HAPP CHAPTER 18

URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-its tips project toward the center of the
kidney
URINARY SYSTEM
-Calyx
FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
-surrounds the tip of each renal pyramid
-major excretory system of the body
-Renal pelvis
1. Excretion
-calyces from all the renal pyramids join
2. Regulation of blood volume and pressure
to form a larger funnel
3. Regulation of the concentration of solutes in
-Ureter
the blood
-exits the kidney and connects to the
4. Regulation of extracellular fluid pH
urinary bladder
5. Regulation of red blood cell synthesis
-Urine flows in the following order:
6. Regulation of vitamin D synthesis
1. From the tips of the renal pyramids into the
ANATOMY OF THE KIDNEYS calyces

LOCATION AND EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF 2. From the calyces into the renal pelvis
THE KIDNEYS
3. From the renal pelvis into the ureter
-Kidneys
4. From the ureter into the bladder
-retroperitoneal
-located on each side of the vertebral
column
-bean-shaped
-Renal capsule
-surrounds each kidney
-has adipose tissue around
-which protects the kidney from
mechanical shock
-Hilum
-medial side of each kidney
-where the renal artery and nerves enter
and where the renal vein, ureter, and
lymphatic vessels exit the kidney
-Renal sinus
THE NEPHRON
-contains blood vessels
-functional unit of the kidney
INTERNAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF
-consists of a renal corpuscle in the cortex, a
THE KIDNEYS
proximal convoluted tubule in the cortex, a loop
-Two major regions of kidneys: of Henle with sections in both the cortex and
the medulla, and a distal convoluted tubule
-outer cortex and an inner medulla
-Renal pyramids
-bases of several cone-shaped
HAPP CHAPTER 18
URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-Each loop of Henle consists of two regions
-a descending limb and an ascending
limb
-Collecting duct
-Fluid from several distal convoluted
tubules empty here
-Papillary duct
-Multiple collecting ducts carry the fluid
from the cortex to here
-Two types of nephrons in the kidney
-Juxtamedullary and Cortical
-Juxtamedullary nephrons
-15% of the nephrons
-have loops of Henle that extend deep
into the medulla of the kidney
-Cortical nephrons
-85% of nephrons
-have loops of Henle that do not extend
deep into the medulla
-Filtration portion of the nephron is housed in
the renal corpuscle.
-renal corpuscle consists of the Bowman
capsule and the glomerulus
-Bowman Capsule
-enlarged end of the nephron, which is
indented to form a double-walled
chamber
-Glomerulus
-tuft of capillaries that resembles a ball
of yarn
-Podocytes
-inner layer of the Bowman capsule
consists of specialized cells
-Filtration membrane
-consists of endothelium of the
glomerular capillaries, the podocytes,
and the basement membrane
-Filtrate
-fluid that is forced across the filtration
membrane
-Afferent arteriole
-supplies blood to the glomerulus for
filtration
-Efferent arteriole
-transports the filtered blood away from
the glomerulus
-Juxtaglomerular apparatus
-important regulatory apparatus
-consists of a unique set of afferent
arteriole cells and specialized cells in
the distal convoluted cells that are in
close contact with each other
-Juxtaglomerular cells
-A cuff of specialized smooth muscle
cells found at the point where the
afferent arteriole enters the renal
corpuscle.
-Macula densa
-group of specialized cells in the distal
convoluted tubule
HAPP CHAPTER 18
URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
URINE PRODUCTION
THE RENAL TUBULE -primary function of the kidney is regulation of
body fluid composition
- The proximal convoluted tubules, the thick
segments of the loops of Henle, the distal -Kidney sorts the substances from the blood for
convoluted tubules, and the collecting ducts either removal in the urine or return to the
consist of simple cuboidal epithelium. blood
ARTERIES AND VEINS -Three major processes of urine production:
-Renal arteries 1. Filtration
- branch off the abdominal aorta and - Blood pressure in the glomerular
enter the kidneys capillaries forces fluid and small
molecules out of the blood into the
-give rise to several branches
Bowman capsule.
-Interlobar arteries
2. Tubular reabsorption
- pass between the renal pyramids
- Cells throughout the nephron move
-Arcuate arteries substances from the filtrate back into the
blood in the peritubular capillaries.
- branch from the interlobar arteries
3. Tubular secretion
- Interlobular arteries
- Certain tubule cells actively transport
- branch off the arcuate arteries and solutes from the blood into the filtrate.
project into the cortex
-Afferent arterioles
- arise from branches of the interlobular
arteries
-Efferent arterioles
- extend from the glomerular capillaries
-Peritubular capillaries
- branch from the efferent arterioles
-Vasa recta
- specialized portions of the
peritubular capillaries that
extend deep into the
medulla of the kidney and
surround the loops of Henle
and collecting ducts.
HAPP CHAPTER 18
URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
- The filtration pressure is influenced by three
factors:
FILTRATION
(1) the blood pressure in the glomerular
- a nonspecific process whereby materials are
capillaries
separated based on size or charge
(2) the blood protein concentration,
- 21% of the blood pumped by the heart each
minute flows through the kidneys (3) the pressure in the Bowman capsule
- 19% passes through the filtration membrane REGULATION OF FILTRATION
into the Bowman capsule to become filtrate
-Blood pressure is tightly regulated in the
- . In all the nephrons of both kidneys, about glomerular capillaries.
180 liters (L) of filtrate are produced each day,
-The filtration pressure and the rate of filtrate
but only about 1% or less of the filtrate
formation are usually maintained within a
becomes urine because most of the filtrate is
narrow range of values.
reabsorbed
-Constriction of kidneys
- The filtration membrane allows some
substances (water and small solutes), but not - decreases renal blood flow and filtrate
others (blood cells and most proteins), to pass formation
from the blood into the Bowman capsule.
-Circulatory shock or vigorous exercise
-Filtration pressure
- Intense sympathetic stimulation occurs
- formation of filtrate depends on a
pressure gradient TUBULAR REABSOPRTION

