>2 SURVEYING II

SHORE LINE SURVEY

he shore line surveys consist of: .

(i) determination or delineation of shore hnes. h' ch soundings may be connected.
. t features to w I
(ii) location of shore details and prommen ge spring tides.
(iii) determination of low and high water lines for avera O ' y1
The determination or delineation of ~ 1 y, ,~ ~
;hore lines is done by traversing along ~ , 2
~h e shore and taking offsets to the water = \\ / /
edge by tape, or stadia or plane table. If \ \ / :
the river is narrow, both the banks may be \I \ \ // :
I

located by running a single line of traverse I

\ /
,\\
:
on one bank. For wide rivers, however, 1
I
/
I \
\
I
:

transverse may be run along both the : / \ :

banks. The traverse should be connected : ' \ :
at convenient intervals to check the work.
Thus, in Fig. 6.1, the two traverses XY and x A B Y
X 1 Y1 along the two opposite shores may Fig. 6.1
be checked by taking observations from A
and B to the points C and D. When the instrument is at B, angles ABC and ABD can be mea-
sured. From the measured length of AB and the four angles, the length CD can be calculated.
If this agrees with the measured length of CD, the work is checked. Sometimes, a triangulation
net is run along a wide river. In sea shore survey, buo_ys anchored off the shore and light houses
are used as reference points and are located by triangulation.
In the case of tidal water, it is necessary to locate the high and low water lines. The position
of high water line may be determined roughly from shore deposits and marks on rocks. To
determine the high water line accurately, the elevation of mean high water of ordinary spring
tide is determined and the points are located on the shore at that elevation as in direct method of
contouring. The low water line can also be determined similarly. However since the limited time
is available for the survey oflow water line, it is usually located by interp~lation from soundings.

Ill SOUNDINGS

The measurement of depth below the water surface is called sou d · Th. h
ordinary spirit levelling in land surveying where depths are m n ingd.
is corresponds to~ e
established by a level. Here, the horizontal line or the datum .e~~ure below a horizontal hn;
of which continuously goes on changing with time. The objec::f ~ ~rface ofw_ater,_ the leve
determine the configuration of the subaqueous source. As stated . a ing ~oundings is thus to
(i) making nautical charts for navigation;
ear1ier ' soundmgs are reqm·red for·
(ii) measurement of areas subject to scour or silting and t 0 .
material; ascertam the quantities of dredged
(iii) making sub-aqueous investigations to· secure in£ t·
.
devel opment and improvement of port facilities. orma ion neede d £or t h e- construet'10n ,
For most of the engineering works, soundings are t k f
needed for soundings are: a en rom a small boat. The equipment
(i) Sounding boat (ii) Sounding rods or poles (iii) Lea .
(v) Fathometer. d hnes Civ) Sounding machine
 _... HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 163
(i)Soundin g boat: A row-boat for so d'
quiet water, a flat bottom boat• un i~g should be sufficiently roomy and stable For
. ble. For
is more smta regular sois more
di suitable , b u t fior rough water round-bottomed.boat
which soundings are taken A sun d~gs, a row boat may be provided with a well through
It should be extended far e~o ~un mg pla_tform should be built for use in smaller boat.
If the currents are strong a ug t over the s1de to prevent the line from striking the boat.
·A
(i i) Soundin grodsorp ol
tough timber usually 5
shallow and quiet wat
e:~ 8
moo: or st~eam launch may be used with advantage.
:':n~din_g rod is a pole of a sound straight-grained well seasoned
An m diameter and 5 to 8 metres long. They are suitable for
This helps in holdin :~:~ a~ow ~r lead shoe of sufficient weight is fitted at the end.
area so that it ma gt . ~pnght m water. The lead or weight should be of sufficient
'th t . Y_fnfro smk m mud or sand. Between soundings it is turned end for end
1
... wi ou_ removmg 1 . om the water. A pole of6 m can be used to depths upto 4 metres.
(m) Lead hnes· A lead line or a sou d · z· · ·
. • n mg me is usually a length of a such cord, or tiller rope
of Indian hemp or braided flax b h · · ·
or a rass c am with a soundmg lead attached to the end.
D~e to ~r?longed use, a line of hemp or cotton is liable to get stretched. To graduate such
a hne, it is necessary to stretch it thoroughl y when wet before it is graduated . The line
should be kept dry when not in use. It should be soaked in water for about one hour before
it is used for taking soundings . The length of the line should be tested frequently with
a tape. For regular sounding, a chain of brass, steel or iron is preferred.
Lead lines are usually used for depths over about 6 metres. 0

