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HANS GROSS
FORENSIC SCIENCE ● Johann Baptist Gustav Gross
- The application of science to those criminal and ● A magistrate and law professor in Austria
civil laws that are enforced by police agencies in ● Known for his publications and for introducing
a criminal justice system. the word “criminalistics”
- Applied science ● In 1893, published a handbook for magistrates
- Often called “Criminalistics” that greatly influenced the practice of criminal
investigations.
Forensic science applies ALPHONSE BERTILLON (1853-1914)
● Chemistry
● Biology ● Father of criminal detection
● Physics ● Devised the first scientific system of personal
● Geology identification, using body measurements known
To CIVIL AND CRIMINAL LAW as anthropometry in 1879.
- Places physical evidence into a professional
discipline Anthropometry
● Literally, “the measure of man’”
The Development of ○ Quantifies human variability
FORENSIC SCIENCE ● What?
○ Physical measures
SIR ARTHUR CONAN DOYLE ○ Height, weight, reach, length, width depth,
circumference, surface area etc
○ strength , dexterity, range of motion.

● Popularized physical detection methods in a
crime scene
● Sir Arthur Conan Doyle - developed the
character Sherlock Holmes
● 1887 published his first novel “A Study in Scarlet”
● Had a considerable influence on popularizing
scientific crime-detection methods
MATTHIEU ORFILA (1787-1853)
● The limitation of this system was shown by its
inability to distinguish between two
leavenworth, Kansas, penitentiary prisoners,
Will West & William West.
● The Bertillon system was eventually replaced by
the fingerprint system being developed by
Francis Galton, William Hershel, Edward Henry
& others in the late 1800s.

● Father of forensic toxicology FINGERPRINT ANALYSIS:

HISTORY AND FUTURE
● 1814- Treatise on detection of poisons and their
- Beginning in the 1880s, Sir Francis Galton and
effects on animals
Sir E.R. Henry developed the classification
● Many forensic science specialties can be traced system for fingerprints that is still in use
back to the medicolegal institutes of Europe today in the United States and Europe (Galton
● He is often referred to as the “father of forensic Henry Method).
toxicology”.

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FRANCIS GALTON (1822-1911) PROFESSOR R. A. RIESS

● Conducted the first definitive study of ● Established a forensic photography laboratory

fingerprints and their classification at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland in
● 1892- Treatise entitled Finger Prints 1909
EDMOND LOCARD (1877-1966)

● Established one of the world’s first police crime

laboratories in Lyon, France in 1910
● Known for the Locard Exchange Principle
● Demonstrated how the principles developed by
Hans Gross could be incorporated into a
workable crime lab.
● Locard’s exchange principle states that once
contact is made between two surfaces a
LEONE LATTES (1887-1954) transfer of material(s) will occur.
● Established one of the world's first police crime
● Father of Bloodstain Identification laboratories in Lyon, France in 1910.
● He developed a procedure for determining the
blood type (A, B, AB, or O) of a dried blood stain The Development of
FORENSIC SCIENCE ORGANIZATIONS
CALVIN GODDARD (1891-1955)
AMERICAN ACADEMY OF FORENSIC SCIENCE
● In 1925, Calvin Goddard wrote a paper about (AAFS)
the use of comparison microscope ballistic
● Established in 1948
investigation
● Approximately 5000 members representing all
● He later worked with the police to determine
forensic science disciplines and specialties
that the St. Valentine's Day Massacre was the
● Started the journal of forensic science in 1954
work of Al Capone’s gang. He was able to match
the bullets to their Tommy guns
AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CRIME LAB DIRECTORS
● Used as comparison microscope to determine if
a bullet was fired from a specific gun
(ASCLD)
● Published study of a” tool marks” on bullets ● Established in the early 1970’s
● Created a Lab Accreditation Board
ALBERT S. OSBORN (1858-1946) (ASCLD/LAB)
● ASCLD/LAB began lab accreditation in 1982
● Developed fundamental principles of document
examination
● 1910- treatise Questioned Documents
● Was responsible for the acceptance of
documents as scientific evidence by the courts.

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PHYSICAL SCIENCE UNIT

ORGANIZATION OF A CRIME LABORATORY ● Applies the principles and techniques of

Chemistry, Physics, Geology to the identification
and comparison of crime-scene evidence
Services of the Crime Lab BIOLOGY UNIT
● Many local crime laboratories have been
created solely for the purpose of processing ● Identifies dried bloodstains and body fluids
evidence ● Compares hairs and fibers
● Currently most of their energy and funds are ● Identifies and compares botanical materials
such as wood and plants
used to analyze drugs and DNA.
● Performs DNA analysis
● In 1932, however first established a national
forensics laboratory to support all law BASIC SERVICES PROVIDED BY FULL-SERVICE CRIME
enforcement in the US LABORATORIES:
● The oldest American forensics laboratory is in FIREARMS UNIT
Los Angeles, California, created in 1923 by
August Volmer. Examines
● Firearms
● Discharged bullets
CRIME LABORATORIES
● Cartridge cases
● Since the 1960's the number of crime labs has ● Shotgun shells
increased due to the courts demanding secure ● Ammunition of all types
scientifically evaluated evidence.
- More crime DOCUMENT EXAMINATION UNIT
- More drug related crime
● Analyzes handwriting, paper and printers of
- Greater need for physical
documents
evidence
- Use of DNA profiling (1990's) PHOTOGRAPHY UNIT
● Presently there are 350 Crime Laboratories in
the U.S. ● Examines and records physical evidence at the
crime scene and at suspects' locations
CRIME LABORATORY UNITS
OPTIONAL SERVICES PROVIDED BY FULL-SERVICE
STANDARD CRIME LABORATORIES:
● Physical Science TOXICOLOGY UNIT
● Biology
● Firearms ● Examines body fluids and organs in order to
● Documents determine the presence and identification of
● Photography drugs and poisons
OPTIONAL
● Toxicology LATENT FINGERPRINT UNIT
● Fingerprints
● Processes and examines evidence for latent
● Polygraph
fingerprints
● Voice Print
● I.e . those found on surfaces
● Evidence