- results from forces that move fluid out
of the glomerular capillary into the
Bowman capsule minus the forces that
move fluid out of the Bowman capsule
into the glomerular capillary.
-Glomerular capillary pressure
- blood pressure in the glomerular
capillary
- major force causing fluid to move from
the glomerular capillary across the
filtration membrane into the Bowman
capsule
-Capsular pressure
- About 99% of the original filtrate volume is
reabsorbed and enters the peritubular
capillaries.
- The proximal convoluted tubule is the primary
site for the reabsorption of solutes and water.
- The descending limb of the loop of Henle is a
critical site for water reabsorption
- The ascending limb of the loop of Henle
dilutes the filtrate by removing solutes.
\

- due to the pressure of filtrate already

inside the Bowman capsule
-Colloid osmotic pressure
- pressure inside the glomerular capillary
HAPP CHAPTER 18
URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
ATRIAL NATRIURETIC HORMONE
TUBULAR SECRETION -Increased blood pressure triggers the atrial
natriuretic hormone (ANH) mechanism.
-Removes some substances from the blood
- ANH is secreted from cardiac muscle cells in
- These substances include by-products of
the right atrium of the heart when blood
metabolism that become toxic in high
pressure in the right atrium increases above
concentrations and drugs or other molecules
normal.
not normally produced by the body.
URINE MOVEMENT
-Tubular secretion occurs through either active
or passive mechanisms. ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE
URETERS, URINARY BLADDER, AND
REGULATION OF URINE CONCENTRATION
URETHRA
AND VOLUME
-Ureters
- kidneys change the concentration of the body
fluids - small tubes that carry urine from the
renal pelvis of the kidney to the posterior
-the volume and composition of urine changes,
inferior portion of the urinary bladder
depending on conditions in the body
-Urinary bladder
- Urine production also affects blood volume.
Blood volume, in turn, affects blood pressure. - hollow, muscular container that lies in
An increase in blood volume increases blood the pelvic cavity just posterior to the
pressure. pubic symphysis
HORMONAL MECHANISMS -stores urine
- Three major hormonal mechanisms are - can hold from a few milliliters (mL) to a
involved in regulating urine concentration and maximum of about 1000 mL of urine
volume: (1) the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
-Cystitis
mechanism, (2) the antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
mechanism, and (3) the atrial natriuretic - inflammation of the urinary bladder
hormone (ANH); atrial natriuretic peptide,
(ANP) mechanism. -Urethra

RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE - tube that carries urine from the urinary