Sounding lead is a weight (made of lead) attached to the line. The weight is
conical in shape and varies from 4 to 12 kg depending upon the depth of water
and the strength of the current. The weight should be somewhat streamlin ed
and should have an eye at the top for attaching the cord. It often has cup-shape d
cavity at the bottom so that it may be armed with lard or tallow to pick up samples
from the bottom. Where the bottom surface is soft, lead-filled pipe with a board
at the top is used with the lead weight. The weight penetrate s in the mud and
stops where the board strikes the mud surface. Fig. 6.2
Suggested system of marking poles and lead lines: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic survey
recommends the following system of marking the poles and the lead lines :
Poles: Make a small permanen t notch at each half foot. Paint the entire pole whit e and
the spaces between the 2- and 3-, the 7- and 8- and the 12- and 13-ft marks black. Paint ½"
red bands at the 5- and 10-ft marks, a ½" in black band at each of the other foot marks and
¼" bands at the half foot marks. These bands are black where the pole is white and vice versa .
Lead Lines: A lead line is marked in feet as follow:
Feet Marks
2 12 22 etc. Red bunting
4: 14: 24 etc. White bu~ting
6, 16, 26 etc. Blue buntin~
8, 18, 28 etc. Yellow ~untmg
10, 60, 110 etc. One str~p of leather
20, 70, 120 etc. Two stnps_ of leather
30, 80, 130 etc. Leather w~th two holes
40, 90, 140 etc. Leather with one hole
50 Star-shap ed leather
100 Star-shap ed leather with one hole.
· t ermedi a t e odd 1ee
The 1n c. t (1 3 5 7 9 etc.) are marked by white seizings.
, , , ,
164 SURVEYI NG II
Recording
dials
-
(iv) S oundi ng Machine :
Where much of sounding
is to be done, a sounding Barrel
machine is very u seful.
The sounding machine
Swivel & Hook
may either be hand dr iv-
en or automatic. Fig. 6.3
shows a typical ha nd
driven Weddele's sound-
ing machine.
The lead weight is carried at
Winding
the end of a flexible wire cord handle
attached to the barrel and can
be lowered at any desired rate,
the speed of the drum being
Lead weight
controlled by means of a brake.
The readings are indicate d
in two dials-the outer dial
showing the depth in feet and Fig. 6.3 Weddele's Sounding Machine.
the inner showing tenths of a foot. A handle is used to raise the level which can be suspended
at any height by means of a pawl and ratchet. The sounding machine is mounted in a sounding
boat and can be used up to a maximum depth of 100 ft.
(v ) Fathometer: Echo-sounding: A fathometer is used for ocean sounding where the
depth of water is too much, and to make a continuous and accurate record of the depth of
water below the boat or ship at which it is installed. It is an echo-sounding instrument in
which water depths are obtained by determining the time required for the sound waves
to travel from a point near the surface of the water to the bottom and back. It is adjusted
t o r ead
. depth in accordance
. with the Transmitter
,wa Tr . . d t
ansm1ss1on a um
Receiver
velocity of sound m the type of water - -- · ~ - ·-·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- •- ·- ·- ·~ - --·
in which it is being used. A fathometer ~ ,-
may indicate the depth visually or ~ ,-
indicate graphically on a roll which ~ ,-
con t inuously goes on revolving and ~ 1

,,
pr ovide a virtual pr ofile of the lake or ~ -,.
sea. ~
The main parts of an echo-sounding ~
apparatus are :
1. Transmitting and receiving oscillators.
~
~
h
,, ,

2. Recorder u nit. ~
~ ,,
,, ,
3. Transmitter/Power unit
~
Fig. 6.4. illustr ates the principle of echo- \
sounding. It consists in recording the interval \
of time between the emission of a sound \
impulse dir ect to the bottom of the sea and
the reception of the wave or echo, reflected Fig 6 4 p • .
· · nnc1p 1e of E h d'
from the bottom. If the speed of sound in that water is v d th . . c o-soun mg.
transmitter and receiver is t, the depth his given by an e tune interval between the
h = ½vt
... (6.1)
,,.------~~~~~~;:=~-==-:--~~~~~~:____~
pue to th e sm all di sta nc e b t
. ha ll
llecessarYd in s ow.
.,JcU\ate ve ry ea sil ywa s · The we en th .
HYDR OGRAPHIC SURVEYING
16 5
byter
sim e er ro r bee trec eiv er an d ethe tra nsmi tt
~e trlle de pth ca n be ea sil y ple
r we en the tru er , a s ,gh t correcti.on is
kn o! ':m et ry . If th e error isd th
fa small cu rre nt pa ss in g th ro efotteand the recorded de pth
~ode plate. Th e sty lu s is fix
u h · Th ~ recording of th e~
ed gt chemically im pr eg na ted l ag ain st the rec
ca n be
orded depth,
'fhe s h
t \us ma ke s a re co rd
th h t on
a on e en d of a rad ial
and w en e ec o re ur ns to th e pa pe r at th e . t
o; n m f is produced by the
ap er rom a ro tat mg stylus toion
arm which revolves at
act
an
th e rec eiv er ms an ts wh en the sound impu co ns tan t speed
lse is tra ns mitte d
The rec ord
for the KieIvm of
· H de pt h isS4
ma
. u~ es _M 8 de by-so
Ec ho 1us· on
t Yde
a sun r. Thae i;; ;vm
· g ba nd of dry pa pe r as
tha t transm1ss1on 1s effectiv shown in Fig. 6.5
e from t au gh t of
50
wa er lev el. the ve sse l ca n be compensated for
,

Fig . 6.5. Kelvin Huges MS48 Echo So

under.
Accuracy of Measuremen t:
Th e accuracy of me as ur em en
time scale wi th th e ve loc ity t depends up on ma tch ing th e
of ac ou sti c pu lse in se a wa ter re ad ers
1500 mis. Th is ve loc ity va rie , th e va lue of wh ich is ap pr ox
s wi th sa lin ity an d te ~p e~ im ately
with the de pth , we ath er an d ature of se a wa ter , wh ich in
tim e. Fo llo wi ng eq ua tio n 1s tu rn , va ry
one of th e se ve ral ex pr es sio
ns us ed to
calculate ac ou sti c ve loc ity in
seV ~
a wa14ter10 + 4.2 1 T -
0 .037 T 2 + 1.1 4 S
where
~
y Velocity of so un d in se a wa
ter (m/s)
... (6.2)
T == Su rfa ce tem pe rat ur e in
s ~ Sa lin ity in pa rts of sodiu°Cm chloride pe
r 1000.
Advantage of echo-soun
ding: Ec ho -so un din g ha
s th e following ad va nta ge s
over th e older
rn.e th0 d of lea d lin e an d rod:
166 SURVEYING 11 • d The speed of the vessel does
. · s obtaine · . . · t
t 1 vertical soun d ing i 1 water condit1 0ns, in por s and
1. It is more accurate as a ru y rt' 1 Under norma
d . t .t reciably from the ve ica . . d
h:;::r~ ::~ccur acy of 7.5 cm may be obta~ne · d when the weathe r is unsuita ble for
t · running an
2 It can be used when a strong curren ISd r
. the soundings to be taken with the lea me.
3 It is more sensitiv e than the lead. line. d . t ly and provi'des a continu ous record of the
.
4. A record of the depth is plotted Imme ia e
bottom as the vessel moves forward.
· · · reased . · h y sea is reduced owing to the
5. The speed of soundin g and plotting IS me
6. The error due to estimati on of water level In a c opp
instabil ity of the boat. . ble i•nform ation is obtained
. 1• d d and this va1ua
7. Rock underly ing softer materia IS recor e b . borings are taken
more cheaply than would be the case where su -manne ·

