UNIT 10: GEOLOGIC PROCESSES ON EARTH’S SURFACES

L1: WEATHERING
Weathering
● process of breaking down rocks into smaller pieces called sediments.
● Rocks exposed at the Earth’s surface undergo weathering, and this
process usually takes a long time. ​

Types of Weathering
> Mechanical
● a process wherein rocks are broken down into smaller pieces without
changing their chemical composition due to several factors:
○ fluctuating temperatures
○ Pressure
○ biological activity
>>Frost Wedging
○ involves repeated cycles of freezing and thawing of ice
○ One of the accepted explanations about this process is the
expansion of water as it freezes. Ice lenses start to form in the cracks
as more liquid water is attracted to them from the surrounding pores.
The expansion force of water slowly weakens the rock and
eventually causes it to break.
○ Frost wedging happens under these three conditions:
1. when there is sufficient moisture;
2. when there are pre-existing cracks or pore spaces and
fractures by which water can penetrate; and
3. when temperature frequently rises and falls past above
or below the freezing point.
>>Heating and Cooling
● Rocks are composed of different minerals which expand and
contract when subjected to sudden changes in temperature.
● The constant cycle of expansion (due to heating) and contraction
(due to cooling) eventually causes rocks to fracture and break down
into smaller pieces.
● Rocks in highways develop cracks and small fractures because of
too much exposure to heat.
>>Salt Crystal growth
● Happens when seawater penetrates crevices in rocks which are
found mostly in rocky shorelines and arid regions.
● Salt crystals are left in pore spaces of the rocks when seawater
evaporates. These salt crystals continue to grow larger as more
saline water enters and evaporates. In addition to that, salt crystals
also expand when subjected to an increase in temperature that
causes the widening of cracks and eventually breaking rocks.
>> Biological Activity
● The action of organisms including plants and animals reduces the
size of rocks and minerals which make rocks more susceptible to
chemical weathering.
● Plant roots, for example, cause rocks to wedge as it penetrates the
cracks in search of water and nutrients.
● Burrowing animals help in breaking the rocks by moving fresh
materials onto the surface where different processes can easily
degrade them.
● It may seem trivial at first but these activities that happen over an
extended period contribute significantly to the disintegration of
rocks.
>> Unloading
● Through erosion or uplift, thick layers of sediments overlying deeply
buried in rocks are removed. This process is termed ​unloading​.
● When rocks are exposed due to unloading, the stress caused by the
overlying material is lowered causing it to expand. Slabs of rocks
began to separate as weathering continued creating exfoliation
domes (onion-like layers).
● The same process happens in mines and tunnels where rocks
suddenly burst due to released confining pressure during tunneling
operations.

> Chemical
UNIT 11: GEOLOGIC PROCESSES INSIDE THE EARTH

L1: EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT

● Crust- uppermost and thinnest layer of the Earth

○ Continental crust
○ Oceanic crust

● Mantle- layer below the crust

○ Uppermost part and crust- lithosphere
○ Lowermost part- mesosphere

● Mantle convection- necessary to transfer heat and drive processes on the surface
of the planet. It is a result of different temperature and pressure conditions in the
plastic mantle, which can flow, and lead to hotspot activity at the surface

● Core
○ The innermost layer of the Earth
○ Composed w/ iron & subordinate nickel
○ Hottest layer- temperatures could reach up to 700 o C.
○ Outer core-liquid
○ Inner core- solid

● Rocks are classified into three – igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks​–
categorized based on minerals present, texture, and formational process.
--
● The internal heat of Earth fuels the planet’s dynamic processes:
○ plate movements,
○ earthquakes,
○ and volcanism

● This internal heat is produced by:

○ residual heat (extraterrestrial impacts and gravitational contraction)
○ radiogenic heat

Residual Heat
>Extraterrestrial impacts
● kinetic energy to heat energy
● As proposed in the Nebular theory, Earth was formed through the accretion of particles
from a rotating cloud. Earth grew larger as more and more materials are bombarded and
integrated into the protoplanet. These objects, which include metal-rich and rocky
fragments, travel at a very high velocity about 30,000-50,000km/hr. A great amount of
kinetic energy is produced by the moving objects which were then converted to
heat energy.
>Gravitational contraction
● Gravitational energy to heat energy
● Have you ever tried to watch a skating competition? One of the tricks of the contestant
that amazes people is when they spin so fast without falling. If you are a
keen observer, they can only do the trick if they bring in their arms. Extending their arms
while attempting to spin fast will result in a failure of the act. This is possible because
rotational velocity is inversely proportional to the radius. The skater is similar to a
collapsed cloud of dust as it forms into planets.
● Collapsed clouds occur because accretion of more materials led to an increase in the
gravitational attraction causing the contraction of Earth into a smaller volume which will
then enable them to spin faster. The compaction resulted in the conversion of
gravitational energy into heat energy.

