Chemistry for Engineering Reviewer

1st Exam

Significant Figures
1. Rounding
a. 107.77 degrees Celsius to 4 digits  107.8°C
b. 6.53300 grams to 5 digits  6.5330 g
c. 28.6 grams/milliliter to 2 digits  29 g/mL
d. 48.67305 nanometers to 6 digits  48.6730 nm

2. Scientific Notation

Ex.
 1000 = 1 x 103
The value is “1”. This is multiplied by 103, or 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000.
So 1 x 1000 = 1000
2000 = 2 x 103
5400 = 5.4 x 103
 10 = 1/10 = 0.1.
–1

0.001 = 1 x 10 – 3
The value is “1”. This is multiplied by 10 – 3, or 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.001. So 1 x 0.001 = 0.001.
 1. 9,200,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  9.2 x 1024
2. 73400000  7.34 x 107
3. 0.000048  4.8 x 10 – 5
4. 0.000000006688  6.688 x 10 – 9

3. Significant Figures
a. 69.4703 mL  6 significant figures
b. 0.00071 g  2 significant figures; the leading zeros are not important
c. 0.03300 s  4 significant figures; the trailing zeros are important

Table 3. Table below shows the names, symbols, and numerical values of the prefixes.

Prefix Symbol Numerical Value Power of 10 equivalent

exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga G 1,000,000,000 109
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
hecto h 100 102
deka da 10 101
Base unit  1 100
deci d 0.1 10 – 1
centi c 0.01 10 – 2
milli m 0.001 10 – 3
micro  0.000001 10 – 6
nano n 0.000000001 10 – 9
pico p 0.000000000001 10 – 12
femto f 0.000000000000001 10 – 15
atto a 0.000000000000000001 10 – 18
Some Common Conversion Factors

I Length
1 kilometer (km) = 0.6214 mile (mi)
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeter (cm) = 39.37 inches (in) = 3.28 feet (ft)
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft) = 1760 yards (yd) = 1.6093 km = 1609.3 m
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft) = 0.9146 m
1 feet (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 angstrom (Å) = 10 – 10 m
II Mass/Weight
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 pound (lb) = 453.6 g = 0.4536 kg
1 pound (lb) = 16 oz
1 oz = 28.35 g
1 metric ton (T) = 1000 kg = 2205 lb
1 US short ton = 907 kg = 2000 lb
1 British long ton = 1016 kg = 2240 lb ;
1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.6606 x 10 – 27 kg
III Volume
1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliter (mL) = 10 – 3 m3 = 1 dm3
= 1.06 quarts (qt) = 0.0353 cubic ft (ft3)
1 mL = 1 cubic cm (cc or cm ) 3
 1 US gallon (gal) = 3.785 L
1 US gallon (gal) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8 pints (pt)
1 quart (qt) = 32 fluid ounces (fl oz) = 0.946 liter (L)
1 fl. oz. = 29.6 mL
1 ft3 = 28.32 ; 1 m3 = 35.3 ft3

IV Area
1 yd2 = 0.836 m2 ; 1 cm2 = 0.155 in2 ; 1 km2 = 1.196 x 10 6 yd2
1 acre = 4840 yd = 4046.556 m
2 2

1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acres = 10,000 m2

V Energy
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J)
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 252 cal = 1055 J

VI Pressure
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 kg/ms2 ; 1kPa = 1000 Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg = 101,325 Pa = 14.7 in Hg

Mass measures the amount of matter in an object/substance; it is constant throughout the universe.

Weight measures the effect the gravity (attraction from another body) on an object. It is related to mass (since it acts on
it), yet weight varies from one planet & star to

Volume, as used, is the amount of space occupied by matter. The most common instruments or equipment for measuring
volume of liquids are the graduated cylinder, volumetric flask, burette, pipette, and syringe.

A liter, L, is usually defined as a cubic decimeter (1 dm3) of water at 4°C.

Density, used to distinguish unknown substances from one another & help in identifying them. Density of water at 4°C is
1.0000 g/mL or 1.0000 g/cm3 or 1000.00 kg/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3.