,.,■ MAKIN G THE SOUN DINGS

If the depth is less than 25 m, the soundin gs can be taken when the boat is in motion. In the
case of soundings with rod the leadsma n stands in the bow and plunges the rod at a forward
angle, dependi ng on the speed of the boat, such that the rod is vertical when the boat reaches
the point at which soundings is being recorded. The rod should be read very quickly . The nature
of the bottom should also be recorded at interval s in the note-bo ok.
If the soundin g is taken with a lead, the leadsma n stands in the bow of the boat and casts
the lead forward at such a distance that the line will become vertical and will reach the bottom
at a point where soundin g is required . The lead is withdra wn from the water after the reading
is t aken. If the depth is great, the lead is not withdra wn from the water, but is lifted between
the soundings.
The_water surface, whi~h is also th~ referenc e datum, changes continu ously. It is, therefor e,
essential to take the readmgs of the tide gauges at regular interva l so that the soundin gs can
· essent'al
the gauge -rea d'Ing 1·t 1s
be reduced t o a. fixed datum.
. To co-relate . soundin g with
. each '
1
to record the time at which each soundin g is made.

Ill METH ODS OF LOCA TING SOUN DINGS

The soundings are located with reference to the shore trav b . .
from the boat, (i i ) entirely from the shore or (iii) from bot~~se Y observa t10ns made (i) entirely
The followin g are the methods of location :
(a) By connin g the survey vessel
1. By cross rope
2. By r~nge and time interval s
(b ) By observa tions with sextant or theodol ite
3. By range and one angle from the shore
4. By range and one angle from the boat
5. By two angles from the shore
6. By two angles from the boat
 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 181
-THE TIDES
1celestial bodies exert a gravitational force on
Marth and other celestial bodies (mainly each other . These forces of attraction between
nd sun) cause periodical variations in the
e of a water surface, commonly known mo:,~ a
1
le":none adequately explains as i es. There are several theories about the tides,
!~ the phenomenon of tides.
gowever, the commonly used Earth Moon
0
theory is after Newton, and is
B ·-·- ·- ·- ·•~ - --- - ~ - A·-·- ·-·- ·- ·- ·-·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·- ·0
known as the eq~ilibrium theory.
According to this theory, a force 02
of attraction exists between two
celestial bodies, acting in the (a) The earth and the moon

straight line joining the centre

of masses of the two bodies, and
the magnitude of this force is
proportional to the product of
the masses of the bodies and
is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between (b) Attractive forces
them. We shall apply this theory
to the tides produced on earth due
tothe force of attraction between
earth and moon. However, the
following assumptions are made
in the equilibrium theory:
1. The earth is covered all (c) Centrifugal forces
round by an ocean of C
uniform depth.
2. The ocean is capable of
assuming instantaneously
t he equilibrium figure
[Fig. 6.24 (e)], required by
the tide producing forces.
D (d) Net forces
Th i s i s possible if we
neglect (i) inertia of water, Low water
(i i) viscosity of water, and
(1)
(iii) fo rce of attraction "O
:;::;

between parts of itself.

1· The Lunar Tides ~
~~g. 6.24 (a) shows the earth and ~
e moon, with their centres of
: .asses 0 1 and 0 2 respectively. Low water
thnce moon is very near to (e) Equilibrium figure
e earth, it is the major tide
Produ · force. To start with, we
w1·n .cmg Fig. 6.24 Production of Tides: Equilibrium Thebry.
ignore the daily rotation of
 182 SURVEYING II h nd the force of attraction wo ld
tt act each ot er, a h u
the earth on its axis. Both earth and moon a ; avity of earth and moo1:1-.T e earth ~nd moon
t be the common centre O gr. their separate pos1t10ns are maintained
act a 1ong 0 10 2· Le O th' revolution Th d' · ·
revolve monthly about 0 , a_nd ~ue to is attraction on earth, due to moon. e istnb~tion
Fl·g. 6 .24 (b) shows the distribution
. .
of force of . c. ·ng the moon and less for remote points
fi the points iac1 'f 1-" f . .
of force is not w1iform but it is more or t of gravity 0, centn uga iorce o umforrn
' earth abou tthe co mmoncenthreThe direction
Due to the revolution of ofth'1s cen t n'fugaI force is
intensity is exerted on all the particles of ~heF~a~ _ (c). Thus, the total for~e o~ att:actio~ due
6 24
parallel to 0 10 2 and acts outward, as shown m 'fig ti ce and the earth maintains its position
1
to moon is counter-balanced by t~e total centri ~gatt or ti~n is not uniform, the resultant force
relative to the moon. Howeve_r, si~ce th e force~ :es:~~ant forces are the tide producing forces.
will v~ all along, as shown _m Fi_g. 6, 24 (~). T. e the ocean enveloping the earth's surface will
Assummg that water has no mertia and viscosity,. . . t the equilibrium figure shown in
adjust itself to the unbalanced resultan~ forces, giv1~~1se dotwo low water positions at C and
Fig. 6.24 (e ). Thus, there are two lunar tides at A an , an , . . .
D. The tide at A is called the superior lunar tide or tide of moon s upper transit, while tide at
B is called inferior or antilunar tide. . .
Now let us consider the earth's rotation on its axis. Assuming the moon to remai~_stat10nary,
the major axis of lunar tidal equilibrium figure would m~intain a const~nt posibo~. Due to
rot ation of earth about its axis from west to east, once-in 24 hours, point A would occupy
successive positions C, B and D at intervals of 6 h. Thus, point A would experience regular
variation in the level of water . It will experience high water (tide) at intervals of 12 hand low
water midway between. This interval of6 h variation is true only if moon is assumed st ationary.
However, in a lunation of 29.53 days the moon makes one revolution relative to sun from the
new moon to new moon. This revolution is in the same direction as the diurnal rotation of earth,
and hence there are 29.53 transits of moon across a meridian in 29.53 mean solar days. This is
on the assumption that the moon does this revolution in a plane passing through the equator.
Thus, the interval ~etween successive transits of moon or any meridian will be 24 h , 50.5 m.
Thus, the average mterval between successive high waters would be about 12 h 25 m. The
interval of 24 h 50.5 m between two successive transits of moon over a meridian is called the
tidal day.