MECHANISM bladder to the outside of the body

- initiated under low blood pressure conditions -Trigone

- When blood pressure decreases, cells of the - triangle-shaped portion of the urinary
juxtaglomerular apparatuses in the kidneys bladder located between the opening of
secrete the enzyme renin. This pathway the ureters and the opening of the
involves an enzymatic cascade starting with a urethra
plasma protein produced by the liver, called
angiotensinogen. Renin converts
angiotensinogen to angiotensin I. Angiotensin
I is rapidly converted to the active hormone
angiotensin II by angiotensin-converting
enzyme (ACE).
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE MECHANISM
- stimulated by a high blood solute
concentration
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases the
permeability of the distal convoluted tubules
and collecting ducts to water.
HAPP CHAPTER 18
URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
-It is transitional epithelium that lines the
ureters and the urinary bladder. As the volume
of the urinary bladder increases, the epithelial
cells change in shape from columnar to flat,
and the number of epithelial cell layers
decreases.
-Internal urethral sphincter
- prevents urine leakage from the urinary
bladder
- In males, the internal urethral sphincter
contracts to keep semen from entering
the urinary bladder during sexual
intercourse
-External urethral sphincter
- formed of skeletal muscle that
surrounds the urethra as the urethra
extends through the pelvic floor
- allows a person to voluntarily start or
stop the flow of urine through the
urethra
- In males, the urethra extends to the
end of the penis, where it opens to the
outside.
-The female urethra is much shorter
than the male urethra opens into the
vestibule anterior to the vaginal opening
MICTURITION REFLEX
- activated by stretch of the urinary bladder wall
- Because of the micturition reflex, action
potentials conducted along somatic motor
nerves to the external urethral sphincter
decrease, which causes the sphincter to relax.
- The ability to voluntarily inhibit micturition
develops at the age of 2–3 years.
-Awareness of the need to urinate occurs
because stretch of the urinary bladder
stimulates sensory nerve fibers that increase
action potentials carried to the brain by
ascending tracts in the spinal cord.
- Irritation of the urinary bladder or the urethra
by a bacterial infection or some other condition
can also initiate the urge to urinate, even
though the urinary bladder is nearly empty
-Kidney stone or renal calculus
- can cause excruciating and debilitating
discomfort in the lateral abdominal
region, which can radiate to the inguinal
region on the left side of the body
-Lithotripsy
- an ultrasound technique that pulverizes
kidney stones into small particles that
can pass easily through the ureter
BODY FLUID COMPARTMENTS
- Water and the ions dissolved in it are
distributed in two major compartments: (1) the
intracellular fluid compartment and (2) the
extracellular fluid compartment.
-Water and ions move between these
compartments, but their movement is
regulated.
-Intracellular fluid compartment
- includes the fluid inside all the cells of
the body
-Extracellular fluid compartment
- includes all the fluid outside the cells
- The extracellular fluid compartment
includes (1) the interstitial fluid, (2) the
plasma within blood vessels, and (3) the
fluid in the lymphatic vessels.
HAPP CHAPTER 18
URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
COMPOSITION OF THE FLUID IN THE BODY
FLUID COMPARTMENTS
- Intracellular fluid has a similar composition
from cell to cell. It contains a relatively high
concentration of ions, such as K+, magnesium
phosphate, and sulfate, compared to the
extracellular fluid.
-It has a lower concentration of Na+, Ca2+,
Cl−, and HCO3 − than does the extracellular
fluid. The concentration of protein in the
intracellular fluid is also greater than that in the
extracellular fluid. Like intracellular fluid, the
extracellular fluid has a fairly consistent
composition from one area of the body to
another.
EXCHANGE BETWEEN BODY FLUID
COMPARTMENTS
- The cell membranes that separate the body
fluid compartments are selectively permeable.
- Osmosis controls the movement of water
between the intracellular and extracellular
spaces
- The intracellular fluid can help maintain the
extracellular fluid volume if it is depleted.
- If the concentration of ions in the extracellular
fluid decreases, water moves by osmosis from
the extracellular fluid into the cells
REGULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
COMPOSITION
- Homeostasis requires that the intake of