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POLYGRAPH UNIT
● Uses lie detectors, an essential tool for the crime
investigator rather than the forensic scientist.
VOICE PRINT ANALYSIS UNIT
● Involved in cases of telephone threats or
tape-recorded messages
● Investigators may be able to connect a voice to
a particular suspect
EVIDENCE-COLLECTION UNIT
● Incorporates evidence collection into a total
forensic science service
The Functions of
A FORENSIC SCIENTIST
Analysis of Physical Evidence
- The forensic scientist must be skilled in applying
The principles and techniques of the physical
and natural sciences in order to identify the
many types of evidence that may be recovered
during crime investigations
Expert Witness
- An expert witness possesses a particular skill or
has knowledge in a trade or profession that will
aid the the court in determining the truth
FORENSIC SCIENCE SPECIALTIES
FORENSIC PATHOLOGY
● Pathology is a specialty area of medicine
● Pathology is the study of diseases and the
bodily changes cause by the diseases
● Forensic pathologist determine the cause of
death (the medical reason why a person dies;
e.g asphyxiation
● Forensic pathologist determine the manner of
death (the circumstances causing death; e.g
homicide
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● Death can be classified into five different
categories:
1. Natural teeth
2. Homicide
3. Suicide
4. Accident or
5. Undetermined manner of death
● Forensic Pathology
- The cause of death can often be
determined by performing an autopsy
● After a human body expires there are several
stages of death
Rigor Mortis
- Immediately following death, the muscles relax
and then become rigid, shortening of the
muscles
Livor Mortis
- The human heart stops pumping, the blood
begins to settle in the parts of the body closest
to the ground due to gravity. The skin will
appear dark blue or purple in these lower areas
close to the ground
Algor Mortis
- The process in which the body temperature
continually cools after death until it reaches the
medical examiner to establish the general time
of death
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY
● Primarily involves the identification and
examination of skeletal remains, in order to
determine if the remains are human or another
type of animal.
● If human, ethnicity, sex, approximate age, and
manner of death can often be determined by an
anthropologist.
● Physical anthropology is the science of the
human skeleton and how it has evolved over
time.
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Forensic Anthropologists:
● Can determine whether found remains are of FORENSIC ENGINEERING
human or animal origin
● Used to analyze construction accidents, and the
● Reconstruct the skeleton from found remains
causes and origins of fires or explosions
● Provide an estimate of age, stature, and gender
● Involved in the investigation of transportation
● Can sometimes determine racial origin
related accidents, material failures, and
● Detect skeletal abnormalities and any trauma
structural failures
● Can provide information about the cause of
death
FORENSIC TOXICOLOGY

FORENSIC ENTOMOLOGY ● Forensic toxicology is the study of the effects of

extraneous materials such as poisons and drugs
● The study of insects and their developmental
in the body
stages
● Forensic toxicologist must determine both the
● Can help to determine the time of death by
presence and the amounts of extraneous
knowing when those stages normally appear in
materials in the body
the insect’s life cycle, and by using the existing
● Assist the medical examiners in determining the
environmental factors.
cause of death
● Forensic Entomologist
● May be involved in the determination of ethanol
levels in blood and breath samples
FORENSIC PSYCHIATRY & PSYCHOLOGY
● The study of human behavior and legal FORENSIC COMPUTER SCIENCE
proceedings in both civil and criminal cases
● Use information located on computers and
- In civil and criminal cases, competency often
other electronic devices as investigate aids
needs to be determined
● Find hidden or deleted information to determine
- In criminal trials, the evaluation of behavior
if internet based crimes have been committed.
disorders is often required in order to establish
the psychological profile of a suspect.
CRIMINALISTICS

FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY ● Criminalistics involves the examination,

identification, and interpretation of items of
● The study of the physiology, anatomy, and
physical evidence.
pathology of teeth.

Forensic Odontologists:
● Perform two types of analyses involving the FORENSIC ANALYSIS
human dentition ● Can include organic and inorganic analytical
○ Identify human remains by comparing techniques
pre mortem and postmortem dental ○ Organic analysis of unknown
x-rays substances
○ Bite mark comparisons (Crime scene ■ Includes analytical techniques
marks to known bite marks) such as Chromatography,
UV-visible and infrared
spectrophotometry and Mass
Spectrometry

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○ Inorganic Analysis TOOTH COMPOSITION

■ Includes technique such as the
emission spectrum of elements,
Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry, Neutron
Activation Analysis, and X-ray
Diffraction Analysis

Forensic
ODONTOLOGY
● Forensic odontology is the application of
Childhood
dentistry in legal proceedings deriving from any
Primary teeth sprout from milk buds and temporary.
evidence that pertains to teeth.
Once they fall out, permanent teeth as seen on the
TEETH
other side appear.
● Hardest part of body attached to jaws. It serves
to help digest food, act as a defense
Adulthood
mechanism, etc. Teeth are made of crowns with
Permanent adult teeth come in when primary teeth fall
enamel surrounding a pulp.
out; they are permanent because they establish roots
inside the gums. Third molars come in around the mid
TEETH BASICS
teenage years.
Approximately 32 teeth in adult mouth
● Four types of teeth
○ Molars
○ Premolars
○ Canine
○ Incisors

● Teeth differ in: WHY TEETH?

