NETWORK SCHEDULING TECHNIQUES Project planning and scheduling can serve as an
effective means of preventing:
Project planning
- process of identifying all the activities necessary
to successfully complete the project.
- first step to project scheduling.
- Good planning detects changes and adjusts the
schedule in the most efficient manner.
- Lack of planning, and in some instances no
planning at all.
It must be recognized that changes are a necessary part
of project work
- If changes in the work are expected, or probable,
then project planning should include provisions
for a reasonable allowance of the anticipated
changes.
Project scheduling
- the process of determining the sequential order
of the planned activities
Project Planning Is a Prerequisite to Project Scheduling
- because there is no way to determine the
sequence or start and finish dates of activities
until they are identified.
Planning and scheduling are performed interactively.
Planning is more difficult to accomplish than scheduling.
Desired Results of Planning
- track the quantity, cost, and timing of work
required to successfully complete the project.
- most common desired result of planning is to
finish the project on time
Other benefits that can be derived in project planning
1. Finish the project on time
2. Continuous (uninterrupted) flow of work (no delays)
3. Reduced amount of rework (least amount of changes)
4. Minimize confusion and misunderstandings
5. Increased knowledge of status of project by everyone
6. Meaningful and timely reports to management
7. You run the project instead of the project running you
8. Knowledge of scheduled times of key parts of the
project
9. Knowledge of distribution of costs of the project
10. Accountability of people, defined
responsibility/authority
11. Clear understanding of who does what, when, and
how much
12. Integration of all work to ensure a quality project for
the owner
- Problems, low worker morale and decline in
productivity
PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
WBS (Work Breakdown Structure)
- the project must be broken down into well-
defined units of work that can be measured and
managed.
KEY PRINCIPLES FOR PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
1. Begin planning before starting work, rather than after
starting work
2. Involve people who will actually do the work in the
planning and scheduling process
3. Include all aspects of the project: scope, budget,
schedule, and quality
4. Build flexibility into the plan, Include allowance for
changes and time for reviews and approvals
5. Remember the schedule is the plan for doing the work,
and it will never be precisely correct
6. Keep the plan simple, eliminate irrelevant details that
prevent the plan from being readable
7. Communicate the plan to all parties; any plan is
worthless unless it is known
Techniques for Planning and Scheduling
1. The Gantt Chart (Bar Chart)
2. The Critical Path Method (CPM or network analysis
system)
- provides interrelationships of activities and
scheduling of costs and resources.
- commonly used in the engineering and
construction industry.
- requires an extensive description of the
interrelationships of activities.
- Most common used NAS method.
Using a network schedule to plan:
- Could break a project down into identifiable
tasks and to relate the tasks to each other in
a logical sequence in much greater detail
than a bar chart.
- identify conflicts in resources before they
occur.
Network analysis system (NAS)
- NAS is a general title for the technique of defining
and coordinating work by a graphical diagram
- shows work activities and the inter dependencies
of activities.
Terminologies used in NAS:
 Activity- task required to complete the project,
requires time, cost, or both time and cost.
 Network- A diagram to represent the relationship
of activities to complete the project. "Arrow
diagram" or a "precedence diagram."
  Duration (D)-The estimated time required to
perform an activity.
 Early Start (ES) -The earliest time an activity can
be started.
 Early Finish (EF)-The earliest time an activity can
be finished.
(EF = ES + D)
 Late Finish (LF) -The latest time an activity can be
finished.
 Late Start((LS) -The latest time an activity can be
started without delaying the completion date of
the project.
(LS = LF – D)
 Total Float (TF) (Total Slack)-The amount of time
an activity may be delayed without delaying the
completion date of the project.
(TF = LF – EF = LS – ES)
 Free Float (FF) (Free slack) -The amount of time
an activity may be delayed without delaying the
early start time of the immediately following
activity.
 Critical Path-A series of interconnected activities
through the network diagram, with each activity
having zero, free and total float time. The critical
path determines the minimum time to complete
the project.
 Dummy Activity-An activity (represented by a
dotted line on the arrow network diagram) that
indicates that any activity following the dummy
cannot be started until the activity or activities
preceding the dummy are completed. The
dummy does not require any time.
If a well-defined WBS is developed first, the task of
developing a CPM diagram is greatly simplified.