Radiogenic heat
● Unstable elements undergo radioactive decay to attain a more stable form.
● The process of radioactive decay produces heat as a byproduct.
● The young Earth had more of these unstable elements producing a greater amount of
energy compared to today’s radioactive decay.
● At present, this process mostly occurs in the mantle, which is enriched in radioactive
isotopes. The heat from the core is transferred from the interior to the surface
mainly through convection (Mantle convection- necessary to transfer heat and
drive processes on the surface of the planet. It is a result of different temperature
and pressure conditions in the plastic mantle, which can flow, and lead to hotspot
activity at the surface)
● According to studies, Earth is releasing heat from the surface at a rate of about 46
Terawatts.
● According to studies, what are the primary heat released by the Earth’s interior?
The value coming from the two main sources, primordial heat and radioactive decay, is
still in debate.

Earth’s Thermal Budget

● Earth’s thermal budget is the measure of the amount of heat that is released at the
surface and produced in the interior.
● Some believe that Earth’s internal budget is completely balanced and that the same
amount of heat is released and produced in the planet. This idea is based on the
notion that if more heat is generated than released, the mantle would heat up and
discharge large amounts of heat in order to reach thermal equilibrium. More recent
theories, however, suggest otherwise. They believe that Earth is cooling down.
● Earth's albedo is 0.3 which means 30% of the solar energy that reaches the surface of
Earth is reflected back to space by the clouds, atmosphere, and light-colored areas
(deserts and areas covered with ice and snow).
● The remaining 70% of the solar energy is absorbed by the atmosphere, land, and
oceans. The absorbed energy drives wind and ocean currents. These currents
distribute the heat throughout the planet since more sunlight shines on equatorial
 regions than polar regions​. ​All this solar energy absorbed by the atmosphere, air, land,
and oceans must be radiated back to space. Therefore, energy in should always equal
to energy out.

--
● Convection in the Earth’s interior is the motion of hot fluid from one place
to another.
● The heat flow from Earth’s interior powers the convection within the mantle
and the core and contributes little to the heat balance or convection in the
atmosphere and oceans.
● The thermal budget is computed through the study of energy emitted by
the four major isotopes that produce heat namely uranium-238,
uranium-235, thorium-232, and potassium-40.
● Seismic wave reports show that the outer core is a fluid layer. Therefore,
convection currents can occur within the outer core which enables heat
movement upward.
● Some scientists believe that the Earth’s thermal budget is completely
balanced and that the same amount of heat is released and produced in the
planet. This idea is based on the notion that if more heat is generated than
released, the mantle would heat up and discharge large amounts of heat in
order to reach thermal equilibrium.

L2: VOLCANOES AND VOLCANISM

Volcanism
● the process where magma rises to the surface of Earth as lava.
● From human perspective, it can be viewed as a destructive event as it could
damage infrastructures, cause injuries and short-term climate change.
● From another perspective, volcanism is a constructive process as seen in Earth’s
early history. The atmosphere was formed through release of volcanic gases and
new oceanic crust is continuously produced along mid-oceanic ridges. Many
islands are also formed through volcanic processes.

Parts of volcano
1. Vent- the surface opening where volcanic materials are ejected
2. Conduit (pipe)- a canal that serves as a passageway through which magma rises
3. Magma Chamber- a reservoir where magma is stored. It serves as the engine of
the volcano that is situated in the crust just below the volcano.
4. Craters- funnel-shaped depressions found in most volcanoes.
5. Calderas- are very large depressions found in some volcanoes. It has a diameter
exceeding 1km.
6. Lava domes- mounds of viscous lava where gas grows and builds up over a vent.
They may be isolated bodies or may rise into the craters of composite volcanoes.
 ● Quite unstable and may collapse under on their own way or may
also impose danger when pressure underneath cause these bodies
to explode
Formation of Volcano
● A volcano is a hill or mountain where lava, pyroclastic materials, and gases erupt.
It can form along plate boundaries or within the plate.
● Divergent plate boundaries- volcanism manifests as ridges or fissures where
products of decompression melting erupt. Examples are the mid-ocean ridges and
the Great African Rift.
● Convergent plate boundaries- host large number of volcanoes. Lava flows and
pyroclastic materials make up these volcanoes. Here, subduction melting forms
elongated chains of volcanoes following the shape of the trench, called volcanic
or island arcs. Mount Pinatubo and Mount Mayon are situated near this type of
plate boundary.
● Intraplate volcanism- These volcanoes are situated within the plate far from a
divergent or convergent boundary. It is believed that a hot mantle plume is the
source of magma.

When does eruption takes place?

● An eruption takes place when magma coming from the chamber rises through the
surface. This happens when enough pressure overcomes the resistance of rocks
on top of the magma chamber.

Lava Flows
● Lava flows move slowly and follow low areas. Upper surfaces which are exposed
to air cool faster than the remaining part of the melt to form lava tubes​.
● If a part of the tube collapses, the actively flowing lava is exposed forming a
skylight.

Classification of Lava Flows

● ​pahoehoe (pronounced as “pah-hoy-hoy”)
○ a smooth and ropy surface
● aa (pronounced as ah-ah)
○ jagged and angular corners.
● Columnar joints may also be formed from lava flows. They have a distinctive
pattern of columns bounded by fractures. As the lava cools, contraction takes
place producing forces that result in the formation of joints.

