8.

Bipoar Transistor

OBJECTIVES
1. Introducing the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) operation and
then presents the theory of the bipolar transistor I-V
characteristics, current gain, and output conductance.
2. Introducing high-level injection and heavy doping induced
band narrowing.
3. Explaining SiGe transistor, transit time, and cut-off frequency.
4. Introducing several transistor models, i.e., Ebers-Moll model,
and charge control model.
8.1 Introduction to the BJT
❑ Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) was invented in 1948 by
Bardeen, Brattain and Shockley at the Bell Lab.
❑ Bipolar :
⚫ Both electrons and holes are involved in the operation of a BJT
⚫ Minority carrier diffusion plays the leading role just as in the PN Bardeen
Junction. Brattain
❑ BJTs are still preferred in some integrated circuit
applications because of their high speed and superior
intrinsic gain.
⚫ faster circuit speed Shockley
⚫ larger power dissipation → limits device density (~104
transistors/chip)
Spring
Emitter

Collector

Base

1
❑ Review:
⚫ Current Flow in a Reverse-Biased pn Junction
▪ In a reverse-biased pn junction, there is negligible diffusion of
majority carriers across the junction. The reverse saturation current is
due to drift of minority carriers across the junction and depends on the
rate of minority-carrier generation close to the junction (within ~one
diffusion length of the depletion region). →We can increase this
reverse current by increasing the rate of minority-carrier generation,
e.g. by
➢ optical excitation of carriers (e.g. photodiode)
➢ electrical injection of minority carriers into the vicinity of the junction…

2
 ❑ NPN BJT:

FIGURE 8–1 (a) Schematic NPN BJT and

normal voltage polarities; (b) electron injection
from emitter into base produces and
determines IC ; and (c) IC is basically
determined by
VBE and is insensitive to VCB.

3
❑ PNP BJT Operation (Qualitative)
⚫ A forward-biased “emitter” pn junction is used to inject minority carrie
rs into the vicinity of a reverse-biased “collector” pn junction.
→ The collector current is controlled via the base-emitter junction.

4
⚫ Base Current Components (Active Mode of Operation)
▪ The base current consists of majority carriers supplied for
1. Recombination of injected minority carriers in the base (4)
2. Injection of carriers into the emitter (5)
3. Reverse saturation current in collector junction (3)
▪ Reduces | IB |
4. Recombination in the base-emitter depletion region

5
❑ BJT Circuit Configurations

6
 ❑ Common-Emitter Configuration

B-C

Because of the parasitic IR drops, it is difficult to accurately ascertain the true VBE.
For this reason, the easily measurable base current IB , is commonly used as the variable parameter in lieu of VBE

7
❑ BJT Modes of Operation

8
❑ BJT Electrostatics
⚫ Under normal operating conditions, the BJT may be viewed electrostatically as two
independent pn junctions

9
N+ P N

10
⚫ BJT Notation : ⚫

11
8.2 COLLECTOR CURRENT
❑ Collector current
⚫ For NPN Tr, forward active mode operation (VBE>0, VBC<0)
⚫ Basic assumptions:
1. Active mode biasing ( VBE is forward bias and VBC is reverse bias)
2. Negligible drift in the neutral base
3. 1-D, uniform doping and uniform cross-sectional area
4. Steady-state and low-level injection
5. Ideal ohmic contact (n’ = p’ = 0 or n = n0, p = p0 or S = infinity)

⚫ The electron diffusion equation

d 2 n n
2
= 2
dx LB

 B = recombination lifetime in the base

LB   B D B
DB = minoirty carrier diffusion constant in the base
LB = minoirty carrier diffusion length in the base

12
⚫ The general solution is
n '( x) = A1e − x / LB + A2e x / LB

⚫ The boundary conditions are

n(0) = n B 0 (e qVB E / kT − 1)
n(WB ) = nB 0 (e qVB C / kT − 1)  − nB 0  0

⚫ The solution of the diffusion eq. is:

W − x 
sinh B 
n( x ) = nB 0 (eqVBE / kT − 1)  L B 
sinh(WB / LB )

13
⚫ When WB << LB and sinh ( x )  x, for small x , the excess minority carrier
concentration in the base approximately a linear function of x.

14
⚫ The collector current
▪ As in the PN diode analysis, the minority-carrier current is dominated by the diffusion
current. IC can be obtained by neglecting drift current component.

dn n '(0) DB niB2 qVBE / kT

IC = AE qDB = AE qDB = AE q (e −1) (8.2.7)
dx x =WB WB WB N B

Where, AE is the area of the BJT, specifically the emitter area.