2. The Solar Tides

The-phenomenon of produc-
tion of tides due to force of Earth
attraction between earth
and sun is similar to the
lunar tides. Thus, there will
be superior solar tide and an
inferior or anti-solar tide.
However, sun is at a large
distance from the earth and
h ence the tide producing
force due to sun is much less.
Let ME = mass of earth Fig. 6.25
M M = mass of moon
M 8 = mass of sun
DM = mean distance from the cent f
re o earth to the
centre of the moon
------;D~s~~m~e~a~n~d;i~s;,ta:n:c:e~f;::~~ = ==- ~ - -_'.'.HY~D~R~O~G~R~A~P~H~IC:~su~R~V~E~Y~IN~G~~ 1~8~3
rom the c t
R - radius of earth en re of earth to th e cent re of the sun
K - constant of gravit .
.d . A ation
Cons1 er p01nt , facing th
· given by
1s e moon. Tide producmg
· force FM of the moon on unit mass at A

~
2
FM=KMM[(D --1.--] =KMM[(DFvf - DFvf - R +2DMR]
M R) 2 DM (DM - R)2 DFvf
= KM [ R (2DM - R) ]
2 2
An • M (DM - R) D
n,:,sum1ng radius of the earth R very small in co M·
moon, we h ave mpanson to the distance between earth and

2
FM~KMM( ~) ... (6.12)
. ·1 1 . DM
S1m1 ar y' tide producing force Fs of th e sun on umt
. mass at A is given by

Fs=KMs(~~) ...(6.13)

Hence Fs = Ms (DMJs ...(6.14)

FM MM Ds

Now mass of sun M 8 = 331,000ME

' 1
Mass of moon, MM= 18ME
D8 = 149,350,600 km; DM = 384,630 km
Substituting the values in Eq. 6.14, we get
Fs ... (6.15)
FM = 0.458

Hence solar tide = 0.458 lunar tide.

3. Combined Effe ct: Spring and Neap Tides

Equation 6.15 shows that the solar tide force is less than half the lunar tide force. However their
combined effect is important, specially at the new moon when both the sun and moon ha~e the
same celestial longitude, they cross a meridian ~t the same instant. Assuming that both the sun
and moon lie in the same horizontal plane passmg through the equator, the effects of both the
tides are added, giving rise to maxim_um or spri~g tide of new moon. The term 'spring' does not
refer to the season, but to the springing or ~~xing of t~ie moon. After the new moon, the moon
falls behind the sun and crosses each meridian 50 mmutes later each day. In after 7½ days,
the difference between longitude of the moon and that of sun becomes 900' and the moon is in
quadrature as shown in Fig. 6.26 (b ). The crest of moon tide.coincides wit~ the trough of .t he
Solar tide, giving rise to the neap tide of the first quarler. Durmg the neap tide, the high water
level is below the average while the low water level 1s_ above the average. After about 15 days
of the start of lunation, when full moon occurs, the difference between moon's longitude and
 of su n' s lono-itude is • · opposi.tio. H ow ev er th e cr es ts
180°, an d th e moon is n. of bo th th e tides
in
coincide o-iving ri se
difference '
0
i::,•

•
•
to sp 'd ll r~
ri ng ti e O I u m oon. In a OU
• b t 22 da ys af '
te r th e st ar t oflun at io
·
n, the
in lono-itudes of th e m d th su n become s 27 0° 'd
an d neap ti e oft h'ird
.f:'or oo n an e quarter is.
,, med. Fi na ll y' w he n th e moon re ac h es t O 1.ts ne w moo n po si tio n' af te r ab ou t 291. d ay
ei·

P re vi ou s ne w moon, bo th of th
em h th sa m e ce1es
t' l lo nm tu de an d th
e sp . 2 . s of the
moon is ag ai. n formed . g ave e ia nn g ti de of new
· ni· 0 f an oth er cycle of sp ri ng an d ne ap 'd
t,•
m ak in th e beg in ng ti es.
I
I

ce'
I
I
I
I

0
·.;:::;
-~-
I ·-
0§ o Days
-- :-- § - - ·- ·- ·- ·- ·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·
Full 8: I 'c New moon
moon 0
0
-
I
I S2..
I
I
I
I
I

(a) Spring tides

First quarter 7½ da
ys

(Quadrature)
I

-- -- ·-- - ·- -- -- -- --- --
,,J /
- -- -- -- -- -- ·- ·~ S
un
\

(Quadrature)
✓ 'i
22 Days .
Third quarter
(b) Neap tides

Fig . 6.26 Spring an

d Neap Tides.