Volcanic rocks
● Lava that solidifies forms volcanic rocks. Examples of these are basalt, andesite,
and rhyolite. Minerals comprising these rocks are fine-grained compared to
plutonic rocks which are coarser. Obsidian (a rock composed mainly of volcanic
glass), pumice, and scoria may also be spewed out during eruptions.
Magma Discharge
● Effusive eruption
○ Low or high viscosity lava
■ Viscosity depends on the type of material of the magma
■ Low viscosity lava moves quickly and can cover hundreds of miles
● Ex. Mount Etna (1989)
■ High Viscosity lava moves slowly which allows magma to balance
solidify above the vent forming lava domes
● Ex. Bezymianny Volcano (1956)
○ Happens underwater
■ Under the sea, effusive eruptions can also take place since the
pressure underwater limits the expansion of gas that may lead to an
explosive eruption
● Explosive Eruption
○ Fragmented lava-spewing
■ This occurs due to the expansion of dissolved gases in magma
within the vent.
■ As magma rises to the surface, the pressure inside it weakens
forming gas bubbles. As magma approaches the surface, bigger
bubbles formed. As a result, great pressure inside the bubbles is
formed than the surrounding magma. When this happens, instead of
ejecting magma liquid with gas bubbles, bubbles with magma
fragments are spewed through the air as pyroclasts.
● Pyroclasts- also known as tephra
○ Volcanic fragments that are spewed during an
explosive eruption
Morphology of Volcanoes
● Volcanoes differ from one another in terms of form or morphology
● The morphology of volcanoes is influenced by the viscosity of lava during a
volcanic eruption

Types of Volcanoes based on morphology

● Shield
○ Produced by the accumulation of basaltic lavas
○ Lava flows gently through the vent and spread widely forming a flat wide
cone
○ Resemble a warrior’s shield and have gentle slopes
○ Ex. Mauna Loa in Hawaii- world’s largest shield volcano
● Cinder cone
○ Formed when magma from inside the vent contains a lot of dissolved gases
which caused clogging and build-up of gases and pressure leading to a
violent explosion.
 ○ Lava together with the rocks and soils surrounding the vent are thrown
upwards. As lava reaches the air, it eventually cools and reaches the
ground in solidified fragments producing a steep narrow cone. This type of
volcano resembles cinders. Thus, the name cinder cone volcano
○ Ex. Bud Dajo in Sulu
● Composite
○ Composite or stratovolcanos is usually large, conical, and have
symmetrical structures. They consist of alternating layers of pyroclastic
materials and lava flows
○ Ex. Mount Mayon in Albay

Classification of Volcanoes
● Active
○ Erupted during the past 10,000 years
○ Ex. Mt. Mayon, Mt. Hibok-Hibok, Mt. Pimatubo, Mt. taal
● Potentially Active
○ Young in morphology and no historical record of eruption
○ Ex. Mt. Isarog, Mt. Apo, Mt. Silay, Mt. malindig
● Inactive
○ No record of eruption
○ Ex. Mt, Dalupiri, Mt. Arayat, Mt. Palay-Palay, Mt. Pulag
In the Philippines, there are 23 active, 26 potentially active, and more than hundreds of
inactive volcanoes

Volcanism in other planets

● Volcanism also takes place in the nearby terrestrial planets. On our planet,
volcanism occurs in hotspots, rifting, and subduction zones. Mars and Venus
have volcanism related to hotspots that produced extensive basaltic plains.

L3: PLUTONISM

Plutonism Theory
● Recognized by James Hutton in the 18th century
● states that rocks were formed from heat-driven processes.
● This heat comes from the interior of Earth.
● Another fundamental aspect of plutonism is that the processes are constant and
slow. This theory was not widely accepted during Hutton’s lifetime but became the
foundation of modern geology.
● Plutonism opposed Neptunism’s idea of the origin of granites. ​
○ Neptunist theory of the origin of granites states that these rocks are the
oldest precipitates from a primordial sea. Hutton, on the other hand,
proposed that granites are intrusive igneous rocks. He observed that
granites cut across sediment layers, thus, granite must have been injected
into country-rock making it younger than the sediments.
Example of platonic rocks
● Gabbro
● Diorite
● Granite
● Peridotite

Plutonic
● can be used to classify rocks that formed in the interior of Earth
● opposite of volcanic rocks which form on the crust.
● They have grains that are much coarser compared to volcanic equivalents
Plutons
● As magma rises to the crust, it can displace the host or country rock to form
structures called plutons. Uplift and erosion expose these structures. They vary in
size and shape and may be classified as discordant or concordant structures.

Classifications of Plutons
>Discordant
● Cut across existing structures
● Example: Dike- an igneous body that cuts across bedding surfaces or other
structures of the country-rock.
>Concordant
● injected parallel to features in the country-rock such as sedimentary beds
● Example: lacoliths and Sills- nearly horizontal igneous bodies that form when
magma exploits weak spots between the sedimentary beds or other structures
--
>Batholiths
● Plutons may occur as massive intrusive bodies like batholiths​. Batholiths are by
far the largest intrusive igneous bodies with lengths of up to several hundreds of
kilometers and width of up to 100 kilometers. They have surface exposures
greater than 100 square kilometers.