▪ Equation (8.2.7) can be condensed to

DB niB2
IC = I S (e qVBE / kT
−1), where I S = AE q IS - the saturation current
WB N B
▪Equation (8.2.7) can be rewritten as

WB
ni2 p
GB   dx [s / cm4 ]
0
niB2 DB

- GB (s/cm4) is the base Gummel number

15
⚫ base Gummel number due to high-level injection effect
WB
Inverse slope = 120 mV/decade
ni2 p
GB   dx [s / cm4 ]
0
niB2 DB
▪ For niB = ni, DB is a constant, and p(x) = NB(x)
(low-level injection),

qni2 qVBE / kT
IC = AE (e −1) = I S (eqVBE / kT −1)
GB
qV
log I C  log I S + BE
kT
▪ GB ∝ base dopant density per area
▪The concept of a Gummel number simplifies the
IC model because it [Eq. (8.2.11)] contains all the
subtleties of transistor design that affect IC
✓ changing base material through niB(x),
✓ nonconstant DB,
✓ nonuniform base dopant concentration through p(x)
= NB(x),
✓ and even the high-level injection condition, where
p > NB.

16
❑ High-Level Injection Effect
⚫ At large VBE, the excess carrier, n’, can become larger than the base doping concentration
N B.

⚫ in the base n p
n  p  ni e qVBE / 2 kT
WB W
ni2 p B
ni2 ni eqVBE / 2kT
GB   dx = 0 niB2 DB dx  ni e qVBE / 2 kT

0
niB2 DB
qni2 qVBE / kT qni2 qVBE / kT
IC = AE (e −1)  AE e  ni eqVBE / 2kT
GB GB
⚫ At high VBE or high IC, the inverse slope in
Gummel plot becomes 120 mV/decade. IKF, the
knee current, is the current at which the slope
changes.

17
8.3 BASE CURRENT
❑ Base current
⚫ For npn Tr., Some holes are injected from the P-type base into the N+ emitter.
The holes are provided by the base current, IB . → parallel of the IC analysis.
▪ Applying the hole diffusion equation to the neutral emitter region,
d2 p' p'
− = 0, LE   E DE
dx2 L2E
▪ The general solution is
p '( x ) = A1e − x / LE + A2 e x / LE

▪ Assuming ideal ohmic contact,

the boundary conditions are

p '(0) = pE 0 (eqVBE / kT −1)

p '(WE ) = 0 : ohmic boundary condition

FIGURE 8–6 (a) Schematic of electron and hole flow

paths in BJT; (b) hole injection into emitter closely
parallels electron injection into base.

18
▪ Similarly to the collector current, base current can be
written as

dp qni2 qVBE / kT
I B = AE qDE = AE (e − 1) ,
dx x =0 GE

WBE
ni2 n
GE  
0
niE2 DE
dx : the emitter Gummel number

▪In the special case of a uniform emitter, where niE, NE, and
DE are not function of x,

DE niE2 qVBE / kT
I B = AE q (e −1)
WE N E

19
8.4 CURRENT GAIN

20
❑ Emitter Band Gap Narrowing
⚫

21
22
❑ Narrow Band-Gap Base and Heterojunction BJT

23
❑ Poly-Silicon Emitter

24
❑ Gummel Plot and βF Fall-Off at High and Low IC
⚫ Gummel plot of IC and IB indicates that βF (= IC/IB) decreases at high and low IC.

25
❑ Modern NPN BJT Structure

Features:
• Narrow base (W<0.1 um)
• n+ poly-Si emitter (0.5 um thick)
• Self-aligned p+ poly-Si base contacts (for reduce rb)
• Lightly-doped collector(for large VA)
• Heavily-doped epitaxial subcollector (for reduce rc)
• Shallow trenches and deep trenches filled with SiO2 for electrical isolation

26
8.5 BASE-WIDTH MODULATION BY COLLECTOR VOLTAGE

❑ Base-width modulation
⚫ Common Emitter Configuration, Active Mode Operation

FIGURE 8–11 As VC increases, the BC depletion layer width increases and WB decreases
causing dn’/dx and IC to increase. In reality, the depletion layer in the collector is usually
much wider than that in the base

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⚫ Early voltage,VA

28
8.6 Ebers-Moll Model

❑ Ebers-Moll Model
⚫ The Ebers-Moll model is a large-signal equivalent circuit which
describes both the active and saturation regions of BJT operation.
⚫ Use this model to calculate IB and IC given VBE and VBC

with forward biased VBE ,

large VCE VBC is reverse biased

increasing

with forward biased VBE ,

VCE  0 VBC is forward biased

(npn) or VEC (pnp)

