Denke / Thinking

Denke word gedef as die verstandsprosesse of –vermoëns waarmee

mense probleme oplos, redeneer, sin maak van dinge en hulle
kennis gebruik om gebeure, situasies, ander mense en hulself te
verstaan / Thinking is defined as the mental processes or
Hoofstuk / Chapter 15 capacities through which people solve problems, reason, make
sense of things and use their knowledge to understand events,
situations, other people and themselves

Denke / Thinking
Onderwerpe wat bespreek gaan word / Topics to be discussed:

 Verteenwoordiging / Representation konstruktivisties
constructivist
 Benaderings / Approaches: Inligting prosessering
information-processing
sosio-histories
 Tipes / Types: socio-historical
redenering probleemoplossing Elke-dag denke
reasoning problem-solving every-day thinking

Verteenwoordigi. & denke / Representation & thinking

Klassifikasie taksonomie – die “dog rose” geval
Verteenwoordiging wanneer iets instaan of verwys na dit
waaraan ons dink / Representation when something stands Classification taxonomy – the case of the ‘dog rose’
in for or refers to the thing we are thinking about

Dinge met soortgelyke kenmerke (bv. kleur) kan in dieselfde

kategorie gesit word / Things with similar characteristics (e.g.
colour) can be put into the same category

Konsepte Verstandskategorieë om voorwerpe, gebeure en

Concepts: abstrakte idees te klassifiseer / Mental categories
to classify objects, events, abstract ideas
Konsepte is
belangrike Hulle lei tot stelle gekoppelde kennis
They lead to sets of linked knowledge
boustene vir
denke / Hulle bevorder kognitiewe ekonomie
They promote cognitive economy
Concepts are
Hulle kombineer met ander kategorieë om hierargië
important te vorm wat komplekse beelde van verskynsels gee /
building blocks They combine with other categories to form
for thinking hierarchies providing complex pictures of phenomena

Voorstelling en denke / Voorstelling en denke / Representation and thinking

Representation and thinking

Kognitiewe kaart: ‘n interne voorstelling van die ruimtelike
ordening van omgewing

Prototipe: ‘n verteenwoordigende voorbeeld van ‘n Cognitive map: an internal representation of the spatial
arrangements of an environment
konsep. Dit kan ‘n voorwerp, begeurtenis, proses of

Kognitiewe kaarte is vatbaar vir sistematiese foute:
abstrakte idee wees Cognitive maps are susceptible to systematic errors:
Prototype: a representative example of a concept, be it an – rotasie heuristiek sydigheid: wanneer figure wat effens
object, event, process or abstract idea gekantel is gesien word as meer horisontaal/vertikaal as wat
dit werlik is

Visuele voorstelling: om iets te sien in jou geestesoog rotation heuristic bias: when figures that are slightly
Visual imagery: seeing something in your ‘minds eye’ tilted are ‘seen’ as more vertical/ horizontal than they really
are
– opstelling sydigheid: die geneigdheid om 2 voorwerpe in
‘n reguit lyn te sien as hulle naby lengte- of breedtelyne is
alignment bias: the tendency to line up two objects in a
straight line close to the lines of latitude or longitude

1
 Skemas, skripsies & modelle / Skemas, skripsies & modelle /
Schemas, scripts & models Schemas, scripts & models

Modelle / Models:
Skema / Schema
(algemene kennis netwerk / general network of knowledge)
Taak modelle verskaf skedule om praktiese dinge
gedoen te kry
Task models provide a schedule for getting practical
things done

Diagnostiese modelle stel ons in staat om belangrike
verskynsels te “lees”
Skripsie / Script Diagnostic models enable us to ‘read’ important
(spesifieke toepassing van kennis / specific application of knowledge) phenomena