>Stocks
● Smaller plutons are termed stocks.
UNIT 12: METAMORPHISM

L1: WHAT IS METAMORPHISM

Metamorphism and Protolith

> Metamorphism
● Meta- change
● Morph- form
● the process of changing the characteristics of a rock as a result of changes in
temperature, pressure, or reactions with hot fluids.
● This process takes place when the pre-existing rock is subjected to a physical or
chemical environment that is different from where it was formed.
● It can range from slight to considerable changes of the parent rock.
● Example: limestone to lapis lazuli
>Protolith
● The pre-existing rock that undergoes metamorphism
● It can be igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic
● Weathering and diagenesis are also processes that change pre-existing rocks, but
these are restricted to temperatures below 200 C and pressures below 300 MPa.
● Metamorphism of a protolith occurs at temperature and pressure conditions
higher than the latter values. The upper limit, on the other hand, occurs at
temperature and pressure where the rock begins to melt.
● Partial melting of the rock (>5%) would suggest an igneous process.
● Metamorphism of the protolith changes the texture and mineralogy (mineral
composition) of the original rock. This occurs usually during burial, tectonic
movements, heating, and the presence of chemically active fluids.

Process Involved in Rock Metamorphosis

>Recrystallization
● refers to the growth of mineral grains of pre-existing minerals.
● This solid-state process changes the mineral’s size and shape.
● An example of this process can be observed in the formation of quartzite, where
quartz minerals fuse together to form a more interlocking state.
>Neocrystallization
● the process where new minerals are formed from the decomposition of old
minerals.
● Chemical reactions decompose the old minerals and produce new ones. In this
rather slow process, atoms diffuse through solid crystals.
>Phase change
● characterized by a change in mineral structure, while retaining the same chemical
composition.
● Minerals involved in this process are called polymorphs of one another.
 ● Polymorphs are chemically similar but structurally different from each other (e.g.,
quartz and cristobalite, both SiO2 ). Minerals change according to which
polymorph is most stable under existing conditions.

>Pressure Solution
● takes place when mineral grains dissolve in areas where there is higher pressure.
● The dissolved grains then recrystallize in areas with lower pressure.
● This usually occurs when rocks are squeezed in one direction with the presence
of water.

>Plastic Deformation
● Usually, when rocks are subjected to deformational forces, they break. In some
instances, when the temperature is high, minerals can behave like plastic and
● stretch instead of break.

L2: TYPE OF METAMORPHISM

Metamorphic Grade
● Refers to the relative temperature and pressure conditions during the formation of
the metamorphic rocks. The spectrum includes low-grade, intermediate, and
high-grade metamorphism.
● Low-grade metamorphism occurs in environments where the temperature is
between 200 C and 320 C and has low-pressure values.
● High-grade metamorphism, on the other hand, takes place at temperatures greater
than 320 oC.

Prograde Metamorphism
● takes place when temperature and pressure are increased
● This occurs when rocks are buried deeply.
● The process forms minerals that are stable at higher temperatures and pressure.
● In prograde metamorphism, water molecules from minerals are usually squeezed
out, forming “drier” rocks.
● Example: Phyllite- It forms from slate and changes into schist if the pressure and
temperature continue to increase.

Retrograde Metamorphism
● happens when temperature and pressure decrease
● This process requires the addition of hydrothermal fluids or water. Without these
fluids, high-grade rocks cannot be turned into retrograde ones. In this process,
rocks are usually brought back to the surface in a process called exhumation.
● An example of rocks under retrograde metamorphism is chlorite schist, it forms
from muscovite schist when pressure and temperature cause muscovite to
change into chlorite.
 ● Retrograde is not a common process because a chemical reaction takes place
slowly at lower temperatures
● Another reason is that fluids that speed up chemical reactions are usually
squeezed out during prograde metamorphism. The absence of these fluids means
the unavailability of substances that could speed up chemical reactions.

Types of Metamorphism

> Contact Metamorphism

● Also known as thermal metamorphism
● occurs adjacent to igneous intrusions
○ An igneous intrusion is a large and hot body of igneous rock that is
cooling below the surface of Earth and is known as a pluton. Heat is
transferred from the hot body to nearby rocks, which are relatively cooler.
○ As a result, metamorphic aureoles are formed. These are zones where
metamorphism has taken place. Outside this zone, the rocks are not
metamorphosed. The grade of metamorphism increases towards the
intrusion.
● Contact metamorphism is high-temperature, low-pressure metamorphism.
● Hornfels is usually formed in this type of metamorphism.

> Burial Metamorphism

● occurs when rocks are buried to depths of several hundred meters
● Temperature change is due to the geothermal gradient.
● This process may form new minerals and produce low-grade rocks.

> Dynamic Metamorphism

● occurs when two bodies of a rock slide past each other along faults
● The sliding action produces heat and crushes and pulverizes the rocks
● usually occurring along plate boundaries
● Rocks called mylonites are formed once the conditions permit ductile (plastic)
deformation- characterized by very fine grains, usually hard and splintery.