29
⚫ IC is driven by two two forces, VBE and VBC .
VB E
▪ When only VBE is present (VBC =0) : VB C
IB
I C = I S (e qVBE / kT
− 1)
IS
IB = (e qVBE / kT − 1) E B C
F IC
▪Now reverse the roles of emitter and collector.
When only VBC is present (VBE =0) :
▪ When both VBE and VBC are present, the
I E = I S (e qVB C / kT
− 1) equations can be superimposed.
IS
IB = (e qVB C / kT − 1)
R
1
I C = − I E − I B = − I S (1 + )( e qVB C / kT − 1)
R
R : reverse current gain
F : forward current gain ➢ The Ebers-Moll equations(coupled diode
equations) commonly used in SPICE models

30
31
Ideal transistor I-V Derivation
⚫ Notation (PNP BJT)

NE  NAE NB  NDB NC  NAC

DE  DN DB  DP DC  DN
E  n B  p C  n
LE  LN LB  LP LC  LN
nE0  np0 = ni2/NE pB0  pn0  ni2/NB nC0  np0  ni2/NC

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⚫ Steps for I-V Derivation

1. Solve the minority-carrier diffusion equation in each quasi-

neutral region to obtain excess minority-carrier profiles
⚫ different set of boundary conditions for each region

△pB
△nE
△nC

33
 ❖ Excess Carrier Concentrations at –xp, xn

p side n side

p p (− x p ) = N A nn ( xn ) = N D
ni2 e qVA / kT ni2 e qVA / kT
n p (− x p ) = p n ( xn ) = pn 0n n 0 = pn 0N D = n i2
NA ND
= n p 0e qVA / kT = pn 0 e qVA / kT

n p = n p 0 + n p

n p ( − x p ) =
n 2
i
(
e qVA / kT − 1) pn ( xn ) =
ND
e (
ni2 qVA / kT
−1 )
NA

34
❖ Carrier Concentration Profiles under Forward Bias

pn (x n ) =
ND
e (
ni2 qV A / kT
−1 )
(
= pn 0 e
qV A / kT
−1 )

35
2. Find minority-carrier diffusion currents at depletion region edges

I En = −qAD dnE I Ep = −qADB ddxpB

E dx" x =0
x"=0

I Cn = qAD dnC I Cp = −qADB ddxpB

C dx ' x =W
x '= 0

IEp
3. Add hole & electron components together
IEn
→ terminal currents
I E = I En + I Ep ICp ICn
IC = ICn + ICp

36
⚫ Emitter Region Analysis
+ VEB -

d 2nE
❑ Diffusion equation: 0 = DE dx"2
− nEE
❑ General solution: nE ( x") = A1e− x"/ LE + A2e x"/ LE
❑ Boundary conditions:
nE ( x" → ) = 0
nE ( x" = 0) = nE 0 (eqVEB / kT − 1)
❑ Solution:
nE ( x" ) = nE 0 (e qVE B / kT − 1)e − x"/ LE
△nE

nE
I En = −qADE ddx " = qA DLEE nE 0 (e qVEB / kT − 1)
x"= 0

37
⚫ Collector Region Analysis

- VCB +

d 2nC
• Diffusion equation: 0 = DC
dx'2
− nCC
− x ' / LC
• General solution:
 nC ( x ' ) = A1e + A2 e x ' / LC

• Boundary conditions: nC ( x' → ) = 0

nC ( x' = 0) = nC 0 (e qVCB / kT − 1)

• Solution: nC ( x ' ) = nC 0 (e qVCB / kT − 1)e − x '/ LC

△nC
dnC
I Cn = qAD C dx ' = −qA DC
LC nC 0 (e qVCB / kT
− 1)
x '=0

38
⚫ Base Region Analysis

d 2nB
• Diffusion equation: 0 = DB dx2
− pBB

• General solution: pB ( x) = A1e− x / LB + A2e x / LB

• Boundary conditions: p (0) = p (e qVEB / kT − 1)

B B0

pB (W ) = pB 0 (e qVCB / kT − 1)

• Solution:

pB ( x ) = pB 0 ( e qVE B / kT − 1) ( e ( W − x ) / LB − e − ( W − x ) / LB
eW / LB − e −W / LB
)
+ pB 0 (e qVCB / kT − 1) ( e x / LB − e − x / LB
eW / LB − e −W / LB
)

39
• Since sinh( ) = e

−e − 
2

we can write pB (x ) = pB 0(e qVEB / kT

− 1)

sinh (W −x )LB +p qVCB / kT
− 1)
 
sinh x LB
B 0 (e
sinh W LB( ) sinh( )
W
LB

d  e − e −  e + e −
sinh( ) = = cosh( )
d
  =
d d  2  2

I Ep = − q ADB ddxp B
x =0

= q A DLBB p B 0 cos h(W / LB )

s inh(W / LB )
(
(e qVE B / kT − 1) − s inh(W1 / LB ) e qVCB / kT − 1 )