����, � �
�������, � = =
������, � �

Alternate forms:
�
�=
�
or � = ��
specific gravity (sp gr)

������� �� ������
�. �. �� ������ =
������� �� �����

Alternate form:
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Table 4. Densities of Some Selected Materials

Liquids and Solids Gases

Substance Density Substance Density

(g/mL at 20°C) (g/mL at 0°C)
Wood (Douglas fir) 0.512 Hydrogen 0.090
Ethyl alcohol 0.789 Helium 0.178
Vegetable oil 0.91 Methane 0.714
Water (4°C) 1.000 Ammonia 0.771
Sugar 1.59 Neon 0.90
Glycerin 1.26 Carbon monoxide 1.25
Karo Syrup 1.37 Nitrogen 1.251
Sulfuric acid 1.84 Air 1.293
Sulfur 2.07 Oxygen 1.429
Salt 2.16 Hydrogen chloride 1.63
Aluminum 2.70 Argon 1.78
Silver 10.5 Carbon dioxide 1.963
Lead 11.34 Chlorine 3.17
Mercury 13.55
Gold 19.3

Thermometer is the most common instrument used for measuring temperature.

Comparison of the Three Temperature Scales

TC  59 TF  32 T R = TF + 460 TC + 273
TK =

TYPES OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS

Corrosives Corrosives are -Sulfuric acid

chemicals which -Nitric acid,
cause burns on the -Potassium hydroxide
skin, mucous (caustic potash)
membrane and eyes. -Sodium hydroxide
This kind of (caustic soda)
chemicals are highly -Bromine and phenol
reactive substances
it can cause obvious
damage to living
tissue.

Oxidizers Oxidizers are solid, -Hydrogen Peroxide

liquids or gases that -Nitric Acid,
react readily with -Perchloric Acid,
most organic material -Sulphuric Acid
or reducing agents -Chlorates
with no energy input. -Chromates
Thus oxidizing
chemicals can cause
fire and can burn
violently.

Flammable are those gases, -Acetone

liquids and solids that -Toluene
will ignite and -Methyl Alcohol
continue to burn in
air if exposed to a
source of ignition.

Water Reactive has chemical -Sodium

reaction with -Lithium
water.This reaction -Potassium
may release a gas
that is either
flammable or present
a toxic health hazard

Pyrophorics substances that -Butyl Lithium.

ignite instantly upon -Diisobutylaluminium
exposure to oxygen, Hydride
they can also be
water reactive, where
heat and hydrogen (a
flammable gas) are
produced.
5 TYPES OF TOXIC CHEMICALS

• Neurotoxins- the target organ for this type of toxic chemical is the nervous system.
Examples: xylene, carbon-hexane, trichloroethylene.

• Hematotoxins – the target part is the blood.

Examples: carbon monoxide, nitrates

• Hepatotoxins – the target part is the liver.

Examples: chloroform, dinitrobenzene

• Nephrotoxins – the target part is the kidney.

Examples: cadmium, mercury, carbon

 Dermatotoxins – the target part is the skin. Examples: organic

solvents

Potentially Explosive Chemicals

An explosive chemical is a solid or liquid chemical which is in itself capable by chemical reaction of producing gas
at such a temperature and pressure and at such a speed to cause damage to the surroundings. This are chemicals that
when subjected to heat, impact, or friction, undergoes rapid chemical change, evolving large volumes of gases which
cause sudden increase in pressure.

Examples of potentially explosive chemicals:

a) Acetylides
b) Azides
c) Nitrogen triiodide
d) Organic nitrates
e) Nitro compounds
f) Perchlorate salts

CLASSIFICATION OF PICTOGRAMS

Health Hazard Pictogram

Health hazard Exclamation mark

• Carcinogen • Irritant (skin and

• Mutagenicity eye)
• Reproductive Toxicity • Skin Sensitizer
• Respiratory Sensitizer • Acute Toxicity
• Target Organ Toxicity • Narcotic Effects
• Aspiration Toxicity • Respiratory Tract
Irritant
Skull and cross bones Corrosion

• Acute toxicity (fatal

or toxic) • Skin Corrosion/Burn
• Eye Damage
• Corrosive to Metals

Physical Hazard Pictogram

Exploding bomb Flame over circle

• Explosives • Oxidizers
• Self-Reactive
• Organic
Peroxides
Gas cylinder Flame

• Flammables
• Pyrophorics
• Gases Under Pressure • Self-Heating
• Emits Flammable
Gas
• Self-Reactives

Environment

• Aquatic toxicity

CHEMICAL HEALTH RISK

i. FIRE produces injuries through heat and exposure to toxic substances (including combustion products).

ii. EXPLOSION produces traumatic (mechanical) injuries through the resulting shockwave (blast), fragments and
projectiles.

iii. TOXICITY may result when humans come into contact with a chemical released from its containment, be it from
storage or transport, or as reaction or combustion products. Toxicity can cause harm by a wide array of toxic
mechanisms ranging from chemical burns to asphyxiation and neurotoxicity.

iv. MENTAL HEALTH effects are not only determined by exposure to the chemical, fire or explosion but also by
“exposure to the event” itself.