4. Other Effects
T he le ng th of th e ti da
l day, as su m ed to be
(i ) va ry in g re la ti
ve positions of th e su 24 ho ur s an d 50.5 m
in ut es is no t co ns ta
(ii i) el lip tic ity of th n an d moon, (ii) re la nt be ca us e of
e or bi t of th e moon (a ti ve at tr ac ti on of th
de vi at io n fr om th e pl ss um ed ci rc ul ar ea rl e su n an d moon,
an e of eq ua to r) of th e ie r) an d ea rt h, (i v) de
(v i) de vi at io n of th su n an d th e moon, (v cl in at io n (or
e sh ap e of th e ea rt h ) ef fe ct s of th e la
nd m as se s and
place m ay no t occur ,from th e sp he ro id .
ex ac tly at th e moon D ue to th es e, th e hi
s up pe r or lo w er tr an gh w
positions of th e su n an
d moon gives ri se to w si t. T he effect of va ry at er a~ a
A t th e ne w moon po ha t ar e kn ow n as pr im in g relative
sition, th e cr es t of th in g of ti de an d la gg
is formed. Fo r th e po e composite ti de is un in g of tide.
si tio ns of th e ~o on de r th e m oo n an d no
at an y place occurs be b~twee~ ne w m oo n rm al tide
fo re th e moon s tr an s an d fi rs t qu ar te r, th
th an th e av er ag e of it, th e hi gh ~a te r
12 ho ur s 25 m in ut es nd e in te rv al be tw ee n su cc es si ve hi gh w at
be tw ee n th e fi rs t qu a ~he ti de is sa id er is less
ar te r an d th e full m to pr im e. Fo r po si tio
oon [Fig. 6 -2 7 (b)], th ns of moon
e hi gh w at er at an y
pl ac e occurs
 _Y_D
~-: --:- ~H _R_O_.:G~R::..:A~PH~l~C~$1:·'~R~V=-EY~l~NG~~1~8~5
after the ~001:1 tra nsi ts, the int erv al b ces siv e h' h
a.nd tide is sai dto lag . Sim ila rly b t etw een suc
qu art er ~d ~ ~e en full mo on and 31~ wa ter is more tha n the average
while bet we en the 3rd pos ition the ;. d q~a rte r position, the tide
prime~
er pos itio n of mo on u 1 mo on
and third qu art ur~. l e ags. At first qua rte r,
full moon
- --·- ·r ·- . 'no rm al tid e occ
- I '
I
I
I
I
I I
I I
I I

I I
I ~ _.I
I
-- - - - - -i.. ' - ·- . - · - · - ·
I -· -·-· - ·- - ·-·- •- •-----.J\
I
I
I
·'
I
I

..... ' -. - .:_ . - . -.

I
, . .,,,

(a) Priming of tide

---·-·r·- ·-
Mo on ()·/ l
'
/
/ I
I
' \

I
I I \
I
I
~ --l
- ·- ·- ·- ·- - - i
I

- · - ' - · - · - · - · -·- · - '

- - - - - -4- - - ' - · - · - · \
I

/' ·
'·
I
I
I
I
·' l
Sun
I
I

' . .- - _:_ . - . -
(b) Lagging of tide
Fig . 6.27 Priming and Lagging .
oth er
l ass um pti ons ma de in the equ ilibrium theory, and due to several
Due to the sev era tides, close agreement between the res
ult s of the
ing the ma gni tud e and per iod of
factors aff ect
d obs erv atio ns is not ava ilab le. Due to obstruction of lan d ma sse s '
theory, and the act ual fiel to ine rtia and viscosity of sea wa ter, equilib
rium
up at som e pla ces . Du e
tide ma y be hea ped prediction of the tides at a place mu
st be bas ed
ach iev ed ins tan tan eou sly . He nce
figure is not
largely on obs erv atio ns.

If• PR ED IC TI ON OF TID ES
tio n of tide at a place are : (i) time of occd' urrence of tide
The tw e1em ent s req uir e 1n· d · the pre dic • • a1 meth o s o 1 e pre 1cb·on:
d f t'd
o · h f 'd b Th ere are two prm c1p
and (u· ') h e1g t o ti e a ove d a t u m •
c const ant s.
1. Pre dic tio n by use of non -ha rm oni
st ant s.
2. Pre dic tio n by use of har mo nic con
nstants
1· P red1ct . n by Us e of Non-H arm onic Co
. 1o . . .
tide at a place are (a) age
tha t are use d for pred1ct10n of
. . ts
Th const an t bl's hm ent and (d) vul gar est abl ish me nt.
~ Vanous non -ha rm oni cal, (c) me an es a
1 '
0 f tide, (b) lun itid al int erv
eloped wit h sea of
.. . th ry the ear th is assumed to be env s from
In the equ ih~ rmm fill ~o o~l y in Sou the rn Ocean extending sou thw ard
(a).Age of Tide: e
Uniform dep th. Th is con dit ion is ful
 186 11
SURVEYING
t' n
· this por 10 of oce an whe re dequ.ilib rium
.
. figure Ill
about 400 S latitude. Therefore, it is on1~; .
efor e, gen era ted the re and erw atw ~ or ~eco ay
ima
be deve1oped . Pr ~ r"' tide wav es
p
are, t
•fie t', and Ind ian Oce ans . The se den vati ve ndary
J Atl an 1c . t· wa\Te
waves are pro Pagated into thed ac1 th , directio . tho ugh the ir dire c 10n
• • fl
1s 1n uen ced by th
s
proceed in a general no~th an s_ou of land n, . f t e
mas ses. The veloc1t?' o w~v e rav e1 m_ay
form of coas t lines, and intervention_ h 11 exceed
wat er. The amp litu de, i.e., the vert ical rang
100 0 km per hou r, though it is less in s e
a ~; m. Due to the dire ctio n of pro pag atio
from crest to trough, is not more t~a n 60 t~ n of tide
. c t var ious pla ces on the sam e mer idia n. Thu
wave, high or low water occ~,.s a t different s
.d timefts ar tran sits at new or fu 11 moo n. Th e .
time which'
the grea test spring tide arrives seve~al ti_; s
elapse between the generation _o f spn ~g t; ed~~
i
J
a •ts arr ival at the pla ce is call ed the age
of the
tide at that place. The age of tide varies 1or 1 t plac es, upt o a ma xim um of 3 days, and is
eren
reckoned to the nea rest ¼day.
• . h . .
It 1s obtained as t e mean of seve ral obs erva tion s. The age of the tide 1s one of the non-
h armon1•c cons t an t s an d 1·ts va1u es 1c0r di' rn .
a'er ent por ts are pub lish ed 1n • · I f
1
sect10n o par t II of the
Admiralty Tide Table.
(b) Lunitidal Interval : Lun itid al interval is
the tim e inte rva l th~t. elaP_ses betw_een the
transits and the occurrence of the next high wat moon's
er. The valu e oflu n1t idal inte rva l 1s found
because of existence of priming and lagging. The to vary
valu es oflu niti dal inte rva l can be observed
if they are plotted for a fortnight aga inst the and
tim es of moo n's tran sits , a cur ve suc h as
in Fig. 6.28 is obtained. Such a curve has app shown
rox ima tely the sam e form for eac h fort nig
hence may be used for the rough prediction of ht and
tim e of tide at a plac e. The tim e of tran sit
at Greenwich is given in the Nautical Almana of moon
c. The tim e of tran sit at the giv en plac e can
derived by adding 2 m for every hou r of wes t long be
itud e and sub trac ting 2 m for eve ry hou r of
longitude of the place, to the time of tran sit east
at Gre enw ich. Kno win g the tim e of moo n's
at the place, luni tida l inte rval is obtained from tran sit
the cur ve (Fig. 6.28) and add ed to the time
preceding tran sit to know the approximate tim of
e of occ urre nce of nex t hig h wat er at the
place.
2h 30 m