I C p = − q ADB ddxpB
x =W

= q A DLBB p B 0  1
s inh(W / LB )
(
(e qVE B / kT − 1) − s inh(W / LBB )) e qVCB / kT − 1
cos h(W / L
)

40
⚫ BJT Terminal Currents

❑ We know:I En = qA DLEE nE 0 (e qVEB / kT − 1)

I Ep = qA LBB pB0
D
 cosh(W / LB )
sinh(W / LB )
(
(eqVEB / kT −1) − sinh(W1 / LB ) eqVCB / kT − 1 )
ICp = qA DLBB pB0  1
sinh(W / LB )
(
(eqVEB / kT −1) − sinh(W / LBB)) eqVCB / kT −1
cosh(W / L
)
I Cn = −qA DLCC nC 0 (e qVCB / kT − 1)
❑ Therefore:

I E = qA (DE
LE
nE0 +
DB
LB
cosh(W / L
)
pB0 sinh(W / LBB)) (eqVEB / kT −1) − (
DB
LB
)( )
pB0 sinh(W1 / LB ) eqVCB / kT − 1

IC = qA (DB
LB
)
pB0 sinh(W1 / LB ) (eqVEB / kT −1) − (DC
LC
nC0 +
DB
LB
)(
pB0 sinh(W / LBB)) eqVCB / kT −1
cosh(W / L
)

41
⚫ BJT with Narrow Base

❑ In practice, we make W << LB to achieve high current gain. Then, since

sinh( ) →  for   1
cosh( ) → 1 + 2 for   1
2

we have:

pB ( x)  pB 0 (e qVEB / kT − 1)(1 − Wx )

+ pB 0 (e qVCB / kT − 1)(Wx )

42
⚫ BJT Performance Parameters

⚫ BJT with Narrow Emitter

Assumptions:
- emitter junction forward biased, collector - Replace with WE’ if emitter is narrow
junction reverse biased
- W << LB 1
 = ni E 2 D N W
1 1+ E B

 = ni E 2 D N W
ni B 2 DB N E LE

1+ E B
1
ni B 2 DB N E LE
T =
T =
1 1 + 12 ( )
W 2
LB

1 + 12 ( )
W 2
LB
 dc =
1

 dc =
1 1+
ni E 2 D N
2
E B W
DB N E LE + 12 ( )
W 2
LB

( )
ni B
ni E 2 D N
1+ 2
E B W
DB N E LE + 12 W 2
LB 1
 dc =
ni B

 dc =
1
ni E 2 D N
E B W
+ 12 ( )
W 2

( )
ni E 2 D N ni B 2 DB N E LE LB
E B W
ni B 2 DB N E LE
+ 12 W 2
LB

43
⚫ Ebers-Moll Model with IC and IE

I E = qA ( DE
nE0 +
DB
)
pB0 sinh(W / LBB)) (eqVEB / kT −1) −
cosh(W / L
(DB
)(
pB0 sinh(W1 / LB ) eqVCB / kT − 1 )
= qA( −1)
LE LB LB

IC
DB
LB
)
pB0 sinh(W1 / LB ) (eqVEB / kT −1) − (
DC
LC
nC0 +
DB
LB
cosh(W / L
)(
pB0 sinh(W / LBB)) eqVCB / kT

• If only VEB is applied (VCB = 0):

I E = I F 0 (e qVEB / kT − 1) V EB V CB
IB
I C =  F I F 0 (e qVEB / kT − 1)
I B = (1 −  F )I F 0 (e qVEB / kT − 1)
E B C
IC
• If only VCB is applied (VEB = 0): :
aR : reverse common base gain
IC = − I R 0 (eqVCB / kT − 1) aF : forward common base gain
I E = − R I R 0 (eqVCB / kT − 1)
I B = I R 0 (1 −  R )(eqVCB / kT − 1) Reciprocity relationship:
DB pB0
F I F 0 = R I R0  qA
LB sinh(W / LB )

44
• In the general case, both VEB and VCB are non-zero:

I C =  F I F 0 ( e qVE B / kT − 1) − I R 0 ( e qVCB / kT − 1)
IC: C-B diode current + fraction of E-B diode current that makes it to the C-B junction

I E = I F 0 ( e qVE B / kT − 1) −  R I R 0 ( e qVCB / kT − 1)
IE: E-B diode current + fraction of C-B diode current that makes it to the E-B junction

• Large-signal equivalent circuit for a pnp BJT

45