The CPM Diagrams
 Arrow Diagram (activity on arrow or AOA)
 Precedence Diagram (activity on node or AON).
STEPS IN PLANNING AND SCHEDULING
1. Develop a work breakdown structure (WBS) that
identifies work items (activities)
a. Consider activities that require time
b. Consider activities that require cost
c. Consider activities that you need to arrange
d. Consider activities that you want to monitor
2 Prepare a drawing (network diagram) that shows each
activity in the order it must be per formed to complete
the project
a Consider which activities immediately precede each
activity b. Consider which activities immediately follow
each activity
c. The interrelationship of activities is a combination of
how the work must be done (constraints) and how you
want the work to be done
3. Determine the time, cost, and resources required to
complete each activity
a. Review work packages of the WBS
b. Obtain input from project team members
4. Compute the schedule to determine start, finish, and
float times
a. Perform a forward pass to determine early starts and
finishes
b. Perform a backward pass to determine late starts and
finishes
c. Determine the differences between start and finish
times to determine float time and critical activities
5. Analyze costs and resources for the project
a. Compute the cost per day for each activity and for the
entire project
b. Compute the labor-hours per day and/or other
resources that are required to complete the project
6. Communicate the results of the plan and schedule
a Display time schedule for activities
b. Display cost schedule for activities
c. Display schedule for other resources
Development of CPM Diagram from WBS
 The WBS identifies the tasks and activities that
must be performed, but does not provide the
order in which they must occur.
 The CPM network diagram is prepared to show
the sequencing and inter-dependencies of the
activities in the WBS.
 The purpose of CPM is to plan the work to guide
the progress of a project and provide a baseline
for project control.
 The CPM network diagram, by itself, identifies
the sequencing of activities but does not provide
the scheduled start and finish dates, the
distribution of costs, or the allocation of
resources.
Assigning Realistic Duration
- common mistake that is made by many people is
to calculate the time to accomplish an activity
assuming a continuous flow of uninterrupted
work.
Generally. the duration of an activity can be
determined by one of three methods;
1. by analyzing historical records from previously
completed projects.
2. by referencing commercially available manuals
that provide costs and production rates for
various types of work.
3. or from the experience and judgement of the
person who will be performing the work. It is
often desirable to determine the probable
duration by several methods so the results
3. The program evaluation and Review technique (PERT)
- The PERT method uses an arrow network
diagram to show the logical sequence of activities
in a project.
- The circles are called events that represent an
instant in time.
- The circle at the beginning of the activity
represents the start of an activity
- the circle at the end of the arrow represents the
finish of the activity.
 - The major difference between the PERT method
and CPM is the estimation of duration.
Three durations:
�= optimistic time
- shortest possible time in which the activity
could possibly be completed, assuming that
everything goes well.
� = pessimistic time
- longest time the activity could ever require,
assuming that everything goes poorly.
� = most likely time
- the time the activity could be accomplished if
it could be repeated many times under
exactly the same conditions.
Expected Time (te)
- Overall average project duration
� + �� + �
�� =
�
σ (standard deviation).
- The measure of the spread of the distribution
Variance (�)
- Determines probability of the project completing
earlier or later than expected.
- Square of the standard equation
�
�−�
�
�=� =
�
The expected time of an event (�� )
- for the final event in a project has all the critical
path activities in the chain that lead up to the
final event in the project.
Standard deviation of expected time (σTE)
- The measure of uncertainty of the final event in a
PERT diagram is the standard deviation
Deviation (�)
- probabilities of certainty.
The Scheduled time of an event (�� )
PROJECT ESTIMATION AND COSTING
Early Cost Estimates
- For the sponsoring organization, early cost
estimates are often a basis for business unit
decisions
- An early estimate is also important to the project
team because it helps formulate execution
strategies and provides a basis to plan
engineering and construction.
Classification of Early Estimates
Early estimate-an estimate that has been prepared after
the business unit study but prior to completion of
detailed design.
Examples:
Cost estimate classifications by:
 Association for Advancement of Cost Engineering
(AACE)
 International and by the Construction Industry
Institute (CII)
ESTIMATING WORK PROCESS
Primary factors in preparing estimates.
