Chemistry is the study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter, the processes that

matter undergoes, and the energy changes that the accompany these processes.
A chemical is any substance that has a definite composition.
1. Organic chemistry—the study of most carbon-containing compounds.
2. Inorganic chemistry—the study of non-organic substances.
3. Physical chemistry—the study of the properties and changes of matter and their relation to
energy.
4. Analytical chemistry—the identification of the components and composition of materials.
5. Biochemistry—the study of substances and processes occurring in living things.
6. Theoretical chemistry—the use of mathematics and computers to understand the principles
behind observed chemical behavior and to design and predict the properties of new
compounds.
Basic research & applied research & Technological development
1. Basic research is carried out for the sake of increasing knowledge, such as how and why a
specific reaction occurs and what the properties of a substance are.
2. Applied research is generally carried out to solve a problem.
3. Technological development typically involves the production and use of products that
improve our quality of life, examples include computers and biodegradable materials.
Mass & volume & matter
1. Volume is the amount of three-dimensional (3D) space an object occupies.
2. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter.
3. Matter can thus be defined as anything that has mass and take up space. These two properties
are the general properties of all matter.
You need to know the names of these state transitions of matter.
→
Sublimation
Melting boiling
Solid liquid gas
Freezing condensing
Deposition
Reverse sublimation
←
states solid liquid gas
arrangement regular, touch each other touch each other far away from each other
movement vibrate vibrate and move vibrate and move faster and further
energy lowest move highest

Particles in a solid are closely packed and can vibrate but cannot move around, they have low
energies.
Particles in a liquid are still closely packed, but can both vibrate and move around within the
liquid because they have more energy-enough to overcome the forces that hold the particles
together in the solid.
Particles in a gas are widely spread out and can both vibrate and move around freely. They have
the most energy of the three states.
Elements: Definition: An element contains only one type of atom.
Compounds: Definition: Compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine.
Homogeneous & heterogeneous mixture
Mixtures that are uniform in composition are said to be homogeneous. They have the same
proportion of components throughout. Homogeneous mixtures are also called solutions. E.g.
Cereal in milk, ice in cola, soil, blood.
Mixtures that are not uniform throughout are said to be heterogenous. E.g. vodka, steel, air,
rain.
Difference between mixture and compounds:
In a mixture of elements, each element keeps its own properties, but the properties of the
compound are quite different.
Each substance has its own special melting point and boiling point. For example, melting point
and boiling point of pure water is 0°C and 100°C.
The presence of impurities lowers the melting point of a substance and raises the boiling point can
be very useful in determining whether or not a substance is pure.
Report
Introduction
Hypothesis
Experiment
Result
Conclusion

Simple distillation
Round flask
Thermometer
Bursen burner
Condenser
Becker
Simple distillation
Simple distillation can be used to separate liquids, or solvent from a solution.
Fractional distillation can separate the liquid mixture with close boiling points.
There are glass bubbles in the column and these glass rods work to cool the gas that didn’t reach
the boiling point into a liquid and back into the flask.
Centrifugation of blood
A centrifuge can be used to separate certain solid components. The centrifuge spins rapidly, which
causes the heavier things to settle to the bottom of the test tube.
Solution & saturated solution
When a solid dissolves in a liquid:
 The substance that dissolves is called the solute
 The liquid it dissolves in is called the solvent
 The liquid formed is a solution.
Saturated solution: a saturated solution is a solution which contains as much dissolved solid as
possible at a particular temperature.
Crystallization
Definition:
Crystallization is a method for transforming a solution into a solid.
CuSO4, beaker, burner, tripod, gauze, glass rod, cord
Solubility curves
Why
For many solids dissolved in liquid water, the solubility increases with temperature.
Adding more heat facilitates the dissolving reaction by providing
Why can crystals form when a solution cools?
(The theory of crystallization)
Crystallization is based on the principles of solubility: compounds
As we said before, a substance has its specific melting point, so you can use this method to help
you identify if the substance is pure or not. It means that if the substance has a narrow range of
melting points, it would be a pure substance.
Principle
A centrifuge is used to separate particles in a liquid according to particle size, density and
viscosity.
Chromatography
Chromatography is a technique used to separate mixtures. Information forms a chromatography
investigation can also be used to identify different substances.
Principle of paper chromatography
The solubility of each component or ink determines how fast it will travel up the chromatography
paper when carried along by the solvent (the more soluble, the faster the component moves), so
the components end up being separated. Insoluble components won’t move at all.

Properties of metals
Metals are solid at room temperature, expect mercury.
They have high melting point.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They are malleable. Easily bent into shapes.
They are ductile. Drawn out into wires.

Properties of non-metals
They are solid, liquid and gas. C is solid, Br is liquid and O is gas.
They have lower melting points than metals.
They are insulator and do not conduce heat and electricity.
They are brittle. Hard but easily break.
They are dull. Lacking brightness.

Properties of metalloids
They are solid at room temperature.
Some metalloids like Boron and Silicon have high melting point.
They are semi-conductors of heat and electricity.
They have metallic luster. Reflective surface.
They are brittle. Hard but easily break.
Noble gas
The elements in Group 18 of the periodic table are the noble gases.
These elements are generally unreactive.
Some noble gases are used to make lighted signs of various colors.
Some noble gases can be used as protection gas to prevent metals or food from oxidizing.