○ Size ● Every human body ages in a similar manner, the
○ Shape teeth also follow a semi-standardized pattern.
○ Root type These quantitative measurement help establish
relative age of person
● Each human has an individual set of teeth which
can be traced back to established dental
records to find missing individuals
● Teeth are made of enamel (the hardest tissue of
the body), so it can withstand trauma
(decomposition, head degradation, water
immersion, and desiccation) better than other
tissue in the body).
● Teeth are a source of DNA: dental pulp or a
crushed tooth can provide nuclear or
mitochondrial DNA that to help identify a
person

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History of USES OF FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY

FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY ● The scope of forensic odontology is wide and
● 66 AD- First body identified using teeth includes the identification of victims of transport
○ Lollia Paulina accidents, gunshot, and incineration in vehicles
● Revolutionary War and house fires
○ Paul Revere was the first forensic
dentist in the United States because he FORENSIC DENTISTRY /ODONTOLOGY
identified fallen revolutionary soldiers ● This field is very important in identifying human
● 1849 - Mass deaths at Vienna Opera firehouse remains that are decomposed, mutilated, or
Dental evidence is first admitted into visually unrecognizable.
court system in US INDIVIDUAL IDENTIFICATION
WHO PRACTICES FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY?
● FORENSIC ODONTOLOGISTS ANALYZING TEETH
○ Must have DDS degree
● The Universal System
○ Should have specialized training in the
○ Teeth are given a specific number
field through lectures (not required)
(Primary teeth are given specific capital
● Forensic dentists help:
letter)
○ Identify human remains (individual and
○ Any dental work done on surface is
mass)
noted
○ Analyze bite marks
○ Sheets kept on the dental file forever.
■ Bite marks are compared to
When a person is missing, files are
known teeth molds to find origin
traumatized to the missing person’s
of bite injuries
office.
● Estimate age of the victim and perpetrator
● Trace dental malpractice
TRAINING
.No specific training required to practice
● Most are practicing dentists
○ Undergraduate education
○ Dental school
○ Possible specialized training
● Admittance into into professional groups INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
○ May have further requirements for
remittance ● Size of tooth
● Shape of tooth
ORGANIZATIONS OF FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
● Shape of root
● Bureau of Legal Dentistry (BOLD) ● Placement of tooth
● American Board of Forensic Odontology (ABFO) ● Quantity of teeth
● International Organization for Forensic ● Combination of dental work done:
Odonto-Stomatology (IOFOS) ○ Crowns
MAIN APPLICATIONS: ○ Extractions
● Individual Identification ○ Bridge
● Mass Disaster Identification ○ Fillings
● Bite Mark Analysis ○ Root Canals

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DENTAL RESTORATIONS
● Crowns MASS DISASTER IDENTIFICATION
● Fillings
● Completed in the same manner as individual
● Root Canal
identification
● Bridge
● Organization of antemortem and postmortem
● Extractions
data is essential
GENERAL NEGLECTED GUM DISEASE ● Large scale problems can occur

● Identifying factors such as cavities, tooth MASS DISASTER DENTAL ID TEAMS

pattern, and general dental health neglect
● POSTMORTEM TEAM
STANDARD TEETH DEVELOPMENT FOR AGE DETERMINATION ○ Generates dental profile and
radiographs
● ANTEMORTEM TEAM
○ Collects/ organizes antemortem data
● RECORDS COMPARISON TEAM
○ Compares postmortem and
antemortem data

IDENTIFICATION
● Postmortem description is generated
○ Radiographs taken
● Possible identities known?
○ Yes: comparison to antemortem data
■ Match strength determined
○ No: biological profile generated

AGE DETERMINATION CHART

DENTAL COMPARISON
● Dental records are useful in helping to identify
unknown persons who have been the victim of
foul play or who have been simply reported
missing.

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BITE MARK ANALYSIS

BITE MARKS:
● Impressions from teeth found on skin or items
left at a scene usually outline teeth placement
BITE MARK EVIDENCE:
Investigators can analyze Bite marks for Characteristics
to help them identify victims or suspects as well as to
exclude others. Marks Can be left on a victim's skin or
other objects such as styrofoam cups, gum, or foods.
saliva or blood may be left behind that can be tested for
DNA. Dental records including x-rays also provide useful
IDENTIFICATION information, especially when attempting to identify a
victim.
Individual Identification
Features to analyze:
● Postmortem description is generated
● Type of bite mark ( human or animal)
○ X rays and radiographs
● Characteristics of teeth ( position, evidence of
● Positive identification is compared to
dental work, Where patterns, etc)
ante-mortem data
● Color of area to estimate how long ago the b
● Negative identification, a biological profile is
occurred (old or recent bite)
generated
● Swab for body fluid for DNA tests

Mass Identification
● Same process is used as individual identification
● Organization is crucial
● Family is asked to come identify the body, and
WHERE ARE BITE MARKS FOUND?
narrow down the pool of victims
● Impressions left on food, sin or other items left
DENTAL IDENTIFICATION at a scene.
○ Porous surface that absorb the impact
- The forensic dentist compares antemortem enough to make an impression
(before death ) records with postmortem (after ○ Impression vary
death) findings to determine if there is a positive ■ Depending on the pressure
match. applied, the impression will
show accordingly. The more
pressure there is, the more
detail to the bite.