1. Standardization of the cost estimate preparation
process
2. Alignment of objectives between the customer
and team
3. Selection of estimate methodology
commensurate with the desired level of accuracy
I
4. Collection of project data and confirmation of
historical cost information
5. Organizing the estimate into the desired format
6. Documentation and communication of estimate
basis, accuracy, etc.
7. Review and checking of estimate
8. Feed-back from project implementation
Estimating work process:
1. Alignment
- Alignment between the customer and the
estimating team must be established before
starting an estimate.
- accomplished by early communications to ensure
a clear understanding of the customer's
expectations and the estimating team's ability to
meet those expectations.
 Estimate Kick-Off Meeting
- provides an excellent forum for
establishing alignment.
- provides an exchange of
information regarding the
customer's expectations and the
team's ability to meet those
expectations.
2. Scope Definition
- clear understanding of the work to be
performed and the products that will be
produced.
- estimator must communicate to the business unit
the expected range of accuracy based on the
level of scope definition.
3. Estimate Work Plan
- identifies the work that is needed to prepare the
estimate including who is going to do it, when it
is to be done, and the budget for preparing the
estimate.
- The plan also includes the tools and techniques
that are appropriate for the level of scope
definition and the expected accuracy of the
estimate.
4. Estimate preparation
- The estimating team must keep the requesting
party informed of the work being performed, and
the requesting party must respond to questions
that may arise from the estimating team.
5. Estimate Documentation
- a document should be prepared that defines the
basis of the estimate.
- improves communications among project
participants, establishes a mechanism for
estimate reviews, and forms a basis for early
project cost control.
Contingency
- amount of money that must be added to the
base estimate to account for risk and uncertainty.
- Typically, risk analysis is a prerequisite to
assigning contingency.
To improve early estimates the estimating process must
be a continuous cycle.
Lessons learned
- during project execution must also be
documented and incorporated into estimating
standards and procedures.
- During construction must be communicated back
to the estimating team, to enable them to
establish better standards for preparing future
project estimates.
Scope Definition and Early Estimates
- accuracy of any estimate depends on the
amount of information that is known about
the project when the estimate is prepared.
Variables that determine a good scope definition:
Lack of Scope Definition
- has been identified as the root cause
of cost overruns, late completion
dates, excessive rework, unnecessary
disputes, poor team alignment, and
other problems associated with
engineering and construction
projects.
The Skills and Experience of The Project Team
and the estimating procedure also play an
important role.
Reality Checks based on the estimator’s experience and
familiarity with the project, this may include:
1. Simple "intuitive" checks for reasonableness
2. Comparisons with similar projects
3. Comparisons with industry data ($/square foot,
cost/megawatt, indirect/direct costs, etc.)
4. Check ratios such as lighting costs/fixture, fire
protection, costs/sprinkler, etc.
Establishing an Estimate Work Plan
- a document to guide the team in preparing
accurate estimates and improving the estimating
process.
- unique for each project, based on specific project
parameters and requirements.
The quality of any estimate is governed by the following
major considerations:
A) Quality and amount of information available for
preparing the estimate
B) Time allocated to prepare the estimate
C) Proficiency of the estimator and the estimating team
D) Tools and techniques used in preparing the estimate
Methods and Techniques
A) Cost capacity curves
- a graph that plots cost on the vertical axis and
capacity on the horizontal axis.
- Information required: type of unit and capacity.
B) Capacity ratios raised to an exponent
- This approach takes into account the effect of
economy of scale on the total installed cost.
C) Plant cost per unit of production
- used to estimate the total plant cost based
on the average plant costs per unit of
production on previously completed projects.
- assumes that the relationship between plant
cost and production capacity is linear
D) Equipment factored estimates
- derived by applying various factoring techniques
to estimated equipment costs.
E) Computer-generated estimates
- commercially available computer software
systems for estimating capital costs for a number
of different types of industries
Considerations to maximize the benefits of the use of
software systems in developing early estimates:
A) Index or benchmark the unit costs and installation
work-hours in the computer software's databases to
match the company's cost databases.
B) Establish system defaults that correspond to the
company's engineering and design standards.
C) Create a program that allows conversion of the output
of the software programs to the company's account
codes and format.
Estimate Checklists
- Check lists are useful during initial client-
customer meetings where they serve as agenda
items for discussion.
