4.18
3.10
-0.90
-0.50
endpoint
10 2 2.04 -0.20
5
0
1
0
0.88
0.06
0.60
-0.30
Linearity = 7.85 %FSO at 25 kg
=-4.70 %FSO at 60 kg
(c) Linearity: Independent straight line

20

Output (mV) 15

10 100%  5.20%FSO
11 . 90 mV12 . 94 mV
20mV

5
5 . 65 mV  4 . 48 mV 100%  5.85%FSO
20 mV

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Load (kg)

Linearity = 5.85 %FSO at 30 kg

=-5.20 %FSO at 60 kg
(c) Linearity: Best-fit straight line

Least square method: minimizes the sum of the square of the vertical deviations
of the data points from the fitted line.
Here, we will estimate y by y = mx + b

N xy x y
m
N x2 (x)
2

y x
b m
N N
N = Total number of data points
 Operating conditions:Ambient conditions may have profound effects on sensor
operation. These include temperature, acceleration, vibration, shock, pressure,
moisture, corrosive materials, and electromagnetic field.
Temperature zero drift: the change in the output level of a transducer due to
temperature variation when the input is set to zero.

Temperature sensitivity drift: the change in the output level of a transducer due
to temperature when the input is set to the specific range.
S
Temperature
100 Temperature span error Nominal
100 change 100 desired
output (%FSO)

output (%FSO)

output (%FSO)
temp.

Temperature Total error

zero error

0 0 0
0 100 0 100 0 100
measurand (% range) measurand (% range) measurand (% range)
Zero drift
 Basic specifications
Output • Input range
Confidential band • Output range
• Offset
• Sensitivity

Performance specifications
• Accuracy
• Resolution
• Repeatability
• Hysteresis
• Linearity
• environmental parameter
Input

Input Sensor Output

66
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

 Explains the behaviour system of instruments

system when the input signal is changed.
 Depends on a few standard input signals such as
‘step input’, ‘ramp input’ dan ‘sine-wave input’.

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67
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Step Input
 Sudden change in input signal from steady
state.
 The output signal for this kind of input is
known as ‘transient response’.
Input

Time

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68
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Ramp Input
 The signal changes linearly.
 The output signal for ramp input is ‘ramp response’.

Input

Time
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69
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sine-wave Input
 The signal is harmonic.
 The output signal is ‘frequency response’.

Input

Time

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 Response time
70

One would like to have a

measurement system with fast
response.

In other words, the effect of the

measurement system on the
measurement should be as small as
possible.

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 EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC
71
CHARACTERISTICS

Response from a 2nd order instrument:

Output

100%

90%

10%
tr
Time
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72 EXAMPLE OF DYNAMIC
CHARACTERISTICS

Response from a 2nd order instrument:

1. Rise Time ( tr )

 Time taken for the output to rise from 10% to 90 %

of the steady state value.

2. Settling time (ts)

 Time taken for output to reach a steady state value.

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73
Why We Need Statistics

• Statistics is an objective way of

interpreting a collection of observations
• Types of statistics
1. Descriptive
• Central tendency
• Variability
2. Correlational
3. Inferential
• Differences within or between groups

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74 Why We Need Statistics
• Descriptive statistics are used to
summarize or condense a group of
scores
• They include measures of central
tendency and measures of variability

Humans
Mean=100
SD=15

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75
Central Tendency
• Measures of central tendency describe the
average or common score of a group of
scores
• Common measures of central tendency
include the mean, median, and mode

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76 Mean
 The mean is the arithmetic average of
the scores
 The calculation of the mean considers
both the number of scores and their
value
 The formula for the mean of the variable
X is:

X
M
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77 Exercise 1 : Mean
Six men with high serum cholesterol
participated in a study to examine
the effects of diet on cholesterol
At the beginning of the study, their
serum cholesterol levels (mg/dL)
were:
366, 327, 274, 292, 274, 230
Determine the mean

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78 Mean

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79 Median

The median is the middle point

in an ordered distribution at
which an equal number of
scores lie on each side of it
It is also known as the 50th
percentile (P50), or 2nd quartile
(Q2)

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Median
80

The position of the median (Mdn) can

be calculated as follows:

n 1
Mdn 
2

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81 Median

Example 1:
Calculate the median for the
following measurements for height:
71”, 73”, 74”, 75”, 72”

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82 Median

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83 Mode
The mode is the most frequently
occurring score
Which of the following scores is the
mode?
3, 7, 3, 9, 9, 3, 5, 1, 8, 5
Similarly, for another data set (2, 4, 9, 6,
4, 6, 6, 2, 8, 2), there are two modes;
What are they?
What is the mode for 7, 7, 6, 6, 5, 5, 4
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84 Mode

A distribution with a single

mode is said to be unimodal
A distribution with more than
one mode is said to be
bimodal, trimodal, etc., or in
general, multimodal

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85 Root Mean Square (RMS)

Quadratic mean

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86  Use table from Example 3 to calculate
the rms

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87 Variability
Measures of variability describe the
extent of similarity or difference in
a set of scores
These measures include the
 deviation,
mean absolute deviation,
variance
standard deviation

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88 Statistical Analysis
Deviation
Difference between any one
measured value and the
arithmetic mean of a series of
measurements
May be positive or negative, and
the algebraic sum of the
deviations is always zero
dn  x n  x KJS
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89 Statistical Analysis
- Mean Absolute Deviation
The average deviation (D) or mean
absolute deviation may be calculated
as the average of the absolute values
of the deviations.

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90 Statistical Analysis
- Variance
Means square deviation

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 91 Standard Deviation (SD)
Standard Deviation – a measure of the
variability, or spread, of a set of scores
around the mean

For n>20

For n<20
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92 Example
Six observers took a set of independent
current measurement and the results
were records as:
12.8A, 12.2A, 12.5A, 13.1A, 12.9A, 12.4A
Calculate the;
a) Arithmetic mean
b) Deviation from means
c) Average deviation
d) Standard deviation
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93

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94

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95
Next Lecture

CLO 3: Define and determine transducers

End of CLO 2

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