● BITE MARKS:
○ It also includes the examination of bite
marks inflicted by humans and animals
in a variety of circumstances.
○ Example of bruising left from bite mark
○ Bites are common in violent crime and
child abuse

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BITE MARK ANALYSIS STATE OF FLORIDA vs. TED BUNDY

● Can be used to link a suspect to a crime ● Ted Bundy, was an American serial killer who
● Impression left on food, skin or other items left murdered numerous young women between
at a scene 1974 and 1978.
● Bite marks are photographed with a scale ● He confessed to 30 murders, however the total
○ Bite marks on skin are taken over amount of victims remains unknown. He would
repeated intervals bludgeon his victims, then strangle them to
death. He engaged in rape and necrophilia.
● Casts of impression are taken
● Impression traced onto transparencies
● Casts of suspects teeth are taken
● Comparison between suspect cast and bite
mark

9/11
● At ground zero, among 973 victims identified in
● Example of bruising left from bite mark
the first year (with only one method), about
● Bites are common in violent crime and child
20% of victims were identified using dental
abuse
records

ASIAN TSUNAMI
● Around mid-March, (of some 800+ identified
bodies) 90% were identified by dental records ...
● If you post pictures of your loved ones on the
bulletin boards/web boards, choose a picture
FAMOUS CASES
with a broad smile so that your front teeth can
be seen. A better approach is to post dental
HIGH PROFILE CRIMES x-ray films and leave email/phone number of
● Ted Bundy was identified from a bite mark the dentist."
● John Wilkes Booth was identified by a “gold
plug” on the right side of his jaw

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Computer Aided
FORENSIC ODONTOLOGY
● 3rd Bite Mark Analysis
● Automatic Dental COde matching
● Automatic Dental Identification System

Matching Using Dental Codes – CAPMI/WinID

COMPUTER ODONTOLOGY
● Automatic dental code matching
○ Bites are run through the computer to
find a match
● Odonto Search
○ Compare a database of missing people,
felons, government workers
● Automatic Dental Identification System
○ A few minutes will produce a list of
people who have the same dental code
number
● 3D Bite Mark Analysis
○ 3D scans of dental casts are used to
generate overlays using various OdontoSearch
pressure and deviation ● Different people may have the same dental
○ The overlays are compared with codes
photographs of the bites marks. ● In the past, the strength of a match between a
PM dental code and and AM dental code is
based on the clinical experience of the dentist
● OdontoSearch provides an objective means of
assessing the frequency of occurrence for a
dental code

Bite Mark Analysis Using 3D Scans – Dental Print

● 3D Kinds of dental casts are used to generate
overlays using various pressure and deviation.
● The overlays are compared with the photograph
of the bite marks.

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COMPARISON TO OTHER FORENSIC BIOMETRICS

Automatic Dental Identification System

● Genuine image has a smaller matching distance

than the imposter image. Images with smaller
distance are included in the candidate list. LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES

System Architecture
● In order to obtain a dental impression the
Feature Extraction criminal/victim must provide consent.
↓ ● Most will give the impression on just a verbal
Atlas Registration request
↓ ● Some require search warrants to be obtained
Matching ● Once a request is granted the impressions are
↓ made and then cast in dental stone.
Retrieval
SUMMARY:
● History and status of forensic odontology
● Dental anatomy
● Main application applications
FORENSIC DENTISTRY
● Comparison to other forensic biometrics
● Famous cases
● Forensic Dentistry is a specialty that relates
● Computer-aided forensic odontology
dental evidence to investigation
● Analyses of bite marks had played a major role
in many cases
● Teeth marks may be left in dood, pencils or
other items left at crime scenes
● Bite marks can help eliminate or identify
suspects

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Forensic Odontology/ ○ Presenting evidence in court as an

DENTISTRY expert witness
● Odontology → study of teeth
● Branch of dentistry and forensic medicine, FORENSIC ORAL PATHOLOGY
which in interest of justice, deals with the proper ● Branch of forensic dentistry chiefly concerned
handling, examination, evaluation and with
presentation of dental evidence ○ Identification of dead and living
● An integral part of forensic science individuals
● A routine procedure when identification is ○ Age estimation to the teeth and jaws
necessary Oral Pathologist
● Plays a major role in identification in man made ● May help the police, court and general
or natural disaster pathologist thru
○ Events that results in multiple fatalities ○ Dental charts and records which may
that may result to victims being not show:
identifiable through conventional ■ Anomalies in tooth form, shapes
methods such as fingerprints and number
● Relies on: ■ Defects from occupation and
○ Sound knowledge of teeth and jaws habits
possessed by dentist ■ Lesions produced by accidents,
○ Incorporates dental anatomy, histology, crimes and nervous habits
radiography, dental materials and ● In identification of individuals the following are
developmental anomalies also taken into consideration:
● The earliest known example of identification by ○ Changes of death
dental means dates back to 66 A.D. ○ Investigation of teeth fragments and
● Elaborate dental records, including radiographs restorations
and spare crowns identified the body of Adolf
Hitler the most high profile case of dental
identification. Forensic Odontology/
● Delve into: DENTISTRY DIVISIONS
○ Identifying unknown human remind
A. Civil or Non-Criminal
through dental records a. Malpractice and fraud
○ Assisting at location of mass disaster b. Neglect
○ Eliciting the ethnicity and assisting in c. Identification of individual remains or
building up a picture of lifestyle and diet victims of aircraft or train disaster o fire
of skeletal remains at archeological in public building
sites d. Age estimation
○ Determining the gender of an e. Identification of a living person due to
unidentified individual loss of memory
B. Criminal
● Delve into: a. Identification of dead and living
○ Age estimation of both the living and individuals from their teeth (victims and
deceased suspects)
○ Recognition and analysis of bite marks
found on victims of attack