substances equals their elimination. Needed
water and ions enter the body by ingestion;
excess water and ions exit the body by
excretion.
- Two mechanisms help regulate the levels of
ions in the extracellular fluid: thirst regulation
and ion concentration regulation.
THIRST REGULATION
-Thirst center
- water intake is controlled by neurons in
the hypothalamus, collectively
- Thirst is one of the important means of
regulating extracellular fluid volume and
concentration
ION CONCENTRATION REGULATION
- If the water content or concentration of ions in
the extracellular fluid deviates from its normal
range, cells cannot control the movement of
substances across their cell membranes or the
composition of their intracellular fluid.
SODIUM IONS
- dominant ions in the extracellular fluid
- The recommended intake of Na+ is 2.4 grams
per day (g/day), because of its association with
high blood pressure in some people
- Stimuli that control aldosterone secretion
influence the reabsorption of Na+ from
nephrons of the kidneys and the total amount
of Na+ in the body fluids.
- Sodium ions are also excreted from the body
in perspiration, or sweat
- An important factor in determining
extracellular fluid volume is the concentration
of Na+ in the extracellular fluid.
POTASSIUM IONS
- Electrically excitable tissues, such as muscles
and nerves, are highly sensitive to slight
changes in the extracellular K+ concentration.
- Aldosterone plays a major role in regulating
the concentration of K+ in the extracellular
fluid.
- A low K+ concentration in the extracellular
fluid slows aldosterone secretion from the
adrenal cortex.
CALCIUM IONS
- The extracellular concentration of Ca2+, like
that of other ions, is maintained within a narrow
range. Increases and decreases in the
extracellular concentration of Ca2+ have
dramatic effects on the electrical properties of
excitable tissues.
HAPP CHAPTER 18
URINARY SYSTEM
TEACHER: DR. JENNIFER ASHLEY REYES
KIDNEYS
-Parathyroid hormone (PTH) - nephrons of the kidneys secrete H+ into the
urine and therefore can directly regulate the pH
- increases extracellular Ca2+
of the body fluids
concentrations.
- The kidney is a powerful regulator of pH, but it
-An elevated Ca2+ concentration inhibits
responds more slowly than does the
the secretion of PTH and a reduced
respiratory system
Ca2+ concentration stimulates the
secretion of PTH. ACIDOSIS AND ALKALOSIS
- Vitamin D increases Ca2+ levels in the - Failure of the buffer systems, the respiratory
blood by stimulating Ca2+ absorption in system, or the urinary system to maintain
the small intestine normal pH levels can result in acidosis or
alkalosis.
-Calcitonin
ACIDOSIS
- secreted by the thyroid gland
- occurs when the blood pH falls below 7.35.
- reduces the blood Ca2+ concentration
when it is too high -Respiratory acidosis
PHOSPHATE AND SULFATE IONS - when the respiratory system is unable
to eliminate adequate amounts of CO2.
- Some ions, such as phosphate ions (PO4 3−)
and sulfate ions (SO4 2−), are reabsorbed by -Metabolic acidosis
active transport in the kidneys.
- results from excess production of
REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE acidic substances, such as lactic acid
and ketone bodies, because of
- The concentration of H+ in the body fluids is
increased metabolism or decreased
reported as the pH. The body fluid pH is
ability of the kidneys to eliminate H+ in
maintained between 7.35 and 7.45; any
the urine.
deviation from that range is life-threatening.
ALKALOSIS
- The pH of body fluids is controlled by three
factors: (1) buffers, (2) the respiratory system, - occurs when the blood pH increases above
and (3) the kidneys. 7.45.
BUFFERS -Respiratory alkalosis
- Chemicals that resist a change in the pH of a - results from hyperventilation, as can
solution when either acids or bases are added occur in response to stress
to the solution
-Metabolic alkalosis
- contain salts of either weak acids or weak
- usually results from the rapid
bases that bind to H+ when H+ increases in
elimination of H+ from the body, as
those fluids, or release H+ when H+ decreases
occurs during severe vomiting or when
in those fluids
excess aldosterone is secreted by the
- The three major buffers in the body fluids are adrenal cortex
(1) the proteins, (2) the PO4 3− buffer system,
and (3) the HCO3 − buffer system.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
- responds rapidly to a change in pH and helps
bring the pH of body fluids back toward normal
- Neurons in the respiratory center of the brain
are sensitive to CO2 levels and acidic pH. High
CO2 levels and low pH cause an elevated rate
and depth of respiration.