> Regional Metamorphism

● occurs over large areas that experience differential stress.
○ Differential stress is the stress produced by deformational forces, which
occur at convergent boundaries.
● Rocks formed in this type of metamorphism are foliated and of varying grades,
such as slate, schist, and gneiss.
> Hydrothermal Metamorphism
● usually takes place along mid-ocean ridges
● Ocean water seeps through cracks and is heated up by nearby magma to form
hydrothermal fluids.
○ These hydrothermal fluids alter rocks to form hydrous minerals such as
talc and chlorite. Hydrous minerals are those that contain water in their
crystal structure.
● Since chlorite is a green mineral, rocks formed in this type of metamorphism are
usually green and are often called greenstones.

> Shock Metamorphism

● When meteorites reach the Earth, their kinetic energies are transformed into a
large amount of heat.
● The impact of these bodies causes rocks in contact to melt or even vaporize.
● Metamorphic rocks may form in the process of shock metamorphism.
● In this type of metamorphism, high-pressure polymorphs of quartz are usually
formed. This includes coesite and stishovite.

L3: FACTORS CONTROLLING METAMORPHISM

Four Factors that Controlled the Process of metamorphism

● Temperature
● Pressure
● Chemically active fluid
● Time

Effects of thermal Energy in Rock Formation

● Heat or thermal energy produced by an increase in temperature triggers chemical
reactions, which can cause recrystallization and/or neocrystallization.
● Thermal energy that causes metamorphism comes from two sources:
○ First source is the heat that comes from ascending magmas as in the case
of contact metamorphism. Intrusive bodies or plutons alter the texture and
mineralogy of the surrounding rocks to form metamorphic rocks. -Igneous
intrusions
○ Another source of heat comes from Earth’s geothermal gradient.
● Rocks on the surface may experience an increase in temperature if they are
subjected to burial. Clay minerals become unstable at depths of about 8 km where
temperature ranges from 150 to 200 oC. These minerals recrystallize to form other
more stable minerals such as chlorite and muscovite.
Effects of Pressure in Rock Formation
● Just like temperature, pressure also increases with depth.
● When minerals with spaces in their lattices are subjected to high amounts of
pressure, they collapse forming much denser crystals.
● At depths of about 40 to 100 km, pressure is 10,000 to 30,000 times greater than
that on the surface.
● Rocks and minerals that are buried that deep experience two types of pressure or
stress: uniform stress and differential stress.

TYPES OF PRESSURE OR STRESS

>UNIFORM STRESS

● Also known as hydrostatic stress is defined as the pressure with the same
magnitude in all directions.
● This type of stress is usually experienced by rocks that are far from fault lines or
tectonic boundaries.

>DIFFERENTIAL STRESS
● the type of stress where forces are unequal in different directions.
● This can be visualized through mountain building processes.
● Differential stress can cause ‘shortening’ of rocks in the direction parallel to the
stress and ‘elongation’ in the direction perpendicular to it.
● Differential stress can be normal or shear.
○ Normal stress: compresses objects in the direction of maximum stress
and extends them where stress is minimal
○ Shear stress: smears out objects in the direction of the stress
--
● Rocks tend to be brittle at low temperatures and pressures. This causes rocks to
fracture when differential stress is applied to them.
● In contrast, materials at higher temperatures and pressures are ductile. Instead of
breaking, rocks tend to flow, elongating the minerals.

Effects of Fluids in Rock Formation

● Fluids that surround mineral grains are important in the process of
metamorphism.
● These fluids (usually water) contain ions.
● Chemically active fluids enhance chemical reactions as they provide a medium for
the migration of ions.
● Metasomatism refers to the alteration that occurs as a result of these fluids. Other
sources of fluids are groundwater percolating downward, water and volatiles from
magma, and water from metamorphic processes.
Effects of Time in Rock formation
● Metamorphism is a slow process that involves several subprocesses. These
processes are slow since metamorphic rocks are formed with the protolith rock
remaining in solid form. They do not go into a molten state, unlike igneous rocks,
which are formed from molten magma, which flows.
● Metamorphic rocks which contain large crystals need time to form, on a scale of
tens of millions of years. Recrystallization and neocrystallization are slow
processes that are aided by pressure from Earth’s interior and tectonic plate
activities. The addition of hydrothermal fluids is aided by volcanic activity.
Tectonic plates move very slowly, which means that dynamic and regional
metamorphism all proceed slowly as well.
● Igneous intrusions only form when volcanoes become active or when magma
deposits are pushed up from the ground. These processes can take place over
thousands of years.