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b. Bite Marks on food stuff, assailants and
on victims (self inflicted or inflicted by
another
PROCESS OF IDENTIFICATION, DETERMINATION, AND
CONFIRMATION OF IDENTITY AGE DETERMINATION
IDENTIFICATION
● Identification is the establishment of a person's
individuality/identity
● Required for legal and humanitarian reasons
● Help in settlement of property, facilitate
remarriage of surviving spouse and allow
cremation or burial of the body, according to
relevant religious and cultural customs
● Traditional Methods:
○ Visually recognizing body
○ Use of personal property such as
clothing, jewelry, etc.
● Visually identifying a burnt or decomposed
body can be a very traumatic experience for
relatives and friends, the better option of
identification is for the forensic expert to
analyze physical features present in the body.
● Physical features are prone to change over
time, fingerprints are exceptions but like other
soft tissues, undergo post mortem change
● Being the strongest structure present in the
body, dental hard tissues are resistant to post
mortem decomposition
● Moreover, most materials used by dentists for
restoring teeth are also resistant to post mortem
destruction
● Therefore, the use of dental evidence is the
method of choice in establishing the identity of
badly burnt, traumatized, decomposed and
skeletal remains.
PROCESS OF IDENTIFICATION
● Importance of Identification
○ Satisfy the relatives as to the fate of
their kinsman
○ Satisfy the requirements for a death
certificate
○ To be able to search for the murderer
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Performed by a team in the ff manner:
1. Examination and recording of all details of an
unknown body and living person
A. Following methods are used:
a. Clinical examination- visual exams,
x-rays, impressions, models and
photographs
b. Microscopic examination- teeth and
body tissues
c. Chemical examination - stains (blood,
food, chemicals)
Performed by a team in the ff manner:
1. Examination and recording of all details of an
unknown body and living person
2. Collection of information of a sinister character
from missing persons
3. Matching of data obtained from the body with
the record of the missing person
DETERMINATION AND CONFIRMATION OF
IDENTITY
● Sassouni (1963) suggested 2 groups of
techniques in determination and confirmation of
identity individuals : Reconstructive group and
Comparative group
A. Reconstructive Group
1. Used on bodies with no trace as to their identity
because their body appearance has been
altered by:
a. Deterioration
b. Mutilation
c. Deliberate disfigurement
2. Used on bodies with no trace as to their identity
because their body appearance has been
altered .
3. Also used to identify living individuals suffering
from loss of memory from:
a. Attacks
b. Shock
c. Old age
4. Uses of the following to bring out identification
a. Age
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b. Sex
c. Height
d. Race
e. Occupation
B. Comparative Group
1. Done after R.G. gives probably identity
2. Matches Ante-mortem with post
mortem records to make positive
identification.
ANTE-MORTEM FINDINGS
A. Designed for listing any information that may
be obtained from relatives, friends and/or
physician of the possible victim or missing
person and that may assist in an identification,
in order to compare that information with the
data obtained from the dead bodies on the
disaster site.
B. Most accurate are the dental records that
includes:
a. X-rays showing:
i. Metal fillings
ii. Root canal fillings
iii. Wound scars from apicoectomy
and extraction wounds
POST-MORTEM FINDINGS
A. Designed for listing all obtainable data about a
dead body that may assist in its identification in
order to compare that data with the information
obtained at the place of residence of the
possible victim or missing person and recorded
on ante-mortem form.
● Dead individual are recognized by their teeth
and denture
● Living individuals’ physical characteristics and
dental records can be used to identify a person
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BASIS FOR DENTAL IDENTIFICATION
● Human dentition is never the same in any two
individuals
● The morphology and arrangement of teeth vary
from person to person
● Teeth are relatively resistant to environmental
insults after death
DENTAL IDENTIFICATION PROCEDURES
● Two forms
1. Comparative identification: comparing the dead
individual’s teeth with presumed dental records
of the individual
2. Reconstructive identification (dental profiling):
attempts to elicit the ethnicity or “race, gender,
age and occupation of the dead individual.
Undertaken when virtually no clue exists
COMPARATIVE DENTAL IDENTIFICATION
Step 1: oral autopsy
Step 2: obtaining dental records
Step 3: comparing post-mortem and
ante-mortem dental data
Step 4: written report and drawing conclusion
ORAL AUTOPSY
● Also known as necropsy or post mortem
● It has a systemic protocol starting with critical
examination of the external features of the body
such as
○ Gender
○ Ethnicity
○ Built
○ Wounds
○ Scars
○ Tattoos
○ Body piercing
● Photographs, radiographs, fingerprints, finger
nail scraping and hair sample may be obtained
according to the requirements
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● Oral examination is in essential part of the
postmortem procedures
● A forensic dentist who conduct oral autopsy
should have adequate knowledge about
common postmortem findings such as
○ Rigor mortis
○ Livor mortis
○ Decomposition
○ Postmortem artifacts
● Rigor mortis may render the jaw and the use of
mouth gags or intraoral myotomy is essential
for jaw separation
● Since teeth may be brittle in burden cases, prior
to examination, they need to be reinforced with
○ Cyanoacrylate cements
○ Polyvinyl acetate
○ Clear acrylic spray
● Access for radiology in incinerated bodies can
be obtained by removing tongue and contents
of floor mouth in a ‘tunneling’ fashion from
beneath the skin.
● The status of each tooth whether intact, carious,
restored or missing should be carefully noted
● A thorough examination of soft tissue injuries,
fracture and presence of foregin bodies is
undertaken and a sample of hard and
investigation.
● All information pertaining to the body must be
entered on to standard “interpol post-mortem
form” which is color-coded in pink
● Content of all available records should be
transcribed onto the standard interpol
antemortem form which is color coded YELLOW.
POST-MORTEM VS. ANTE-MORTEM DENTAL RECORDS
● Features compared include tooth morphology
and associated bony structures pathology and
restorations
● An individual with multiple dental treatment and
unusual features has a better likelihood of being
identified then someone with no extra ordinary
dental characteristics
● Comparison should take into account quality
rather than quantity
POST MORTEM FORM: PINK
ANTEMORTEM FORM: YELLOW
WRITING A REPORT AND DRAWING CONCLUSION
● Confirms identification: match each other
● Probable identification: high level of
concordance between the two sets of data, but
usually with no radiographic support
● Possible identification: explainable identification
between the ante and post-mortem data
● Insufficient information: available ante and
post-mortem data are insufficient
● Excludes identification: ante and post mortem
data are clearly inconsistent