2h --.............
/ ~
I'-.. /
~- , -- - - --
/
I
.L .
- - - - -- -
' -
" "- I/ -C:
Q)

--- - /

.o -
E
.c -
-~
<U
30 m ~ ti -
Q)
C: -
<U
Q) -
~
0h 1h 2h 3h 4h
,,- -
5h 6h
T 7h
imes of moons transits 8h 9h 1Oh 11 h 12h
Fig. 6.28 Lunitidal lnterv I
a .
(c) Mea n Es_tabli shm ent: The ave rag
e valu e of lun itid al .
mean establishment, as sho wn by dot ted line .
in Fig . _ IF! erv al at a pla ce is kno wn
6 28 as its
· he val ue of me an esta blis hrn ent
 187
is known, the lunitida l interva l and h
Provided the
age of the tide at th ence the time Of h-:
e Place i l
. --:----~===~~~~
HYDROGRAPH1c SURVEYING

igh water t
,, follows: s a so known Th a a place can be estimated
1. Find from the charts th · e procedu re of determination is a~
. ' e age of tide d
2. Knowin g the hour of mo , an mean establ · h
time of moon's transit o;~s transit at the place o t~s me~t for the_ place.
is equal to the day in qu t·e day_of generati on ~fth t~dda(y m quest10n , determine the
es ion min th age of the tide). e i e the day ofge nerat·wn of ti·ae
3. Corresp onding to the tim . us e
. t 2) fi d e of transit ofm
1nls e~ ' n out the amount of prim oi·non on tlhe ~ay of generatio~ of tide (determined
b e ow. g or aggmg c t ·10n from the table given
orrec

Hour of moon's -- - - --.-----

transit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Correction in ~- f-

minutes 0 -16 -31 -41 -44 -31

0 +31 +44 +41 +31 +16 0
I
4. Add algebra ically the priming or la . .
lunitida l interva l for the d • ggi~g correctw n to the mean establishment to get the
ay in quest10n.
5. Add the lunitida l interva l to the time of moon's tra ·t th d · ·
approxi mate time of high water. ns1 on e ay m quest10n , to get the

Example 6.2: Find the time of afternoon high water at a place with the following data:
(i) time of moon's transit on that day= 4 h 40 m
(ii) mean establis hment = 3 h 10 m
(iii) age of tic!,e = 2 days.

Solution : We know that moon falls behind the sun at the rate of 50 m per day. Hence at the
birth of tide, 2 days earlier, the time of moon's transit= 4 h 40 m - 2 x 50 m = 3 h Om.
From the table, corresp onding to the time of transit of 3 h O m the correction for priming
=-41 m.
Lunitid al interva l= mean establis hment- correction
= 3 h 10 m - 41 m = 2 h 29 m
= Time of moon's transit + Lunitidal interval
Time of high water
= 4 h 40 m + 2 h 29 m = 7 h 09 m = 7.09 P.M.

(d t blishme nt is defined as the value of lunitidal interval on

~ Vulgar Establi shment: Vulgar es a 1
·s always more than establishment since the
th d f oon Its va ue 1
e .ay of full moon or change m fi · th adrant is positive . The difference between vulgar
O
1 correcti on in the second_ or our deq~nds upon the age of the tide. The value of vulgar
agging
establis hment and mean establis hment hp 1 ck time at which high water occurs on the days
establis hment is approxi mately equal ~o t e ~?d 1
Tables give the value of this non-harmonic
of full moon or change of moon. Admira lty teblishm ent is known, the mean establishment
c0 nstant for all princip al ports. If the vulgar es a
. .
can be known for that place b Y the relation bl. h ent _ lagging correcti on.
. - vulgar esta is m .
Mean establi shmen t - h TaJ- le the age of tide must be known.
· from t e ' h d f t·
For fi1nd.1ng th e 1ag ging correcti on . ft ansit of moon on t e ay o genera 10n
. Then tune o r
Suppose the age of tide 1s 2 days·
 188 SURVEYING II
s ondi ng to this time of tran sit of moon la----:-
C
20 m. fi or;~ p lace at whic h age of tide is 2 days w~ h gging
of tide = 12 h - 2 x 50 m = 10 h ' ave
corre ction comes out to be 26 m. Henc e or · e P
Mea n esta blish men t = vulg ar esta blish men t - 26 m
. . k Once this is know. n, the time of tide on any other day
. para
Thus , mean estab lishm ent ISd nown d 'b e d in the prev1 0us •
.
nune d by the proce ure escn
can be deter
th
Heig ht of tide: Anot her item in the pred ictio n of tide
is th e eS t imat !on of e heigh t of rise
suita ble 1refer ence datum ·
'd · rt· al d'IS t ance of th e high wate r level abov. e some 'd £ th Th
of t I e, i.e. , ve IC g ti es ~r e P ace. e vertical
Con1monly adop ted datu m is the low water of ordin ary sprin
wate r level IS know n as the range of
dista nce from the low wate r level to the succ eedin g high
or low wate r and grea test at half
the tide. The rate of varia tion of wate r level is smal l at high
e, at any time betw een high and low
tide. The appr oxim ate heig ht of tide of know n rise or rang
wate r can be asce rtain ed from the following expr essio n:
... (6.16)
H = h + ½r cos 0
wher e H = requ ired heig ht of tide abov e datu m
h = heig ht of mean tide level abov e datu m
r = rang e of the tide
_ inter val from high wate r x 1800
0 - inter val betw een high and low wate r