UNIT 14: PLATE TECTONICS

L1: THE SEAFLOOR SPREADING

Development of Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis

● Proposed by by Harry Hess​, a petrologist at Princeton University,
● and Robert Dietz​, an oceanographer in the US Coast and Geodetic Survey.
● Hess suggested that the oceanic crust together with overlying continental crust
are moving. He stated that oceanic crust spreads, starts to cool down, and
become denser as it moves away from the ridge. This colder and denser oceanic
crust is subducted into the oceanic trenches and will be later on melted and
recycled in the mantle. Additionally, the movement of the seafloor is driven by
convection in the mantle.
● Palemoagnetism is used as evidence for seafloor spreading.
○ because basaltic lavas contain iron-bearing minerals which record the
magnetic orientation of Earth once the lava cooled.
● The magnetic orientation of the oceanic crust together with the determination of
the age of rocks through radiometric dating and data from Deep Sea Drilling
Project help support that the ocean floor is spreading.
● Example: Reykjanes Ridge- The colored stripes represent normal polarity while
the white stripes represent reversed polarity. The stripes have an alternating
pattern and is arranged symmetrically on both sides of the ridge. This discovery
leads to the conclusion of geologists that there is a sequence of events that lead
to the alternating bands of normal and reversed polarity of the oceanic crust.
The formation of the alternating bands magnetic stripes in the oceanic crust
● New oceanic crust continuously forms as basaltic lava rises along the ridge and
as it cools, it spreads outward from the ridge.
● As the lava cools, it aligns with Earth’s magnetic polarity.
● The orientation of Earth’s magnetic field changes every half-million years in
average. Therefore, the magnetic stripes actually record the magnetic orientation
of Earth when the basaltic lava cooled.
● This mechanism leads the scientists to the concept of seafloor spreading that
explains the source of new oceanic crust.
● The seafloor spreading hypothesis and the plate tectonic theory greatly helped the
geologist in explaining the origin and the features of the ​mid-oceanic ridge ​which
is Earth’s largest mountain chain.

Mid Oceanic Ridge

● Earth’s largest mountain chain
● one of the most spectacular features found in the deep ocean floor which covers
20% of Earth’s surface
● a continuous submarine mountain with a length exceeding 80 000 kilometers, and
some parts have a width of more than 1500 kilometers
● slightly elevated area formed by the submarine mountain was caused by the
relatively lower density of the fresh hot lava coming through the cracks.
● As the new lithosphere moved away from the ridge, it started to cool down
creating a thicker, denser, and slightly sinking oceanic crust. The heat flow at the
ridge is several times greater than the other parts of the ocean basin due to the
heat flowing from the asthenosphere beneath the spreading center as well as the
heat flow from the rising magma.
● Mid-Atlantic ridge is the segment of mid-oceanic ridge which is 1 to 2 kilometers
deep and several kilometers wide.
○ The research was conducted in this area and was found to be made up of
fresh basaltic lava that is not yet covered by sediments.
○ They observed that it is at its thinnest near the ridge axis and gradually
thickens as it moves farther from the ridge.
● shallow earthquakes are common in the mid-oceanic ridge due to the fracturing of
the crust as two lithospheric crusts moved away from each other.
● Transform faults are also extensive in the mid-oceanic ridge dividing it into
several short segments that are slightly offset from each other. Offsets from the
ridge may range from less than a kilometer to hundreds of kilometers.
Parts of the Ocean FLoor
● Smokers- high-temperature geothermal vents found near or along mid-oceanic
ridge
○ spew dark, mineral-rich fluids once in contact with the hot basaltic lava
● Oceanic trenches- greatest oceanic depths
○ long, steep-sided depressions on the seafloor found near convergent plate
boundaries and represent 2% of the seafloor area
● Seamount- a submarine mountain that has a height of 1 kilometer or more above
the sea floor
● Volcanic island- If seamount rises above sea level it is called volcanic island.
○ made up of basalt caused by the hot spot above the mantle plume
○ form within a tectonic plate rather than at its boundary
● Guyot- flat-topped seamount
● Abbyssal plains- flat areas in the ocean floor
○ comprised of basaltic oceanic crust covered by deep sea sediments
UNIT 15: HISTORY OF EARTH

L1: HOW LAYERS OF ROCKS ARE FORMED

● Prior to the eighteenth century, people believed that fossils were placed in rocks
by supernatural beings.
● Aristotle, around 300 B.C. suggested that inorganic life-like shapes grew within
rocks.
● It was Nicolaus Steno who suggested that fossils were fragments of organisms
which were hardened into rock.

Fossils in Sedimentary Rocks

● Fossils
○ remains of organisms that lived prior to the last glacial period about 10 000
years ago
○ may include skeletons, tracks, impressions and casts and are primarily
associated with sedimentary rocks
● Therefore, fossils are never formed in sedimentary rocks, these were just
embedded and preserved in between rock layers.
● Fossils are usually seen in sedimentary rocks because as organisms die, its
remains will sink at the bottom and will eventually be covered with sediments.
This is a long time process that eventually creates an imprint in the sediment.
Other minerals can replace the imprints and the sediment which has to turn into
sedimentary rocks can now be uncovered. Then, fossils can now be seen in the
sedimentary rock.

How layers of rocks are formed?