OBTAINING DENTAL RECORDS IDENTIFICATION IN DISASTERS

From: ● Involves comparing hundreds or thousands of
● Treating dentist ante and post-mortem data
● Specialties ● Human remains and such events may be highly
● Hospital records in the form of: fragmented holy part of body may be recovered
○ Dental charts the bodies may be incinerated or comingled i.e.
○ Radiographs parts of two bodies may be mixed
○ Casts
○ Photographs

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DENTAL SECTION
● Forensic dentist are usually part of a team of
identification spe
● Three subsections:
1. POST MORTEM UNITS
● The location at which a body is
recovered, noted and preliminary
examination of mouth is made to
evaluate the oral condition
● Definitive examination at mortuary of
post-mortem unit
● A portable dental radiograph should be
installed, taking precautions against
radiation hazard
● Responsible for processing radiographs
may also need to arrange for
photography of teeth
● Teeth and jaw specimen may be
removed from a body for the
convenience of examination
2. ANTE-MORTEM UNITS
● Most difficult
● The members need to collect as much
information as possible in the shortest
period of time
● Begins with locating the dental record
dentist and relatives of the victims
● All information obtained must be
transferred on to the standard interpol
antemortem form
● This constitute the antemortem
composite chart
3. DENTAL COMPARISON IDENTIFICATION UNIT
● Comparison and confirmation of
identification
● The antemortem data are taken
individually and compared to the
post-mortem data that are spread out
(computer software developed to
simplify comparison)
● Final identification should always be
done by dentist manually
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Identification in Mass Disasters
● The term “mass disaster” evokes images of a
chaotic event
● The process of dental identification is same
except the magnitude of event is far greater
● Mass disasters can be classified in one of three
ways
1. Natural
2. Accidental
3. Criminal
● Large number of human
remains
● Fragmented
● Incinerated commingled
● Natural mass disasters include earthquakes,
tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, fire storms and
floods
● Principal problem for the dental identification
team→ environmental infrastrastructure is often
compromised. Dental offices containing
antemortem records may be destroyed.
● Accidental mass disasters are most often
associated with transportation accidents, fire
fires in and mining accidents, and military
accidents.
● Occur over short periods, closed populations
● According to Clark, 50% of identification is from
dental evidence. So odontology is part of team
● Clarke states - “dental examination is usually
done after most other procedures such as
photography, fingerprinting and autopsy”
● Postmortem unit is responsible for processing
the radiograph and also need to arrange
photography of teeth
● Antemortem unit is most difficult. Dentist need
to collect much information as possible in the
shortest period of time
● Comparison by - IDENTITY, ODONTOID,
CAPMI, IDIS softwares
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FINGERPRINTS
● Excellent biometric method if:
○ The tissue of the fingers is intact
○ An adequate impression or image of the
friction ridges can be obtained
○ Antermorterm fingerprint records are
available
● Conditions that may not readily exhibit
fingerprints:
○ Burned
○ decomposed (skin slippage or
degloving)
○ Skeletonized
○ Fragmented remains
DNA
● DNA comparison relies on accessible
antemortem data
IDENTIFICATION FROM DENTAL DNA
● Teeth are excellent source of dna since it can
resist extreme condition
● Pcr allows amplification of even highly
degraded dna
● Major Advantage is that if deceased
antemortem sample (Hair from hair brush,
epithelial cells from toothbrush or biopsy) is
unavailable, the dna pattern may be compared
to a parent or to a sibling
● Teeth can resist extreme condition
● Pretty and sweet state that teeth are an
excellent source of DNA
● Applied technique → polymerase chain reaction
- allows amplification of highly degraded DNA
● This facilitates comparison with a known
biological ante-mortem sample of the decedent
such as hair from comb, epithelial cells form a
toothbrush or biopsy specimen
● Advantage: DNA pattern can be compared to
the parents or siblings, thus facilitating positive
identification
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EXTRACTION OF DENTAL DNA
● Pulpal tissue best source of dental dna
● Cryogenic grinding for extracting DNA (cooling
the whole tooth to extremely low temperature,
and then mechanically grinding it to fine
powder) → tooth will be completely crushed
● Another method → drilling of the root canals,
scraping the pulpal area with a notable medical
needle, and subsequent flushing of the tissue
debris
TYPES OF DNA
● Two types of DNA
1. Genomic or nuclear DNA
2. Mitochondrial dna (mt DNA)
● Each cell has a high copy of mt DNA, also
exclusively inherited from mother; no
contribution from father
● Thus identical mt dna is observed in siblings,
their mother and many maternal relatives
Pretty and sweet pointed out 2 types of DNA:
● Genomic or nuclear DNA: located in the
nucleus of a cell and commonly used in
nuclear studies
● Mitochondrial DNA: present in the
mitochondria of cells
THE PALATAL RUGAE IN IDENTIFICATION
● Useful in edentulous persons
● Rugae patterns like teeth are considered unique
to an individual
● Rugae patterns on the decedent's maxilla or
maxillary dentures may be recovered from the
decedent’s residence, or plaster model from
dental office.
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CLASSIFICATION OF PALATAL RUGAE