2. Prediction by Use of Harmonic Constants

is not very muc h used because
Pred ictio n of tide with the help of non- harm onic cons tants
ern prac tice is to use harm onic
t he r esult s obta ined from these are often erron eous . Mod
onic type. Out of these , the values
cons tants . Ther e are more than 36 tidal cons titue nts of harm
II) of Adm iralt y Tide Tables, for
of 10 impo rtant cons titue nts are given in part II (Sect ion
ols are give n in the table below .
diffe ren t ports . Thes e cons titue nts, along with their symb
F or pred ictio n of tide, the following expr essio n is used :
V = f H cos (E - g) ... (6.17)

Symb ol for Desc riptio n or nam e Peri od

cons titue nt
M2 Luna r semi- diurn al ½Luna r day
S2 Solar semi- diurn al ½Sola r day
N2 Large r elliptic-sem i-diurna l -
K2 Luni- solar semi-diurn al ½Sideral day
K1 Luni- solar diurn al Sider al day
01 Large r diurn al (decli natio nal) -
P1 Solar diurn al (decli natio nal) -
M4 First overt ake of semi- diurn al ¼Luna r day
MS 4 Comp ound Juni-s olar ½diurn al -
 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 189
V 1 f
..,here va ue o con stit uen t at zero h our o th d .
m que stion.
H = me an am plit ude (ha lf r~ nge ) of then conest1·ay
•
Vl

t
. uen t at the por t in que stio n.
f = fact or, the val ue of whi ch Is ·t
ver y nea r t 0 um Y, and whi ch var ies slowly from yea r
t o yea r.
E = ang le (sa me for all por ts).
.
g = con stan t, spe cial to the por t a n d th e con stit uen t
· 1 .
For a par ticu ar por t, the har mo nic con st ant s are: mea n sea level (A 0) and the valu es of H
andg for the var iou s con stit uen ts.
h
To dete rmi ne the val ue of Ea t zero hou r , we ave
E (at zero hou r)= m + d ... (6.1 8)
firs t day of eac h mon th
where m = val ue of E at zero hou r of the
r:m ent i~ E from zero hou r of the firs t day of the mon th to the zero hou r of the
d= inc
day in que stio n.
heig hts
val1 ;1es of m_, d, f, H etc. can be eas ily obt aine d for eac h con stitu ent. Hen ce hou rly
The um at any
t. The heig ht of the tide above the por t dat
can be eas ily obt ain ed for eac h con stit uen diff eren t con stit uen ts
) plu s the sum of heig ht for the
hour will be equ al to the me an sea leve l (A 0
for tha t hou r. ions
be used . The vari ous sep arat e har mon ic mot
Alte rnat ivel y, a tide pre dic ting mac hine may ism and
ts are trac ed out by some suit able mec han
corresponding to the har mo nic con stit uen give s
bine d effe ct can be obt ain ed in a gra phi cal form. The tide curv e so trac ed out
their com
heights and tim es of hig h and low wat ers.

l•jl•■ T IDE GAUG ES

wit h
ht of hig h and low wat ers, and its var iati ons wit h tim e can _be mea sure d at site
The heig
help of tide gau ges . Fol low ing are som e of the common type s of tide gau ges use d:
the
1. Non -reg iste ring typ e of tide gau ges (iii) We ight gau ge.
(ii) Flo at gau ge
(i) Sta ff gau ge
. . .
2. Sel f-re gist erin g typ e tide gau ges . nt 1s req mre d to tak e rea din g
. . . au es are tho se in whi ch an atteisnda ired .
. e no atte nda nt requ
Non -reg iste ring typ e tide g-regg.iste ring typ , . .
from tim e to tim e · In the self Th' 1 ·s the sim ples t type of gau ge, whi ch 1s firm ly fixed
of a boa rd abo ut 15 cm to 25 cm bro ad, and of
aug e: [Fig . 6.29 (a)] · is . ts f .
1. Staff g gau ge t· cons1s ' of 5 to 10 cm. The zero o gau ge 1s
. 1 pos1·t·10n. The
.1n ver tica . t a leas t cou nt
1 be
abl e hei ght , hav in? gra d~: l ~t:r nat ive ly, the elev atio n of zero of the level may
suit a:- ~e.
fixed at the pre det erm ine d le ·ff . re ad dire ctly ' from some dist
11· The sta is t fthe was h of the sea, it may be difficult to rea d
det erm ine d by 1eve ing . use d. It
. 6.29 (b)] . On acco unfl o t gau ge sho wn in Fig. 6.29 (b) may be
2. Flo at g au g e : [Fig
tha t case aatedoa vert ical rod, enclosed ma · 1ong woo _en b ox of
d
1 I adu
a staf f gau ge acc ura te y. 11; thro ugh whi. cht wat er
con sist s of a sim ple floa t wit h a gr h fi holes at the bott vm . . d
. The box. as ew thro ugh a sht wm ow aga ms som e
. tak en
30 cm x 30 cm squ are sec twnThe read ing are
t
may ent er and lift the floa · atta che d to
able ind ex . F' 6 29 (c) con sist· s of fa wei ght d t db d
suit · . The wei ght gau ge, sho wn m ig. lley. along the side o a gra ua e oar .
3 W • h t gau ge. . ses thro ugh a pu '
· e1g
a wir e or cha in. The cha in pas
 vEYING- 11
suR
The weigh t is lo touch th e w a te su rf a c e a n d th e re a d in g
w e r: ~ :; in . The_ r l o f th e w a te r su is ta k e n again.st
. dex attached th re d u c e d ,t ~ ;n g rf a c e co rrespondingt an
to .n e th e foot o f th e .
in
zero rea ld 'ng is d eterm 1
d e a
dt k
r h e r,
of the suspen de d weight a n a in g it s re a in
b y a t d ' g w it h a le v e l, st a ff a ~
w h e n th e inde
a in
x
st the
of
bo~!e
the ch~
. t zero readin .
is aga111s g. a1n