- valuable tools to reduce the potential of
overlooking a cost item by:
 Listing information required to prepare the early
estimate
 Listing miscellaneous and other costs that may be
required in the estimate
 Listing the project scope that may be required
but not identified in the definition provided for
the estimate
Estimate Reviews
- increase the credibility and accuracy of the
estimate.
- helps the customer to understand the contents
and level of accuracy of the estimate, allowing
the customer to make better business decisions.
Risk Assessment
- Assessing risk and assigning contingency to the
base estimate
- not the sole responsibility of the estimators.
- requires a participatory approach with
involvement of all project stakeholders
Risk Analysis
- Purpose is to improve the accuracy of the
estimate and to instill management's confidence
in the estimate.
Contingency
- amount of money that must be added to the
base estimate to account for work that is difficult
or impossible to identify at the time a base
estimate is being prepared.
- assigned based on uncertainty and may be
assigned for many uncertainties, such as pricing,
escalation, schedule, omissions, and errors.
TRADITIONAL METHODS OF ASSIGNING CONTINGENCY
Percentage of Base Estimate
- A percentage is applied to the base estimate to
derive the total contingency.
- contingency may be assigned based on personal
past experience.
Expected Net Risk
- estimator may determine contingency based on
expected maximum risk and likelihood.
Simulation
- A simulation of probabilistic assessment of critical
risk elements
Assessing Estimate Sensitivity
- The contingency added to an estimate includes
the combined impact of all risk elements.
Estimate Feedback for Continuous Improvement
- Feedback from project execution provides
lessons learned to the estimator that allows the
estimating team to modify estimating standards
and practices.
- A process for providing feed-back loops is
necessary for improving the accuracy of early
estimates.
 WEEK 8: PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT
What Quality is
 meeting specifications
 a project should aim beyond specifications
 product or end item is fit for the intended
purpose
 the absence of defects, often associate the
terms quality and defects
Defects
→ nonconformity --- something other than what the
customer had expected.
Quality Management
 attempts to identify and correct as many
nonconformities --- problems, mistakes, and
defects
 seeks to identify nonconformities as soon as
possible.
A quality project is one that satisfies multiple
requirements, and devoting too much attention to
any particular one, such as eliminating all defects,
may detract from fulfilling other, more important
requirements.
The point is, it depends on the customer. In many
cases the customer would prefer that an end-item be
delivered on time at lower cost with a few defects
than delivered late at a higher cost with no defects.
Good Enough Quality
→ where preset priorities on performance
requirements, time, and cost preclude satisfying all of
the requirements and force the project team to meet
only those that are the most important.
→ customer is the judge of what is “good enough”
and to be able to make that judgment must be kept
constantly updated as to project problems, costs,
and schedules.
Each person contributes to quality implies:
 Knows what is expected of him/her
 Able and willing to meet those expectations
 Knows the extent to which he/she meets the
expectations
 Has the ability and authority to take necessary
corrective actions
What Quality is NOT
 the quality and grade of a product are not the
same.
Quality Movements
1950 - “quality revolution” in Japan under the
influence of American, Dr. W. Edwards Deming.
Few Quality movements that has kept evolving and
improving:
 Total Quality Management (TQM)
 Just-in-Time (JIT)
 Six Sigma (6σ)
Total Quality Management (TQM) - 1980’s
→ a set of techniques and more — it is a mindset, an
ambitious approach to improving the total
effectiveness and competitiveness of the
organization.
Key Elements of TQM
 Identifying the mission of the organization
 Acting in ways consistent with the goals &
objectives of the organization
 Focusing on customer satisfaction
TQM involves…..
1. Total organization
2. Teams of front line workers
3. Visible support of top management
Quality problems are systematically identified and
resolved to continuously improve processes.
In projects, this purpose is served by closeout
sessions or after project completion.
Just-in-Time (JIT)
→ lean production, complements TQM.
→ recognizes that quality problems are often hidden
by excessive work-in-progress inventory
→ includes relatively easy-to-implement measures
that improve quality and reduce costs and lead times
Six Sigma (6σ) - 1980’s
→ started at Motorola and popularized by General
Electric.
→ provides a more structured approach to quality
than TQM
“six sigma” - refers to the fact that in a normal
distribution, 99.99966 percent of the population falls
within -6σ or +6σ of the mean, where “σ” (sigma) is
the standard deviation
If the quality of a process is controlled to the Six Sigma
standard, there would be less than 3.4 parts per million
scrap or defects in the process—near perfection!