ROUTES OF ENTRY OF CHEMICALS TO OUR BODY

The main routes of entry of the chemicals into the human body are:

•Inhalation into lungs.

•Absorption through skin membrane/cuts in the skin.

•Ingestion via mouth into the gastrointestinal system.

COMMON CHEMICAL GROUPS THAT CAUSE HEALTH RISKS OR SPECIFIC CHEMICAL HAZARDS:
DUST AND FUMES- Dusts containing crystalline silica or asbestos may cause incurable lung damage leading to cancer,
especially in smokers: metal fumes may cause “metal fume fever”

GASES- Gases such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, chlorine and ammonia are corrosive and irritating to the lungs and
nose.

Phosgene- is formed when solvents containing chlorine, such as trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, or carbon
tetrachloride come into contact with hot surfaces or flames.

Carbon monoxide- is an odorless and colorless gas formed by incomplete burning of carbon compounds: Carbon
monoxide gradually blocks oxygen supply to the nervous system, making your brain function less effectively before it
causes death; it reacts with hemoglobin stopping it carrying oxygen in the blood.

Hydrogen cyanide- gas can pass through the skin as well as the lungs and kills by depriving your brain and heart of
oxygen; it reacts with the final electron carrier of the cytochrome system to block cell respiration.

SOLVENTS
Apart from water, most solvents are liquid organic chemicals and many evaporate rapidly at room temperature.
Organic solvents are often flammable: organic solvent vapors may be inhaled or the liquid absorbed through the skin.

 Benzene can cause leukemia, a cancer of the white blood cells

 Carbon tetrachloride can cause severe liver damage.

 Carbon disulfide affects the brain and nervous system causing character change and unpredictable behavior.

ACIDS AND BASES

Acids and bases have corrosive properties. The amount of harm caused by chemical burns from acids and bases
depends on the concentration of the substance and the duration of exposure.

 Strong Acids- Acids with a pH of less than 4 can cause chemical burns. Some common strong acids include
hydrochloric, nitric, sulfuric and phosphoric acids. Weak acids such as acetic, citric and carbonic are not corrosive.
They can safely be consumed and do not irritate the skin. However, at greater concentrations weak acids can be
harmful.

 Strong Bases- Bases with a pH greater than 10 can cause chemical burns. Strong bases include, calcium hydroxide,
sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. Some common weak bases are ammonia and sodium bicarbonate.
Chemical burns from bases do not cause as much pain as acid burns, but the damage can be more extensive.

Chemical Safety and Security Overview

Chemicals Diseases

Vinyl chloride Liver cancer

Asbestos Mesothelioma
Carbon tetrachloride Hepatotoxin (jaundice)
Mercury Neurotoxin, CNS, narcosis Reprotoxin,
Lead birth defects Reprotoxin,developmental
Thalidomide defects Blindness, death
Methanol Hematopoietic,hemoglobin, cynanosis
CO, CS2

Why worry about Chemical Security?

‣ Long history of people deliberately using chemicals to harm others.

‣ Information on how to acquire and deliver them is easy to get:
‣ Health and safety of people and environment
‣ Community relationships
‣ Reduce chance of accidental chemical release
‣ Avoid loss and damage to labs and equipment
‣ Prevent criminals and terrorists from getting dangerous chemicals
• Wide variety of chemicals have been used
• Wide variety of motivations for actions
‣ A deliberate attack on a chemical facility could release a large amount of hazardous chemicals
• Injure or kill people in nearby areas
• Eliminate jobs and economic assets
GHS Hazard Communication

A system for standardizing and harmonizing the classification and labeling

of chemicals

-Symbols (hazard pictograms)

-Signal words
• "Danger" for the more severe hazards, and
• "Warning" for the less severe hazards
-Hazard statement
-Precautionary Statements and Pictograms
• prevention, response in cases of accidental spillage or
exposure,storage, and disposal
-Product Identifier (ingredient disclosure)
-Supplier identification
-Supplemental information

GHS Safety Data Sheets (16 sections)

1. Identification
2. Hazard(s) identification
3. Composition/information on ingredients
4. First-aid measures
5. Fire-fighting measures
6. Accidental release measures
7. Handling and Storage
8. Exposure controls/personal protection
9. Physical and chemical properties
10. Stability and reactivity
11. Toxicological information
12. Ecological information
13. Disposal considerations
14. Transport information
15. Regulatory information
16. Other information

Chemical Laboratory Hazards

‣ Chemical hazards
• dusts, fumes, mists, vapors, gases
‣ Physical hazards
• fire, electrical, radiation, pressurevibration, temperatures, noise
‣ Ergonomic hazards
• repetitive motion (pipetting), lifting,work areas (computers, instruments)
‣ Biological hazards
• pathogens, blood or body fluids

Fundamentals/ Chemical Laboratory Safety

Safety first! It is cheaper, easier, safer, and saves time.