Die konstruktivistiese benadering tot kognisie Schaie: die ontwikkeling van denke in
The constructivist approach to cognition volwassenheid
Schaie: the development of thinking in
Piaget se teorie van ontwikkeling
Piaget’s theory of development: adulthood
 Gebruik idee van aanpassing om te verduidelik hoe logiese
akstrakte denke ontwikkel / uses idea of adaptation to
Prestasie stadium: jong volwassenes gebruik hul
explain how logical abstract thinking develops verstandelike vermoëns vir probleem-oplossing en
besluitneming
 Denke is innerlike aksie / thinking is interiorised action Achieving stage: young adults use their intellectual
 Ons vermoë om te dink word opgebou in ons interaksie met competencies in the areas of problem-solving & decision-
die wêreld / our ability to think is constructed as we making
interact with the world
Stadiums van denke:
Assimilasie / Assimilation
Verantwoordelikheid stadium: word nou verwag dat indiv
Stages of thinking: onafhanklike denker sal wees. Gebruik eie oplossings vir
Prosesse onderliggend 1. Sensories-motories probleem-oplossing en besluitneming waar breër
aan denke / Processes Sensorimotor gemeenskap betrokke is
underlying thinking 2. Konkreet-operasioneel Responsibility stage: individuals are now required to be
Concrete-operational independent thinkers. They use their own solutions for
Akkommodasie problem-solving and decision-making that involve the
3. Formeel-operasioneel broader community
Accommodation Formal-operational

Schaie: die ontwikkeling van denke in volwassenheid

Schaie: the development of thinking in adulthood

Uitvoerende stadium: in middel-volwassenheid leer
individue om hul probleemoplossing en
besluitnemingsvaardighede toe te pas in bestuurs-
Einde van lesing 1
situasies / Executive stage: in middle-adulthood
individuals learn to apply their problem-solving and
decision-making skills to management situations End of lecture 1

Her-integrasie stadium: individue in laat-
volwassenheid gebruik hul opgeboude vaardighede om
lewe te evalueer en betekenis te gee aan verlede
Reintegration stage: individuals in late adulthood use
their accumulated skills to assess life and give meaning
to their pasts

2
 Redenering / Reasoning Redenering / Reasoning

Redenering: sistematies gevolgtrekkings maak agv. Stellings
Reasoning: systematically drawing conclusions from statements
Induktiewe redenering
Deduktiewe redenering Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning

Maak gevolgtrekkings vanaf spesifieke gevalle

Maak spesifieke gevolgtrekkings agv algemene stellings wat Draw conclusions from particular cases
waar is, gegee die betrokke stellings
Drawing particular conclusions from general statements that
are true in relation to these statements.
Lewer wetenskaplik-toetsbare stellings (hipoteses)
Produces scientifically testable statements (hypotheses)
Sillogisme: bestaan uit 2 aannames (premisses) en 1 gevolgtrekking
Syllogism: two premises and one conclusion

Uitdagings vir die konstruktivistiese perspektief Die inligting-prosessering (IP) benadering

Challenges to the constructivist perspective The information-processing (IP) approach

Die konstruktivistiese benadering is gemoeid met die bepaling van
Modelle beskryf die stap-vir-stap maniere wat mense inligting
universele beginsels onderliggend aan denke prosesseer / Models describe the step-by-step ways that humans process
The constructivist approach is concerned with establishing universal information
principles that lie behind thinking
Byvoorbeeld, Newell en Simon se toestand-aksie ontleding
For example, Newell and Simon’s state-action analysis

Dit aanvaar dat alle mense met dieselfde tipes aanpassings te doen
kry en sal beweeg na meer en meer abstrakte denke Eind toestand
It assumes that all humans are faced with same forms of adaptation Begin toestand (probleem) Probleem ruimte (oplossing)
and will move in the direction of more and more abstract thought Starting state (problem) End state
Problem space (solution)

Nietemin, wanneer van ons verwag word om abstrak te dink, faal ons
dikwels, maar gegee ‘n kultureel-toepaslike konteks vir sulke
denke, word ons vermoë tot abstrakte denke getoon Stappe geneem om doel te bereik = probleemoplossingstrategie
However, when required to think abstractly we often fail, but given a steps taken in reaching goal = problem-solving strategy
culturally appropriate context for such thinking, our ability to think
abstractly is revealed

Probleemoplossing strategieë
Problem-solving strategies

Algoritmes is gevind om te help met probleemoplossing
Algorithms have been found to assist problem-solving
Stap-vir-stap prosesse wat altyd die oplossing verskaf
Step-by-step processes which always provide the solution