Quality Product: Meeting Mutually Agreed
Specifications
- Whenever the customer provides a requirement or
specification that seems unrealistic, the contractor
should review it with the customer and alter it so the
desired end-result can be attained.
Configuration Management
→ identifying important product specifications, the
associated components, their configuration in the
product, and subsequently controlling these
components and their configuration
The Process of Project Quality Management
- includes quality management processes as well as
certain techniques to reduce the risk of products or
end-items not meeting requirements.
Consists of:
 Quality Planning
 Quality Assurance
 Quality Control
Quality Planning
→ process to guide future quality activities
→ sets the requirements and standards to be met, as
well as the actions necessary to meet those
requirements and standards.
Quality Assurance
→ process to perform the planned quality activities
→ ensure that the project utilizes processes
necessary to meet the quality standards and project
requirements.
→ the “healthy lifestyle” to prevent nonconformities.
Quality Control
→ process to ensure that quality assurance activities
are being performed (or have been performed)
→ “the medicine” to eliminate nonconformities
PROJECT QUALITY MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Project Quality Control overarches Quality planning and
Quality Assurance.
This is to emphasize quality control’s role in ensuring
that quality assurance is performed according to the
quality plan.
Project quality assurance helps guarantee compliance
with project requirements, while systematic project
closeout and continuous improvement help future
projects by providing lessons learned from completed
projects.
Quality Planning
→ provide the confidence that all steps necessary to
ensure quality have been thought through
Two Aspects:
 establishing organization-wide project quality
management procedures and policies
 establishing a quality plan and including it in the
project plan for each project
ISO 9001 STANDARD
→ specifies the requirements for such a quality
management system
An organization should:
 the design and development stages
 the necessary review, verification, and validation
appropriate to each design and development stage
 the responsibilities and authorities for design and
development
The Cost of Quality
- the quality planning process should consider the cost
and benefits of quality activities
Commonly Classified as:
 Prevention
 Appraisal and Control
 Internal Failure
 External Failure
Cost-Benefit Analysis
→ performed to evaluate and justify proposed quality
activities, and to compare the savings or benefits from
fewer or eliminated nonconformities to the costs of
quality assurance and control activities
Prevention Costs
→ include costs of quality training, design reviews, and
other activities aimed at preventing errors
→ The cost of quality planning
Appraisal and Control Costs
→ the evaluation of products and processes, including
product reviews, audits, tests, and inspections
Internal Failure Costs
→ costs associated with nonconformities discovered by
the producer, such as the cost of scrap, rework, and
retest
External Failure Costs
→ costs incurred after delivery to a client and include
costs for replacements, warranty repairs, liability, and
lost sales as a result of a damaged reputation
→ associated with failures discovered by the customer
Quality Assurance
- reduces the risks related to features or performance of
deliverable, and provides confidence that end-item
requirements will be met
- relies heavily on HR, usually involves considerable
training of project team members
1. Activities done in a specific project to ensure
that requirements are being met. This includes
demonstrating that the project is being
executed according to the quality plan
2. Activities that contribute to the continuous
improvement of current and future projects, and
to the project management maturity of the
organization
Quality assurance should provide confidence that
everything necessary is being done to ensure the
appropriate quality of project deliverables
Project Closeout and Continuous Improvement
- Project organizations should strive to continually
improve their technical operations and managerial
processes
- review takes place upon completion of the project,
although, ideally, also upon completion of each phase
of the project
- to understand what happened, to learn lessons that
can be applied to other projects and avoid repeating
Mistakes
- process is essential for continuous improvement,
although unfortunately it is often neglected because
people lose interest as the project winds down
- result is that organizations repeat mistakes, “reinvent
the wheel” and do not benefit as much as they could
from their experiences
Quality Control
→ the ongoing process of monitoring and appraising
work, and taking corrective action so that planned-for
quality outcomes are achieved
→ subset of scope verification
→ conformance to specifications set by the contractor
→ includes inspections to verify that deliverables are
meeting specifications
Scope Verification
→ the acceptability of project deliverables or end-items
by the customer
→ includes verifying the general acceptability of those
specifications and standards
Waiver
→ applies to an unplanned condition that is discovered
only after the item has been produced
→ authorizes a temporary nonconformity
Deviation
→ also a temporary departure from specification, but
might affect more items and extend for a longer period
of time
Modification
→ any change to a design or manufacturing process
specification that is considered permanent
Techniques for Quality Assurance During System
Development
 Configuration Management
 Design Reviews
 Audits
 Classification of Characteristics
 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
 Modeling and Prototyping
 Testing of Models and Prototypes
Configuration Management
→ any project aimed at delivering a technical product
should include provision to keep up with and control all
this information
→ represents policies and procedures for monitoring
and tracking design information and changes, and
ensuring that everyone involved with the project and,
later on, the operation of the end-item has the most
current information possible
Configuration Identification
→ inherent part of systems design that involves
defining the structure of the system, its subsystems,
and components.