Types of lab hazards: chemical toxicity; fire / explosion; physical hazards; biohazards; radiation; special substances

How are the risks controlled?

‣ Engineering controls:
• enclosure / isolation
• ventilation / hoods
‣ Emergency Plan
‣ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

Chemical Toxicity

‣ Acute (short term, poisons, asthmagens)

• Cyanide
• strychnine
‣ Chronic (long term, carcinogens, reproductive)
• vinyl chloride (liver cancer)
• asbestos (mesothelioma, lung cancer)
• thalidomide (developmental birth defects)

Physical and Ergonomic Hazards

‣ Moving unguarded parts, pinches vacuum pump belts

‣ Broken glassware and sharps, cuts
‣ Pressure apparatus
‣ Vacuum containers
‣ Dewar flasks
‣ High voltage equipment
‣ Computer workstations
‣ Slips, trips & falls

Biohazards

‣ Blood borne pathogens

• AIDS, HIV, hepatitis, clinical chemistry labs
‣ Recombinant DNA
• Genetic engineering, cloning
‣ Work with animals
• Zoonoses
• diseases from animals

Radiation Hazards

‣ Ionizing Radiation:alpha a, beta b, gamma g,X-rays, neutrons

‣ Radioactive isotopes:tritium, H-3, carbon, C-14,sulfur, S-35,phosphorus, P-32/33, iodine, I-135
Non-Ionizing Radiation:
‣ Ultraviolet(UV spectrometers)
‣ Magnetic(NMR, MRI)
‣ Microwave(Heart pacemaker hazard)
‣ Lasers(eye protection required)

Special Chemical Substances

‣ Controlled Substances:regulated drugs, psychotropic(hallucinogenic) substances, heroin
‣ Highly Toxic Chemicals:nerve gas, phosgene, riot control agents, chemical warfare agents

Evaluation & Control

‣ Administrative practices organizational policies

‣ Operational practices work practices
‣ Engineering controls ventilation, barriers

Safe Laboratory Procedures

Use hoods properly:

‣ Work 6” (15 cm) in from sash
‣ In center of hood
‣ Work with hood sash at ~18”(45 cm) high
‣ Close sash when not in use
‣ Don’t use for storage

Engineering Controls

1. Change the process eliminate the hazard

2. Substitution
non-hazardous substance for hazardous(e.g. - toluene for benzene)
3. Isolate or enclose the process or worker
Use a barrier
4. Ventilation
Dilution (general ventilation) - Not good
Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) - Preferred

‣ Properly functioning& used correctly!

‣ Laboratory hoods and ventilation are the basis of engineering controls.
‣ Local exhaust ventilation includes: snorkels; vented enclosures; special containment devices(e.g. - glove boxes,
isolation chambers). Hood exhaust should not be blocked or deflected downward, but should exhaust straight up.

Fire Protection and Prevention in Chemical Laboratories

Fires

Preventable
‣ Caused by unsafe practices
• Electrical safety violations
• Uncontrolled use of flammable and combustible materials
‣ Control
• Inspect, inspect, inspect Educate, educate, educate!
‣ A fire must have four things to ignite and maintain combustion:
• Fuel
• Heat
• Oxygen
• Chain reaction

Home Fires

‣ Leading causes:
• Cigarettes
• Heating/cooling equipment
• Electrical
• Matches, lighters,candles

Industrial Fires

‣ Fifth leading cause of accidental death

• Vehicles, falls, poison, drowning, fire
‣ Most dangerous industries from fire hazard:
• Mines
• Grain elevators and mills
• Refineries
• Chemical plants
‣ Leading causes:
• Electrical
• Smoking
• Friction
 • Overheating
• Hot surfaces

Key Elements of Fire Safety

‣ Get occupants out

‣ Minimize property loss and interruption
‣ Fire Containment/Suppression

Common Myths

‣ Fire will light the way out

• Smoke cloud & soot
‣ Plenty of time to escape
• 1 min from small to inescapable fire
‣ People are killed by the flames•
#1 killer in fires is CO(carbon monoxide), not
flames
‣ Wait to be rescued
• No! Act to save self
• Ladders can reach to about 6th floor
‣ Can not prepare for a fire
• Preparation can save your life