Heuristieke word gebruik as probleem-ruimte te groot is
Heuristics are used when problem space is too large

‘n Kortpad metode of praktiese gebruik wat probleem-
ruimte verklein
A short-cut method or ‘rule of thumb’ that reduces the
problem space
Probleemoplossing strategieë
Problem-solving strategies

Analogieë omvat die sien van ooreenkomste tussen ‘n
huidige en ‘n vorige probleem / Analogies involve
seeing a similarity between a current problem and one
encountered in the past

Terugwaartse werking behels om te werk vanaf die
eind- na die begin-toestand
Working backwards entails working from the end to the
starting state

Middele-einddoel ontleding behels die opbreuk van ‘n
probleem in sub-probleme
Means-end analysis involves breaking down a problem
into sub-problems

3
 Uitdagings vir die inligting-prosessering benadering
Challenges for the information-processing approach

Probleemoplossing is ‘n belangrike tegniek van IP-navorsers
Problem-solving is an important technique of IP researchers

Maar, daar is twee tipe probleme:
But there are two types of problems:
 Goed gedefinieeerde probleme / Well-defined problems
 Swak gedefinieerde probleme / Ill-defined problems

In die alledaagse lewe is swak gedefinieerde probleme meer
algemeen. Die vraag ontstaan: Hoe toepaslik is die bevindinge
van die IP-benadering om denke geassosieerd met alledaagse
probleme te verstaan?
In everyday life ill-defined problems are more common. This
raises the question: How applicable are the findings of the IP
approach for understanding the thinking behind everyday
problems
Elke-dag denke / Everyday thinking

Elke-dag denke is die denke betrokke by die alledaagse dinge van
die lewe / Everyday thinking is the thinking involved in the
practical mundane aspects of daily life

Hierdie denke vind nie in laboratoriums plaas nie, maar in
alledaagse lewe, moet dus daar bestudeer word
Such thinking does not occur in laboratory settings but in
everyday life. So this is where it must be studied

Bestudering van elke-dag denke dui daarop dat denke nie slegs ‘n
verstandsaktiwiteit is nie / The study of everyday thinking
suggests that thinking is not just a mental activity

Dit is verspreid oor die konteks waarbinne dit plaasvind en kan nie
daarvan geskei word nie / It is spread across the context in which
it takes place and cannot be separated from it

Die term verspreide kognisie beskryf hierdie gedagte
The term distributed cognition describes this idea
Einde van Hoofstuk 15
End of Chapter 15
Sosio-historiese benadering / Socio-historical approach

Volgens hierdie benadering is / This approach suggests that:
– denke ‘n sosiale proses / thinking is a social process
– denke gekoppel aan die interaksie tussen die individu en die
omgewing waarbinne die denke plaasvind
thinking is linked to the interaction between the individual and
the setting in which the thinking occurs

Vygotsky:
– “Denke is geïnternaliseerde kultuur.”
‘Thinking is internalised culture.’
– Oorsprong van denke is in interaksie met ander mense
Thinking has its origins in interaction with others
– Wat geleer word in interaksie word oorgeneem deur die
individu en dit dien as basis vir haar/sy eie denke
What is learned in interaction is taken over by the individual
and used as the base for his/her own thought
Uitdagings vir die sosio-historiese benadering
Challenges to the socio-historical approach

Volgens h/d benadering verander denke tussen kontekste en sal
dit geaffekteer word deur bronne beskikbaar in die konteks / This
approach argues that thinking will change across contexts and will
be affected by the resources available in that context

“As denke aan ‘n konteks gekoppel is, dink mense van
verskillende kontekste verskillend?” / ‘If thinking is tied to context,
do people from different contexts think differently?’

Dit meen ook dat denke buigsaam is – soos kontekste verander so
verander ons denke / It also suggests that thinking is flexible – as
contexts change so does our thinking

Dis ‘n positiewe beskouing – bied geleentheid om te verstaan wat
vereis word in nuwe situasies en met toegang tot nuwe gereedskap
vir denke, kan mense beperkinge op denke oorkom
This is a positive view – given opportunities to understand what is
required in new situations and access to new tools for thinking,
people can overcome limitations to thinking