Components of a Structure

The fundamental objective of structural design is the

enclosure of space for human activities
Theory and Design of Structures I
Choice of Structure

Span as governing factor

Structures are designed to carry loads Basic concepts

Vertical load: Bending moment (BM)
• Dead load (DL): Own weight (esp. long spans)
Other DL
• Live load (LL): Occupants, furniture, etc

Horizontal load:
• Wind, earthquake, machinery, etc.

1
 Basic concepts Post-and-beam structure
Shear force (SF)
Bending and
shear

Mainly axial
• BM & SF act together in most cases. compression

• Internal forces

Post-and-beam structure Cables

Stone: strong in compression; weak in tension
Timber: compressive strength ≈ tensile strength;
not very strong
Steel: compressive strength ≈ tensile strength;
strong Very LARGE
lever arm
Reinforced / prestressed concrete (RC/PC):
concrete in compression
Advanced
steel in tension

2
 Cables Cables
Hanger/ suspender
Main cables
Deck
Pier

Tower/ pylon

Anchorage Anchorage

A typical suspension bridge.

Tent
pitching

Cables Cables
Stay cable
Deck
Pier
Suspension roof with parallel cables,
anchored to the ground.

Tower/ pylon

Abutment
A typical cable-stayed bridge.

Suspension roof with parallel cables,

anchored to banked seats.

3
 Cables Cables
Outer ring in compression

Inner ring in tension

Suspension roof with radial and circumferential cables.

Advanced

Arches Arches

Linear cable Linear arch

Roman semi- Gothic arch
The linear cable and the linear arch circular arch
Comparison between the Gothic arch
and the Roman semicircular arch

Beam to spread
loading
Parabolic cable Parabolic arch
The parabolic cable and the parabolic arch. The
stiffening beam helps to spread the live load so
that it is uniformly loaded along its span
A typical arch bridge

4
 Arches Arches
C

r
RH

RV

(a) A three-pin arch (b) Half of the arch

The arch carries loading because of its rise.

Use of arches to form complex shapes as

in Sydney Opera House.

A series of parallel arches forming a

vaulted roof over a rectangular plan. Arches converging radially to a common crown.

Trusses Trusses
compression C

RL tension T RR
The resistance moment of a parallel-chord truss may
A typical Warren truss (the verticals are optional)
be considered as provided by the compressive force
in the top chord and the tensile force in the bottom
chord, which are separated by the resistance arm a.

5
 Trusses Trusses
Features:
• Pin-jointed • Light members
• Axial forces only • Loaded at joints only Pratt roof truss
Classification:
• Simple trusses • Plane trusses
• Compound trusses • Space trusses
Trussed rafter (a compound truss)
• Complex trusses
Trusses for sloping roofs

Trusses Bracing

(a) Section

(b) Plan

Wind bracing for a factory structure with roof trusses, which consists of bars under the roof

6
 Bracing Bracing

Trusses Rigid frames

Stiffening trusses

7
 Rigid frames Rigid frames

Flat roof Gabled roof

Rigid frames as single-bay roof structures

Rigid frames Rigid frames

Flat roof Gabled roof

Rigid frames as multibay roof structures Normal multi-storey Multi-storey rigid frame
frame without interior G/F columns
Rigid frames as multi-storey structures

8
 Rigid frames Rigid frames

A typical Vierendeel girder (or called

“Vierendeel truss”).

Rigid frames Types of structural members

Stanchion / column (compression)

Bracing
Strut (compression)

Single bracing Cross Bracing

(tension)
Tie

Beam / Girder
(Bending &
shear)

Truss
(Members carrying Slab Wall
axial force)

9
 Horizontal Grids Horizontal Grids
Primary beam

Floor slab
Column

A floor slab supported on primary beams,

which are in turn supported by columns Primary beam / girder

!!
Floor beams
(Secondary beams)

O.K.
A floor slab supported on secondary beams or joists, which
in turn are supported on primary floor beams or girders

Horizontal Grids Another simple experiment

Column Can be neglected
Primary beam
Secondary beam Ruler
Eraser


 
 More flexible; or less stiff

10
 Distribution of load between two beams at right angles Distribution of load between two beams at right angles
Exact proportion depends on the
W relative stiffness of the two beams W Higher curvature
W/4 W/4
RL Higher moment
W/4 W/4
Rs Higher reaction
W

<W/4

Each carries half the >W/4

Rs
load by symmetry >W/4
<W/4

Consider a grid containing two identical simply supported beams RL

carrying a load W at the centre
• Each beam carries half of the load W 2 Rs > 2 RL Advanced
If one beam is longer,
Shorter beam carries more loading
• The stiffer beam carries higher loading

Horizontal Grids Horizontal Grids

A B
A
Advanced
B

Twisted
Not twisted

Beams parallel to Beams diagonal The rigid connections between the members of a horizontal grid
column lines introduce torsion into most members
to column lines
Typical horizontal grids

11
 Internal forces Space Frames

Comparison:
• trusses
Torsion (needs depth)
• beams / girders
• grids
Axial force
• frames
Bending moments (need depth)
• arches
Eiffel Tower –
Shear forces an example of space frame

Space Frames Space Frames

The lamella roof is a 3-D

variation of the diagonal grid
• Bending & torsion (rigid
diagonal grid)
• Compression (arch)

Lamella roof: the space-frame version of

the diagonal grid, which requires rigid Geodesic dome on a hexagonal plan: the
joints for stability. space-frame version of the triangulated
truss, and all joints are “pin joints”

Geodesics: great circles lying on

the surface of a sphere

12
 Space Frames
Space frame for flat roof. Two
layers are needed for stability of a
triangulated “pin-jointed” flat roof
Slabs and Plates
A plate caries the loads placed
upon it by two-way action and
is stronger than a series of
separate planks
• Similar to horizontal grids,
it carries bending, shear
and torsion Two-way action in a
2 layers for stability rectangular plate

Slabs and Plates One-way Slab vs. Two-way Slab

Primary beam / girder a
If  1.5 ,
b b
essentially
Floor beams one-way action
a
(Secondary beams)

a
If 1.5   1,
b b
A floor slab supported on secondary beams or joists, which two-way action
in turn are supported on primary floor beams or girders a

13
 Slabs and Plates Slabs and Plates
• An RC plate supported directly on columns is called Flat plate Flat slab
a flat plate.
• An RC plate supported on enlarged column capitals
is called a flat slab.
Enlarged column capitals help
to reduce punching shear

Without beams, a
shear failure of the
plate around the
column must be
considered.
Punching failure Dropped panel
Flat plate Flat slab

Slabs and Plates Pneumatic Membranes

A typical pneumatic membrane supported

by a small internal excess air pressure

Inflatable bounce house

14
 Pneumatic Membranes Membrane Structures

Air-inflated double-layer
polyethylene greenhouse
Inflatable Santa Claus Cheung Chau Public Pier

Shell Structures Shell Structures

Membrane forces Bending moments

Need
and transverse forces
depth

A cylindrical shell with end

diaphragms supported on columns

Torsional moments A shell roof

15
 Shell Structures Shell Structures

A hyperbolic paraboloidal
A dome (hypar) shell.

Hong Kong Space Museum A hypar shell roof

Folded Plates Folded Plates

Folded plate roof

supported on columns

Mei Lam
Rigid frames formed from folded plates Stadium

16
The End

17