Flash Point

• The minimum temperature at which a liquid

gives off enough vapor to form an ignitable mixture.
• In general, the lower the flash point, the
greater the hazard.
Flammable liquids:
• have flash points below 38ºC
• are more dangerous than combustible liquids
• may be ignited at room temperature
Combustible liquids:
• have flash points at or above 38ºC
• Can pose serious fire and/or explosion
hazards when heated
Fire Hazards

‣ Sources of fuel
• Flammable liquids
• Flammable gases
• Wood, paper,cardboard
• Oil soaked rags
‣ Sources of heat (ignition)
• Electrical circuits:◦ Shorts, sparks◦ Arcs
(switches)◦ Heat build-up
• Hot surfaces
• Space heaters
• Hotplates, coffee pots,coffee makers
• Welding
• Smoking
• Open flames
• Static electricity

Using a Fire Extinguisher

PASS
Pull
Aim
Squeeze
Sweep

Water

‣ Water is highly effective on Class A fires, by

cooling down the fire and surrounding atmosphere.
‣ Water is usually available.
‣ It can be used to cool down the firefighting team to prevent heat exposure.
Disadvantages
‣ Water should NOT be used to control a B or C fire.
‣ Inadequate pressure or too high pressure can cause problems.
‣ The volume of water can be restricted by the length of water lines and hoses (frictional loss ~3500 Pa for every 3
meters of 4 cm diameter hose).
‣ The fire nozzle can clog due to non-filtered materials in the lines.
‣ Hydrogen can be produced if water is applied to very-hot fires.

Electrical Fires

/ Pull the plug out or switch off the power at the fuse box. This may stop the fire immediately.
/ Smother the fire with a fire blanket, or use a dry powder.
X Never use water on it.

No extinguisher should be mounted higher than 1200mm (120cm) off the floor. The bottom of the extinguisher should be
no less than 100mm (10cm) from the floor
 Toxic Chemicals&Lab Safety

Major Hazards

Cultural hazards: such as unsafe working conditions, smoking, poor diet, drugs, drinking,driving, criminal assault and
poverty. Chemical hazards from harmful chemicals in air, soil food and water.
Physical hazards such as noise, fire, tornadoes,hurricanes, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods and ionizing
radiation.
Biological hazards from pathogens, pollen and other allergens and animals, such as bees and poisonous snakes.

Chemical Hazards

hazardous chemicals cause harm by

• being flammable or explosive (e.g., gasoline);
• irritating or damaging the skin or lungs (e.g.,strong acids or alkalines such as oven cleaners)
• interfering with or preventing oxygen uptake and distribution (e.g., carbon monoxide, CO)
• inducing allergic reactions of the immune system(allergens)

What is a Toxic Chemical? Any chemical which, when ingested,inhaled, absorbed or injected into the body, in relatively
small amounts, by its chemical action,may cause damage to structure or disturbance to function.

Classification of Damage

Local Damage - affects only the exposed part. Contact through absorption, inhalation, ingestion, or injection
Systemic Damage - effect of a substance after absorption the bloodstream. Absorption may take place through the skin,
stomach, or lungs.

Acute & Chronic damages

Acute toxicity - victim becomes ill or injured after “short exposure” sometimes just a few moments
Chronic toxicity - effects of a toxicant on a body over a long period, sometimes several years Effects may not be noticed
until the damage is too far advanced to correct.

types of damage caused by a toxic chemical

• Damage to biological structure
• Disturbance of biological function
• Damaging both structure and function

Categories of Toxic Chemicals

• Toxics: poisons; usually cause systemic damage
• Reactives: react chemically with everyday substances
• Corrosives: corrode substances including flesh
• Flammables: burn
• Compressed gases: very high pressure(cylinder)
• May or may not contain a toxic or flammable gas.
 2nd Exam

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in
a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric
patterns that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter

 Unit cell- The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the repeating pattern.
- defines the symmetry and structure of the entire crystal lattice, which is built up by repetitive translation of the
unit cell along its principal axes. (located at Bravais lattice).

 Lattice parameters (lattice constants)- The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles
between them.
All possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space may be described by the 230 space
groups.
 Crystal structure- and symmetry play a critical role in determining many physical properties, such
as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical transparency.
- is one of the most important aspects of materials science and engineering as many properties of
materials depend on their crystal structures. The basic principles of many materials characterization techniques such
as X-ray diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are based on crystallography. Therefore,
understanding the basics of crystal structures is of paramount importance.
 Matter exist usually in solid or fluid (liquid, gas) state. According to modern concept matter classification is specified
as condensed state and gaseous state. Solids and liquids come under condensed state. Any material whose position
of constituent particles is fixed can be regarded as solids.

 Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength. This indicates that the molecules,
atoms or ions that make up as solid is closely packed. Thus in solids we will have a well ordered molecular, atomic or
ionic arrangement.

In general solids can be classified into:

 Crystalline - particles are orderly arranged (long range order).

 Amorphous - particles are randomly oriented.

If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid, we call it a crystal structure. A crystal
possesses long range order and symmetry. The main property of crystal structure is its periodicity. This periodicity is due
to the arrangement of atoms/molecules in the lattice points. The crystal structure as a whole can be considered as the
repetition of unit cell. For a given crystal structure the shape of unit cell is same but varies from crystal to crystal

Unit Cell

Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of particles in the unit cell. The unit cell is defined
as the smallest repeating unit having the full symmetry of the crystal structure. The geometry of the unit cell is defined as
a parallelepiped, providing six lattice parameters taken as the lengths of the cell edges (a, b, c) and the angles between
them (α, β, γ). The positions of particles inside the unit cell are described by the fractional coordinates (xi, yi, zi) along the
cell edges, measured from a reference point. It is only necessary to report the coordinates of a smallest asymmetric
subset of particles. This group of particles may be chosen so that it occupies the smallest physical space, which means
that not all particles need to be physically located inside the boundaries given by the lattice parameters. All other particles
of the unit cell are generated by the symmetry operations that characterize the symmetry of the unit cell. The collection of
symmetry operations of the unit cell is expressed formally as the space group of the crystal structure (Atkins & de Paula,
2006).
Unit cell can be of primitive as well as non-primitive type. A primitive cell is a minimum volume unit cell and has only one
lattice point in it and the latter contains more than one.

Bravais Lattices

The number of lattices that can fill two- or three-dimensional space with periodically repeating units without leaving gaps
or causing overlaps is limited. Therefore, there is a finite number of different crystal structures, and different crystalline
solids may crystallise according to the same pattern. The metrics of the lattice may be different, but the symmetry is the
same in such cases. Lattices which fill space without gaps are called Bravais lattices. There are five of them in two
dimensions and 14 in three dimensions (Hermann, 2017).

Bravais Lattices in Two Dimensions

The most general and least symmetric Bravais lattice in two dimensions is the oblique lattice. If the angle between the two
lattice vectors is 90°, the higher symmetry of the cell gives rise to a distinct Bravais lattice, either rectangular
or square depending on whether the unit cell vectors have different length or not. In the case of a rectangular lattice, we
can distinguish between a primitive rectangular lattice and a centred rectangular lattice, which has an extra lattice point
(atom) at the centre. The centred rectangular lattice could be set up as a primitive lattice with lower symmetry (unit cell
shown in green), but convention prefers the more symmetric description. Finally, if the lattice vectors are the same length
and the angle is 120°, we have another special case with higher symmetry, the hexagonal lattice (Ellis et al, 1995).
Bravais Lattices in Three Dimensions

Based on the lattice parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ and applying the restrictions as above, only 14
types of lattices are possible in three dimensions. One general (triclinic) and thirteen special. Only
seven different systems of axis are found to be sufficient to represent all Bravais lattice. This fourteen

Lattice Simple Base- Body- Face- Example

System Centered Centered Centered
triclinic CuSO4.5H2O
K2Cr2O7

monoclinic CaSO4.2H2O
FeSO4
Na2SO4

orthorhombic KNO3
BaSO4

rhombohedral
As
Sb
Bi

tetragonal
TiO2
SnO2
NiSO4

hexagonal SiO2
Zn
Mg
Cd

cubic Au
Cu
NaCl

space lattice is divided into seven crystal systems (Callister, 2002).

 Atomic Coordination

In chemistry, crystallography, and materials science the coordination number, also

called ligancy, of a central atom in a molecule or crystal is the number of atoms, molecules or ions
bonded to it. The ion/molecule/atom surrounding the central ion/molecule/atom is called a ligand. This
number is determined somewhat differently for molecules than for crystals.

By considering the arrangement of atoms relative to each other, their coordination numbers (or
number of nearest neighbors), interatomic distances, types of bonding, etc., it is possible to form a
general view of the structures and alternative ways of visualizing them.

Simple cubic, face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) have coordination
numbers 6, 8, and 12 respectively (Atkins, 2006).