The step of scientific method

Ask a question
↓
Do background research
↓
Construct a hypothesis
↓
Test with an experiment
↓
Procedure working
↓ ↓
No Yes
↓ ↓
No: troubleshoot procedure. Carefully check all steps and set-up.
Test with an experiment

Yes: analyze data and draw conclusion

Results align with hypothesis. Results align partially or not at all with hypothesis
↓
Experimental data becomes background research for new/future project. Ask new question, form
new hypothesis, experiment again.
↓
Construct a hypothesis
…
Communicate result

The fundamental steps of the scientific method.

Steps in the scientific method
1. Making observations.
Observations may be qualitative (the sky is blue, water is a liquid) or quantitative (water boils at
100℃, a certain chemistry book weighs 2 kg.)
A qualitative observation does not involve a number. A quantitative observation (called a
measurement) involves both a number and a unit.
2. Formulating hypotheses. A hypothesis is a possible explanation for an observation. (a graph of
data can show relationships between variables.)
First, it must state an expected relationship between variables. Second, it must be testable and
falsifiable.
Scientific models
A theory, is a set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall explanation of some natural
phenomenon.
A law summarizes what happens, the word “law” is often invoked in reference to a specific
mathematical equation that relates the different elements within a theory.
A model in science is more than a physical object, it is often an explanation of how phenomena
occur and how data or events are related.
Volume cycle
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. The derived SI unit of volume is cubic
meters.

Mixture:
Various substances are mixed together without any chemical reaction.
Homogeneous: air, cola, wine, rain, tea.
Heterogeneous: milk, blood, soil, wood.
NaCl H2O
Solvent H20
Solute NaCl
Solution NaCl + H2O
The liquid formed when a solid dissolve in a liquid.
Saturated solution:
A solution which contains as much as dissolved solid as possible at particular temperature.
Crystallization | Evaporation
(Solute from solution)
Cooling | Heating
Obtained
Solute/solid and solution/liquid | Solute/solid
Principle: solubility
Higher temperature provides more kinetic energy, so the particles have more vibration and more
easily separated.
Solubility=mass of solute/mass of solvent×100%
Simple distillation | Fractional distillation
Liquid mixture with big different boiling point | liquid mixture with closing boiling point
Solvent from solution
Centrifugation blood
Chromatography
1. Draw a basis by pencil
2. Drop a spot of mixture on basic line.
3. Put the paper in a beaker that contains a small amount of solvent.
4. The solvent moved up the paper to about 1 to 2 cm from the top.
5. Remove the paper and dry it.
R=distance spot move from basic line(k1)/distance quotient move from basic line(k2)
Extensive: volume, mass, weight.
Intensive: boiling point, hardness, color.
Physical: color, length, volume.
Chemical: toxicity, reactivity, acidity.
Physical change: state, shape.
Chemical change: new substance formed, color change.
Periodic table
Period: the number of electron shells
Group: the number of outer shell electrons: similar chemical properties.

Properties of metals
Metals are solid at room temperature, expect mercury.
They have high melting point.
They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They are malleable. Easily bent into shapes.
They are ductile. Drawn out into wires.

Properties of non-metals
They are solid, liquid and gas. C is solid, Br is liquid and O is gas.
They have lower melting points than metals.
They are insulator and do not conduce heat and electricity.
They are brittle. Hard but easily break.
They are dull. Lacking brightness.

Properties of metalloids
They are solid at room temperature.
Some metalloids like Boron and Silicon have high melting point.
They are semi-conductors of heat and electricity.
They have metallic luster. Reflective surface.
They are brittle. Hard but easily break.

Noble gas
The elements in Group 18 of the periodic table are the noble gases.
These elements are generally unreactive.
Some noble gases are used to make lighted signs of various colors.
Some noble gases can be used as protection gas to prevent metals or food from oxidizing.
Quantities are inversely proportional if one decreases in value when the other increases.

How to do research?
The scientific method is a logical approach to solving problems by observing and collecting data,
formulating hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and formulating theories that are supported by data.
(definition)

A qualitative observation (does not involve a number)

A quantitative observation (called a measurement) (involves both a number and a unit)
A theory, is a set of tested hypotheses that gives an overall explanation of some natural
phenomenon.
A law summarizes what happens. The word “law” is often invoked in reference to a specific
mathematical equation that relates the different elements within a theory.
A model in science is more than a physical object; it is often an explanation of how phenomenon
occur and how data or events are related.
lighter particles
greater deflection
magnetic or electric
the mass
Atomic number = proton number
Mass number = proton + neutron
Relative atomic mass: the average mass of naturally occurring atoms.
Calculating average atomic mass
Atomic mass = (fraction of isotope 1×mass of isotope 1)+ (fraction of isotope 2×mass of isotope
2)+……
Dalton’s atomic theory
1. All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of an element are identical in size, mass, and other properties; atoms of different
elements differ in size, mass, and other properties.
3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form chemical
compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms are combined, separated, or rearranged.
Three basic laws
The law of conservation of mass, mains the total mass of the products formed in a reaction is
equal to the total mass of reactants.
The law of definite proportions
Samples of a given compound always contain the same proportion of elements by mass.
The law of multiple proportions
If two or more different compounds are composed of the same two elements, then the ratio of the
masses of the second element combined with a certain mass of the first element is always a ratio
of small whole numbers.
Avogadro’s number: 6.022×10^23
Molar mass
The mass of one mole of a pure substance is called the molar mass of that substance.
1. Mole: n(mol)=m(g)/M(g/mol)
2. Mass: m(g)=n(mol)×M(g/mol)
3. Amount: n(mol)×6.022×10^23