1. Rivers bring sediments to the ocean. Sedimentary rocks containing fossils formed
on the ocean floor.
2. Overtime, additional strata are added, containing fossils from each time period.
3. As sea level changed and the seafloor is pushed upward, sedimentary rocks are
exposed. Erosion by rivers reveals strata: older strata contain older fossils

Sedimentary Rocks in Strata

● Sandstones- sediments with 63 μm upto 2mm
● Mudstones- 62 μm and below
● Conglomerate- greater than 2mm

Example of Crocodile turned into a Fossil

● An ancient crocodile dies in a river
● Sediments cover the body
● Over millions of years, the sediments becomes rock and the crocodile becomes a
fossil.
● The rock erodes exposing a fossil
Steno’s Law
● Nicolaus Steno (latin name)
○ A Danish anatomist, and a priest ( Niels Stensen)
○ formulated a set of principles describing layers of sedimentary rocks in
1669
○ Published “De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis
prodromus” whose English translation is Forerunner to a dissertation on a
solid naturally contained within a solid.
○ His publication contained propositions that until now are fundamental in
geology especially in stratigraphy. These principles which are now called
Steno’s law holds true until today and considered as important guiding
knowledge in dating rocks.
Statigraphy
● Branch of geology that studies stratified or layered rocks in terms of time and
space.
Stratum
● (plural strata) is the term used to describe rocks that form layers or beds
● contains certain rock type and may also enclose fossils
● Common rock types include sandstones , mudstones , and conglomerates
● Each stratum maybe different based on some characteristics such as color, size of
particles, and mineral composition.
● Wind and water play abig role in the formation of strata. It determines the size and
particles that are to be deposited.
Stratification
● the layering that occurs in most sedimentary rocks
Stratification forms due to:
● Changes in composition or texture
● Pauses in the deposition
Lamination
● Refers to planar structure that are less than one centimeter in thickness
Beds
● Division of rock series Thicker than one centimeter
○ Bedding planes refer to the surface that separates one stratum from the
other.
Cross beding
● Cross bedidng are sedimentary structures that are characterized by inclined beds
or laminations bounded by coplanar or scoop-shaped surfaces
● Presence of cross beds indicates transport of sediments such as sands by
currents flow over sediment surface
● Cross beds may also be formed by wind blowing over sand surfaces forming
dunes
 ● The cross beds orientation indicates the direction of the wind during the
deposition time of sediments.
● Graded beds are characterized by change in size of sediments from coarse at the
bottom and finer sediments going upward. They form in waning currents which
formed between continental shelves and ocean basins during slope failure. The
movement of materials downward produces high energy causing mixing of
sediments and water. In time, the sediments settle and coarser grains tend to
occupy the bottom part followed by the settling of finer sediments.

Ripple Marks
● Structures left by stream channels and may indicate presence of these bodies of
water in the area.
● They are analogous to cross bedding, but are smaller in scale.
Mud Cracks
● Mud cracks are structures produced by drying out of water rich in mud.
● They usually form polygon and are used to determine the top and bottom of beds.

Principles of Statigraphy

> Law of Original Horizontality

● states that sediments are generally deposited horizontally
● In areas where the depositional environment has a slope, the sediments will follow
the surface of deposition.
> Principle of Lateral Continuity
● states that layers of sediments spread out in all directions until they thin out at the
edge of the depositional basin or grade into a different kind of sediment
> Law of Superposition
● states that in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, beds on top are
younger than the beds found below and each layer is younger than the one
beneath it
> Principle of Cross- Cuting Relationships
● states that geologic features that cut across rocks are younger than the rocks
which they cut through (ex. Igneous intrusions)

L2: RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATIING

● the goal of geology is to be able to determine the history of Earth, geologists

uses rocks to study what took place in the past.
● They get an idea of the time of each event using relative and absolute dating.
● To give you an overview, relative dating gives the arrangement of events based on
rock sequence, while absolute dating gives the actual date of the rock or period of
an event.
Relative Dating
● Relative dating uses a sequence of rocks to get a grasp on the succession of
events that took place in the past.
● These do not tell the duration of the event but give an idea of what followed or
preceded the event.
● Although relative dating cannot give actual ages, it is still widely used.
● Relative dating cannot provide actual numerical deeds of rocks, it only tells that
one rock is older than the other, but does not tell how old each of the rocks is.
● Principles on stratigraphy, by Nicholas Steno or the Steno's laws, are applied to
establish relative ages of rocks.