2m

.. .. .. ,. _- Index

,_ _ _ _ Guide
s

~ u• ~ - Rod
(a) Staff gauge
Pulley

0
~ - Float

Holes

(b) Float gaug

e

(c) Weight gaug

e

Fig . 6 .29 Non-Self Reg

istering Type Tide G a
Self-registe~in u g e s.
level w
g gauges : . A
it h time. It esse se lf -r e ~. st e . n .
ntially consists n g gauge a u to m a ti c a ll y r~ g .
attached to it a
wire or cord wh o f a fl.oat p ro te c is te rs th e v a n.a tion of water
a t constant ten ich p te d fr o m w h e float has
sion by some su asses over a w h e e l (called th in d , w a v e s etc. _T . tained
to th e wheel w ita e fl.oat w h e e l)
hich reduces it ble a rr a n g e m e n t. T h e m o v a n d ~s main {err
ed
pencil attached th ro u g h some g e e m e n t o f th e fl.o 18
to a lever. The a r sy st e m , a n at t~ans J to a
float is recorded movement of th d is fi n a ll y co
on a graph pap e pencil, c o rr e mmunicate ofth
SLme sui~able cl er wound ro u n sp o n d in g to th e
ock-work. Th~s d a d ru m w h ic h e movement eed bY
automa+-1cally. is ro ta te d a t c
Such a gauge 1s graphical re c o rd of m o v e m e n o n st a n t sp •ded
effect of wind a t
n d other disturb usually h o u se d in a w e ll c o o f th e fl.oat w it h ti ~ e ~s re ;i
ances is reduce n st ru c te d u n d \h a t
d. e r a building
I) ■■ M EA N
SEA LEV EL A
. S DATU M
For all im p o rt a
n t surveys, th e ------
sea leve_l m a y be d a tu m select_ed
d ef in ed a s th is th e m e a n se
o f the tide, as m em a le v e l a t a c e rt
ea su re d a t h o u ea ~ le vel of th e se a, u b ta in e a in place. T hehe ,neari
rl y in te rv a ls o
ver so m e st a te
d b y ta k in g th
e m e a n o f all th ight
d . d e be r of
p e rw c o v e ri.n g a whole nunt
 lete tides. The mean sea lev l d HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 191
cornP ·
rnonth to month and from e , efine d a b ove shows .
froJll depends upon the pu Year to Year. Hence th ap~reciab le variations from day to day,
taken y be more Th rpose for which levels e pen?d for which observati ons should be
of se_a ra th . be ;nonthly changes are are required. The daily changes in the level
pa.rt1cu ar mon .may e _ow while it ma be ~or_e or less periodic. The mean sea level in a
also show apprecia ble variation s in its a y f1gh m some other months. Mean sea level may
and due to greater accuracy needed · nnua values. Due to variations in the annual values
1
nean sea level on observat ions exte d1:1' modern geodetic levelling it is essential to base the
I ' d n ing over a . d
the rooon s no es complete one enti·re revo1ubon
. peno of about 19' years. During this period
referred to t h e d atu~ of tide gauge at which t · The h eig.
. h
t of mean sea level so ~etermin ed is
'
which these observat ions are taken is kn he 0 ?servab? ns are taken. The point or place at
two stations, situated say at a distan ~~~;s a tidal station. If the observatio ns are taken on
called primary tidal station while th ce t~ . to 5oo km on an open coast, one of the station is
may then be connecte d by a line ofl:v:ls.e r is called secondary tidal station. Both the stations

PROBL EMS

1. In a harbour developm ent scheme at the mouth of a tidal river, it has been found necessary to
take soundings in order to buoy the navigation channel.
Explain clearly how you would determine the levels of points on the river bed and fix the positions
of the soundings .
(a) by use of sextant in a boat.
(b) by use of the theodolite on the shore. ( U.L. )
2. Describe briefly the location of sounding stations by means of (a) cross rope soundings,
(b) intersecti ng ranges. .
.
From a s t a t 10nary b t ff- hore sextant readings are taken to three signals A, B, C on land and
oa , o s
h d 1 bt d db . AB and BC are 32° 30' an d 62 o 30 , respect ive · 1 Th
y. e posi·t·ions
t e measure ang es su en e Y _ 300 m BC= 512.5 m and the angle ABC on the
of the three shore signals are sue~ that ~ - ll th distance of the boat from B.
landward side is 2330 30'. Determme grap ica y e .
. d extant readings agam tak en, wi·th boat st at·10nary, t o A ,
The boat is now moved m-shore an i8 subtended by AB and BC are 90° 00' and 113° 30'
Band C and it is found that the anghesd1;1otw ce between the two stationary positions of the boat
respectively. Determm . phically t e 1s an
e gra f 1 cm = 500 m.
at which soundings are taken. Use sea1e O y to incorporate a station S not in the original
3. In a t riangulati on survey 1·t becomes necessar · 'blest at ions
b rvations on three v1s1 · P , Q an'd R , the
. · d by angu 1ar O
se ·
net and its position is determme
, . ppended,w 1'th the two horizontal ang es o served fr om S .
·I b
total co-ord'1nates of which are a
Departur e Angle
Latitude
Station + 72,800
+ 18,400 52° 12' 20"
p + 94,600
+ 18,400 68° 30 15"
1

Q + 107,400
+ 2,200
R (U.L.)
rdinates of the station S. w control pomt, D, by resection from
Determine analytical ly the co-o ·twas necessary to fix al ntet the following data were obtained:
4. In making a survey for a new town the
1 t
co-ordina es of the a er
.

three known points A, B, C. Frorn