Configuration Control
→ orderly scheme to manage and keep track of all
changes
Design Reviews (formal and informal)
→ provide confirmation of the data used during the
design process, design assumptions, and design
calculations
→ ensure that the users’ requirements and inherent
assumptions have been correctly identified, and that
the proposed design is able to meet those requirements
in an appropriate way
These aspects include:
 Omissions or errors in the design
 Compliance to regulations, codes, specifications,
and standards
 Cost of ownership
 Safety and product liability
 Reliability
 Availability
 Ability to be constructed or manufactured
 Shelf life
 Operability
 Maintainability
 Patentability
 Ergonomics
Audits
→ to verify that management processes comply with
prescribed processes, procedures, and specifications
→ verify that technical processes such as welding
adhere to prescribed procedures, and to determine the
status of a project whenever a thorough examination of
certain critical aspects of the work is required
→ verifying that the work is being performed as
required
Classification of Characteristics
→ can be specified or described in terms of numerical
specifications, which often include tolerances of
acceptability
Pareto Principle - states that, in general, the large
majority of problems in any situation are caused by a
relatively small number of sources
Characteristics are typically classified into:
 Critical - reserved for characteristics where a non
conformance would pose safety risks or lead to
system failure. subjected to 100 percent inspection
 Major - non conformance would cause the loss of
a major function of the deliverable
 Minor - non conformance would lead to small
impairment of function or to problems with
manufacturability or serviceability
 Incidental - minimal effect or relate to relatively
unimportant requirements
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis
→ system can potentially fail as the result of a variety of
conditions in its design production, or operation
FMECA (failure mode, effect, and critically analysis)
→ technique to determine in what ways a technical
system might fail, and what effects the identified
failures would have on the system’s performance and
safety, and on the environment
Modeling and Prototyping
→ models to ensure the quality of their products,
including computer simulation models, mathematical
models, three-dimensional scale models, and full-scale
prototypes, each to gain a better impression of how the
final product, system, or subsystem will look and
perform
Testing of Models and Prototypes
→ systematically reduce the risk that the final product
will not be satisfactory
For products that are to be manufactured in quantities, the
design should be verified by means of a qualification test.
Basic Tools of Quality Control
1982 - Kaoru Ishikawa “seven basic tools” or
“magnificent seven of quality control”
 Check Sheet
 Flowchart
 Run Chart and Control Chart
 Scatter Diagram
 Pareto’s Law (Vilfredo Pareto)
 Histogram
 Cause-and-Effect Diagram

Check Sheet
→ a sheet created especially for collecting data about a
problem from observations
→ sheet are uniquely designed by the team
investigating the problem

Flowchart
→ shows the steps in a procedure and their
relationships

Run Chart and Control Chart

→ graph of observed results plotted versus time to
reveal potential trends or anomalies
Run Chart - spot upward and downward trends
Control Chart - include upper and lower control limit
lines with a center line.

Scatter Diagram
→ used for tracking and control of repetitive events
→ tool for analyzing relationships between two
variables for determining how closely the two variables
are related

Pareto’s Law
→ dubbed the “80/20 rule”
→ 20 percent of the people own 80 percent of the
wealth

Histogram
→ frequency distribution showing how often each
different value in a set of data occurs
→ most commonly used graph to show frequency
distributions

Cause-and-effect Diagram
→ fishbone or Ishikawa diagram
→ a scheme for arranging the causes for a specified
effect in a logical way.