Absolute dating
● Absolute dating numerical dating allows the determination of the exact numerical
age of rocks and fossils by measuring their radioactive decay.
○ Radioactive decay is the process through which the parent isotope
produces a daughter isotope by losing elementary particles from its
nucleus. Recall that isotopes are elements that have the same number of
protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons. Isotopes that
undergo radioactive decay are called radioactive isotopes or simply
radioisotopes. The concept here is that the radioisotope used for numerical
dating has been decaying at a fixed rate since the formation of the rock
where it occurs. In radioactive isotope in the rock decays in there with
stable daughter isotope. The decay occurs at a predictable rate, so the age
of the sample could be determined. The absolute data on rocks are
obtained through radiometric methods.
○ Radioactivity involves breaking down of parent nuclei by to produce
daughter nuclei.
○ Half-life is the time required for one-half of the nuclei of the isotope to
decay.
○ Radiometric methods rely on the radioactive decay of elements
■ It is also used to date igneous and some metamorphic rocks but not
sedimentary rocks (because sedimentary rocks are comprised of
sediments and the age of these sediments corresponds to the age of
the formation of the original rock where the sediments were derived.
○ There are many isotopes that occur but only about five among them are
used in dating rocks. The exact age of rocks that were formed millions of
years ago, may be determined using:
■ Rubidium- 87
■ Uranium- 238
■ Uranium- 235
■ Potassium- 40
■ Fossils that contains organic materials can be dated using
Carbon-14 but this can only be used to date materials that are up to
60 000 years old
How are relative and absolute dating used in determining the subdivisions of geologic
time scale?
● The geologic time scale shows the geologic time intervals based on the geologic
rock records.
● Its calibrated by integrated results from relative and absolute dating
● In calibrating the geologic time scale, raw data composed of strata or layers are
first reviewed then the unique succession of events and the layers are recognized
based on the laws of relative dating leading into a chronological order of events.
The numerical or absolute age of the events is given using absolute dating or
radiometric methods. Then, a calibrated geologic time is produced.
● Take note that absolute dating provides the age for each layer while relative dating
provides at least six strata with relative ages first and last occurrences of the
fossil and the volcanic eruption events. From these steps, geologists are able to
provide up-to-date geologic time scales, showing the geologic time intervals
which describe the relationship between the events that happened throughout the
earth’s history.
L3: GUIDE FOSSILS AND GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Principle of Fossil Succession

● In the late eighteenth century, French paleontologists, Georges Cuvier, and
Alexandre Brongniart together with an English geologist, William Smith, published
the first geologic maps.
● They have recognized that rocks of the same age, even if separated by
long-distance, may contain the same fossils. Smith’s field observation helped in
formulating a basic principle called, “principle of fossil succession”. It states that
fossils succeed one another in a definite order and any time period can be
recognized by the fossils present.

Fossils
1. Body fossils- remains of the whole body or parts of it
2. Trace of fossils- tracks, burrows, or dung of organisms
Index Fossils
● Fossils that existed for limited time periods
● distributed in a wide area
● Their short time frame makes them useful in dating rocks
Good index fossils
● geographically widely distributed
● limited in a short span of geologic time
● distinct and easily recognizable
● abundant
Example of good index fossils
● Trilobites
● Ammonites
● Crinoids
● Rugose corals
● Mollusks
● In the form of small microscopic planktons that floats in the ocean

--
● Through the help of index fossils, geologists were able to create a geologic time
scale. Since index fossils are short-lived, seeing them in a certain rock layer
would mean that if they were found in other rock layers in other locations, you
could conclude that these fossils occur in one particular geologic time.
● Geologic time scale is a two-fold scale subdividing all the time since the formation
of the Earth and all the rocks formed ever since.
● Geologic time scale is always subjected to constant revision and refinement
L4: EARTH’S HISTORY FROM THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

● Earth has formed 4.6 billion years ago. Events that took place on the planet in its
vast history can be better understood using the geologic time scale. This time
scale is divided into units that are marked with each geologic event.

Geological time scale

● Divided into eons, eras, periods, and epoch
Eons
● represent the greatest expanse of time.

> Phanerozoic
○ Began 542 million years ago
○ The term means ‘visible life’ and is assigned to rock units that bear
abundant fossils.
> Precambrian
○ The other earlier 4 billion years of Earth’s history is called Precambrian.
○ refers to the time between the birth of the planet and the appearance of life
forms.
○ Represents about 88% of Earth’s History
○ Hadean- hades to refer to the earliest time interval of the earth
○ Divided into Proterozoic and Archean
● Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras:

Eras
● marked by major changes in the fossil record
● This subdivision of geologic time is generally based on the life form existing in
each period.
○ Paleozoic era- ancient life (age of invertebrates)
■ life forms during this era are mostly animals without backbones
including trilobites and corals
■ It is divided into six periods:
● Cambrian
● Ordovician
● Silurian
● Devonian
● Carboniferous
● Permian

○ Mesozoic era- middle life ( age of reptiles)

■ Reptiles especially dinosaurs roamed the planet during this era.
■ It is divided into three periods:
● Triassic
● Jurassic
● Cretaceous
○ Cenozoic era- recent life ( age of mammals)
■ This era marks the evolution of different species of mammals.
■ This era also includes the time when the first humans appeared.
■ It is subdivided into two periods:
● Tertiary
● quaternary
Epochs
● the shortest subdivision.
● Epochs are marked by changes in life form and may vary from continent to
continent.
● The time span for each of these events can be seen in the geologic time scale.
Some range from thousands of years while others range to up to millions of years.
--
● A geologic time scale is a two-fold scale subdividing all the time since the
formation of Earth and all the rocks formed ever since. The time span for each of
the events can be seen in the geologic time scale. Some range from thousands of
years while others range to up to millions of years. Using the scale, one can
determine Earth’s history by knowing what event corresponds to each unit.