● Lysell measured rugae in a straight line from
medial to lateral and categorized as:
○ PRIMARY RUGAE (>5mm)
○ SECONDARY RUGAE (3-5mm)
○ FRAGMENTARY RUGAE (2-3mm)
(Rugae <2mm is not taken into consideration)
● Thomas & Kotze have further detailed various
patterns of primary rugae— branched, unified,
cross-linked, annular, and papillary.
DENTAL PROFILING
● When ante-mortem records are not available
ANALYSIS OF RUGAE PATTERNS
● Includes a triad of information → ethnic origin,
● Thomas and Van Wyk have manually traced
gender, age
rugae patterns on photographs of plaster
● Information from this process will enable a
models.
more focused search for ante-mortem records.
● Recently, Limson and Julian have developed a
computer software program, ‘rug fp-id match’
IDENTIFYING ETHNIC ORIGIN FROM THE TEETH
(same principle of fingerprinting)
● Human races have been divided into three races
○ Caucasoid
○ Mongoloid and
● Thomas and Van Wyk traced rugae patterns
○ Negroid
from dentures on to clear acetate and then
● It is possible today to identify an individual’s
superimposed these tracings on photographs of
ethnic origin based purely on one’s dentition
plaster models
● Traditionally, the human species has been
● Limson and Julian analyzed rugae pattern by a
categorized into three ‘races’ Caucasoid,
computer software and obtained 97% accuracy
Mongoloid and Negroid.
● Ohtani and coworkers suggest- high accuracy
● Many of the best traits of estimation of race are
can be obtained using straight forward visual
found in the mid facial skeleton, including the
comparison from dentures.
area of nose, mouth and cheek bones
1) Landmarks -
a) shape of the cranium
b) Lateral projection of zygomatic arches
c) Shape and contour of the orbits, and
d) Nasal aperture

GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCE ON

TEETH
● Dental features have complex mode of
inheritance and are combination of heredity
and environmental factors to which person is
exposed
● So different population show considerable
● Dental features in population divided into
1. Metric (tooth size)

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2. Non metric (tooth shape) ○ Three rooted lower molar

: more inheritable & dependable ○ Single rooted lower molar
● Scott & Turner suggest- Dental features have ● Of these non-metric dental features some have
evolved over time as a result of genetic and high frequency in certain population and other
environmental forces that have influenced uncommon
different population groups ○ Eg. south asian’s exhibit 4 cusped lower
● Complex mode of inheritance second molar but features like wiggling,
● Combination of hereditary factors and shoveling, y groove pattern, tome’s
environmental effects to which a person is pattern
exposed.
● Dental features that have a stronger genetic SEX DIFFERENTIATION
and weak environmental influence are useful. ● Second step
● Dental features Metric (tooth size) ● Can be determined
3. Non metric (tooth shape) 1. From craniofacial morphology and
● Metric features are based on dimension
measurement-considerably influenced by local 2. Sex differences in tooth size
environmental factors 3. Dental index
4. Sex determination by DNA analysis
NON-METRIC DENTAL FEATURES
DENTAL AGE ESTIMATION
● Crown feature
● Final step in dental profiling
○ Shovelling
● Estimation methods
○ Carebelli’s shovelling
1. Age estimation in prenatal, neonatal
○ Three cusped upper 2nd molar
and early postnatal child
○ Cusp 5, cusp 6, cusp 7
2. Age estimation in children and
○ Wingling
adolescents
○ Five-cusped lower second molar
3. Age estimation in adults
○ Lower molar groove pattern
○ Interruption groove
○ Enamel extension AGE ESTIMATION IN PRENATAL, NEONATAL, AND
○ Odontome EARLY POSTNATAL CHILD
○ Lateral incisor variation
○ Distal accessory ridge
● By use of histologic technique (12 weeks before
○ Premolar accessory ridge, premolar
it is usually apparent on radiographs)
accessory marginal tubercle, premolar
● By radiograph-non invasive
lingual cusp, mesial marginal tubercle of
○ Neonatal line indicates a live birth
upper molar
● By dry weight of mineralized tooth
○ Parastyle (paramolar tubercle),
○ At six months IU- 6omg,
protostylid (supernumerary cusp on
○ Newborn-0.5g,
lower molars)
○ Six months post natal- 1.8g
● Root features
○ Two rooted upper premolar
○ Two rooted upper molar
○ Two rooted lower canine
○ Tome’s root

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GUSTAFSON’S METHOD
AGE ESTIMATION IN CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
● Based on morphological and histological
changes of the teeth. Accessed regressive
● Two events may be used →eruption and tooth
changes such as:
calcification
○ Amount of occlusal attrition (A)
● Various methods
○ Coronal secondary dentin deposition (S)
A.) Schowur and Massler’s Method:
○ Loss of periodontal attachment (P)
● Described 20 chronological
○ Cementum aposition at the root apex
stages of tooth development
(C)
starting from 4 months IU until
○ Root resorption at apex (R)
21 years of age
○ Dentin translucency (T)
● It is based on histological
● Each of regressive changes have seven grades
section which permits direct
(0, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3)
comparison with radiographs
● Age = 11.02 + (5.14A) + (2.3S) + (4.14P) + (3.71C) +
B.) Demijan’s Method:
(5.57R) + (8.98T)
● Made use of a foreign system
● Development of left side even mandibular teeth
DENTAL TRANSLUCENCY
was divided into 8 stages (A-H)
○ Each tooth assigned a “maturity score” ● Root dentin starts to become translucent during
and total maturity score of all teeth is the third decade of life beginning at the apex
plotted on a chronologic age conversion and advancing coronally
table. Separate maturity score and age ● Hence as age advances refractive index
conversion table for both sexes. between intratubular organic and extra tubular
C. Third Molar in Age Estimation inorganic material is equalized resulting in
● A valuable indicator in the age 16-23 years but increased translucency of the affected dentin
questionable now a days due to great variation zone
in genesis, position, morphology and time of ● Age= B0+B2X where B0-regression constant
formation ○ B1- regression coefficient
○ X-length of translucency
AGE ESTIMATION IN ADULTS
AGE ESTIMATION FROM INCREMENTAL LINES OF CEMENTUM
● From acellular cementum incremental lines
Challenging when compared to young aage group as
● Made use of mineralized unstained cross
numerous endogenous and exogenous factors, such as
sections of teeth
disease, nutrition, physical strain influence
A. Gustafson’s method
RADIOGRAPHIC METHOD
B. Dentin translucency
C. Age estimation from incremental lines of ● Used pulp size measurement of six teeth
cementum
D. Radiographic method

● Age = 129.8-316.4 (M) -66.8 (W-L)

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The measurement includes several length and width

ratios such as:
● Pulp root length → P
● Pulp root length → R
● Pulp root Width at CEJ → A
● Pulp root width at mid-root level → C
● Pulp root width at mid-point between level C
and A → B
● Mean value of all ratio including excluding T→ M
● Mean value of width ratios B and C → W
● Mean value of length ratio P and R → L

Age = 129.8-316.4 (M)-66.8(W-L)

ODONTOMETRIC DIFFERENCE
AMINO ACID RECEMISATION
● Suggested a relationship between dentinal age
and extent of aspartic acid recemisation in
dentin
● Aspartic acid undergo rapid rate of
recemisation and get spontaneously converted
from L-Aspartic acid to D-Aspartic acid with
increasing age
● Comparing D-L ration can be estimated

CRANIO-FACIAL ESTIMATORS OF AGE

● Cranial suture and also mandible provides
certain characteristic for elicitation of age

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CLASSIFICATION OF BITE MARKS

CRANIAL MEASUREMENT (IN MM) USEFUL IN
SEXING - CRANIAL VARIABLES 1. Cameron and Sims Classification
● Agents
○ Humans
○ Animals
● Materials
○ Skin, body, tissue
○ Food stuff
○ Other materials
2. Mac Donald’s Classification
● Tooth pressure mark
● Tongue pressure mark
● Tooth scrape mark
3. Webster’s Classification
CRANIAL MEASUREMENT (IN MM) USEFUL IN
SEXING - MANDIBLE VARIABLES ● Type I
● Type II
● Type III

BITE MARK APPEARANCE

Crime
INVESTIGATION
BITE MARKS
● A mark caused by teeth either alone or in
combination with other mouth parts (Mac
Donald)
● May be caused by human or animals; may be
on tissue, food items or other objects
● Human Bite → board, U-shaped somewhat
circular or oval
● Animal bite → narrow in the anterior aspect, V
shaped and elongate also morphology of the
BITE MARK INVESTIGATION
teeth is different.
● Identifying the injury as a bite mark
○ A. Gross features: circular or elliptical
with central area of ecchymosis
○ B. Class features:
■ Incisor → rectangular
■ Canines → triangular or
rectangular
■ Premolars and molars → special
or point shaped
○ C. Individual features: Class features
have characteristics such as fractures
rotation etc.
● Site of Bite Marks
○ Females → on breast, legs (inner part of
thigh) - sexual assault
○ Male children → genitals-child abuse
○ Adult males → finger, arms and
shoulders-fight
● Preliminary questions
● Bite mark evidence collection from the victims
○ If criminal in nature is reported to law
enforcement agencies

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● STEPS:
1. Visual examination
2. Photography
a. Orientation photographs
b. Close-up photographs
3. Saliva swab: WBC and sloughed
epithelial cells, potential source of DNA
4. Impression: vinyl polysiloxane
5. Evidence collection from suspect: using
a signed and informed consents or a
court order (warrant) also include
Lip Prints Classified As
photograph, two casts, bite registration
in centric occlusion, and saliva swab
from buccal vestibule.
BITE MARK ANALYSIS AND COMPARISON
● Jaw movement
● Flexibility of bitten tissue
● Individual features of bite marks
● Metric analysis
● Computer software program
CONCLUSION OF BITE MARK ANALYSIS
● Positive identification
● Possible identification
● Excludes identification
INVESTIGATING ANIMAL BITES
Characteristics of Some Vertebrate Dentition
● Fish → conical, homodont, heterodont or
polyphyodont
● Reptiles→ homodont conical or only tricuspid
LIP PRINTS: DISADVANTAGE
teeth
● Venomous snake → Single row palatal to this are
two poison fangs containing canal or groove for
venom release
● Non- venomous snake → two rows of maxillary
teeth
● Mammals → heterodont dentition, diphyodont
also have accessional teeth (permanent molar
emerge posterior to deciduous teeth)
● Carnivores →
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LIP PRINTS
● Examination of lip print-cheiloscopy
● Grooves and wrinkles visible on lips named as
sulci, labiorum, rubrorum
● Grooves are inheritable and supposed to be
individualistic → so material evidence left at a
crime scene similar to fingerprints
● A. Simple Wrinkles
○ Straight line
○ Curved line
○ Angled line
○ Sine shaped curve
● B. Compound Wrinkles
○ Bifurcated
○ Trifurcated
○ Anomalous
● II) Type 1 - clear cut vertical grooves that run
across the entire lip
○ Type 1 - similar to type 1 but not cover
the entirely
○ Type 2 - branched grooves
○ Type 3 - intercepted grooves
○ Type 4 - reticular grooves
○ Type 5 - grooves that can not be
morphologically differentiated
● Invisible prints can be lifted using materials
such as aluminum powder, magnetic powder
● Trauma, pathosis, surgical treatment can affect
the size and shape of the lip
● The zone of transition close to the vermillion
border is extremely mobile so prints produced
may differ depending on pressure applied and
its direction.
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DENTIST AS AN EXPERT WITNESS..

● Expert witness or those whose training
qualification or experience enables them to give
an opinion on relevant matter where the
ordinary person is not so enabled
● To become a dental expert to forensic dental
expert needs additional knowledge and
experience.

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