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

Atomic packing fraction mainly gives us an idea about the arrangement of atoms/ions in solids.
It will give the efficiency with which the available space is being filled by atoms (Callister, 2002).

Packing fraction is defined as the ratio of volume of atoms occupying the unit cell to the
volume of unit cell.

Examples:

1.Simple Cubic Consider a cube of side 'a'. Atoms of radius ‘r’ is placed at the corner. So that
length of cube a=2r.

In a simple cubic structure, the atoms occupies at the eight corners. An atom at the corner is equally
shared by 8 unit cells. So the contribution of one atom to a unit cell is 1/8. Therefore the no. of atoms
per unit cell is (1/8)*8(corner atoms) =1

2. Body-centered Cube Consider a cube of side ‘a’, and atoms of radius ‘r’ are placed at corners and
at the body centre. Length of body diagonal, √3a=4r.
 4 8
������ �� ����� �� ���� ���� = 2 ∗ ��3 = ��3
3 3
In a body centered cube, there will be one atom at the centre along with 8 corner atoms. This
corner atom is shared by 8 unit cell and the atom at the centre is not a shared one. Therefore no. of
atoms per unit cell= (1/8)*8(corner atoms)+1(body centre)=2.
3
4� 3 64�3
������ �� ���� ���� = � = =
3 3 3
8 3
�� 3�
��� = 3 3 = = ��%
64� 8
3 3
1. Face-centered Cube

Consider a cube of length ‘a’ and atoms of radius ’r’ are placed at the corners as well as at the
face centre. Length of face diagonal √2a=4r.

4 16 3
������ �� ���� ���� = 4 ∗ ��3 = ��
3 3
In a face centered cube, each face possess one atom along with 8 corner atoms. The atoms at
the faces are equally shared by two unit cell. Corner atoms by 8 unit cells. So the no. of atoms per
unit cell is=(1/8)*8(corner atoms)+(1/2)*6(atoms at face)=4.
4� 3
������ �� ���� ���� = �3 =
2
16 3
�� �
��� = 3 3 = = ��%
4� 3 2
2

4. Hexagonal Close-Packed
For the hexagonal close-packed structure, the unit cell (equivalent to 3 primitive unit cells) is a
hexagonal prism containing six atoms (if the particles in the crystal are atoms). Indeed, three are the
atoms in the middle layer (inside the prism); in addition, for the top and bottom layers (on the bases of
the prism), the central atom is shared with the adjacent cell, and each of the six atoms at the vertices
is shared with other five adjacent cells. So the total number of atoms in the cell is 3 + (1/2)×2 +
(1/6)×6×2 = 6. Each atom touches other twelve atoms. Now let a be the side length of the base of the
prism and c be its height. The latter is twice the distance between adjacent layers, i.e., twice the
height of the regular tetrahedron whose vertices are occupied by (say) the central atom of the
lower layer, two adjacent non-central atoms of the same layer, and one atom of the middle layer
"resting" on the previous three. Obviously, the edge of this tetrahedron is a. If a=2r, then its height
8 2
can be easily calculated to be 3
�, and, therefore, � = 4 �. So the volume of the hcp unit cell
3
3 3
turns out to be 2
�2 �, that is 24 2�3 .
It is then possible to calculate the APF as follows:

4 3
������ ����� 6 ∙ 3 ��
��� = =
����� ���� 3 3 2
2 � �
4 4
6∙ ��3 6∙ ��3
��� = 3 3
3
=3 3
3 2
2
(2�)2 ∙4� ∙16�3
2 3 2 3

� �
��� = = = 0.74048048
18 3 2
Density Calculation
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of the atoms (n
atoms x Matom) and dividing by Vc the volume of the cell (a3 in the case of a cube). If the mass of the
atom is given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the Avogadro number to get Matom. Thus, the
formula for the density is:
��
�=
�� ��
where:
� = �������
� = ��. �� �����
� = ������/������� ����ℎ�
�� = ������ �� ���� ����
�� = ��������' � ������
Example:
1. Polonium crystallizes in a simple cubic pattern with a unit cell length of 3.36 angstrom (Å).
Estimate the density of Po in g/cm3. (1 Å = 1x10-8 cm)

Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
n = 1 atom; a = 3.36x10-8 cm; A = 209 g/mol
Solution:
��
�=
�� ��
�
1 ���� 209
�= ���
�����
3.36�10−8 �� 3
6.022�1023
���
� = �. �� �/���
2. Aluminum has a face-centered cubic unit cell, that is, an atom at each corner of the unit cell
and an atom at the center of each face. The Al-Al distance (2r) is 0.2863 nm. Calculate the
density of aluminum in g/mL. The mass of aluminum atom is 26.98 amu.

Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
n = 4 atoms; A = 26.98 g/mol; 2r = 0.2863 nm = 0.2863x10-7 cm
Solution:
(4�)2 = �2 + �2
16�2 = 2�2
�2 = 8�2

�=2 2�
��
�=
�� ��
(4 �����)(26.98 �/���)
�= 3 �����
2 0.2863�10−7 �� (6.022�1023 )
���
�
� = �. � = �. � �/��
���
 Metals

A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous
appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typically malleable (they can
be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn into wires). A metal may be a chemical
element such as iron; an alloy such as stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric
sulfur nitride (Gaffney & Marley, 2018).
Approximately three-quarters of all known chemical elements are metals. The most abundant
varieties in the Earth’s crust are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The
vast majority of metals are found in ores (mineral-bearing substances), but a few such
as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently occur in the free state because they do not readily
react with other elements.
Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively simple crystal
structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree of symmetry. Typically, the
atoms of metals contain less than half the full complement of electrons in their outermost shell.
Because of this characteristic, metals tend not to form compounds with each other. They do, however,
combine more readily with nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur), which generally have more than half
the maximum number of valence electrons.
Metals, as chemical elements, comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are present in many
aspects of modern life. The strength and resilience of some metals has led to their frequent use in, for
example, high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many home appliances,
tools, pipes, and railroad tracks. Precious metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern
era, coinage metals have extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements (Roe, 1992).

Physical Properties

The physical properties of metals include shininess/luster, malleability, ductility, and

conductivity. A malleable material is one that can be hammered or rolled into flat sheets and other
shapes. A ductile material is one that can be pulled out, or drawn, into a long wire. For example,
copper can be made into thin sheets and wire because it is malleable and ductile. Conductivity is the
ability of an object to transfer heat or electricity to another object. Most metals are good conductors.
In addition, a few metals are magnetic. For example, iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) are
attracted to magnets and can be made into magnets. Most metals are also solids at room
temperature. However, one metal—mercury (Hg)—is a liquid at room temperature (Holleman &
Wiberg, 2001).

Chemical Properties

The ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with other elements and
compounds is called its reactivity. Metals usually react by losing electrons to other atoms. Some
metals are very reactive. For example, you read that sodium (Na) reacts strongly when exposed to air
or water. To prevent a reaction, sodium and metals like it must be stored under oil in sealed
containers. By comparison, gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) are valued for their lack of reactivity and
because they are rare. The reactivities of other metals fall somewhere between those of sodium and
gold. Iron, for example, reacts slowly with oxygen in the air, forming iron oxide, or rust. If iron is not
protected by paint or plated with another metal, it will slowly turn to reddish-brown rust. The
destruction of a metal through this process is called corrosion (Mortimer, 1975).

Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal due to reactions with other chemicals in its
environment. Over time, corrosion changes the appearance of the metal as it breaks down and it
becomes weaker. Corrosion can seriously damage metallic objects and structures. Coating the
surface of a metal with paint and certain chemicals can protect it from corrosion.
Do all metals corrode?
Metals behave differently when exposed to the environment. Gold is an unreactive metal and
does not corrode easily. In many cultures, gold is considered a precious metal and is used to make
sacred and decorative objects. Items made from gold can survive for thousands of years and have
even been found in good condition underwater. In general, objects made from metals that corrode
easily do not survive for as long.
Why doesn’t aluminum corrode?
 Aluminum is a very reactive metal. However, it does not corrode in the presence of oxygen.
The outer aluminum atoms react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This forms a thin layer of aluminum
oxide on the metal’s surface, which protects the metal from corrosion.
What is rusting?
Rusting is the specific name given to the corrosion of iron. It is a chemical reaction between
iron, oxygen and water. The chemical name for rust is hydrated iron oxide. Rust can form on cars
and buildings, making them unsafe. It is an expensive problem. Salt can increase the rate of rusting.
This iron bolt is on a seaside structure and is nearly completely corroded.
���� + ������ + ����� → ℎ������� ���� �����

Metals in the Periodic Table

The metals in a group, or family, have similar properties, and these family properties change
gradually as you move across the table (Walther, 2013).

The reactivity of metals tends to decrease as you move from left to right across the periodic
table.

Alkali Metal
The metals in Group 1, from lithium to francium, are called the alkali metals. They have low
melting point and boiling point compared to other metals. They are very soft and cut easily by
knife. Also, they have low densities. The alkali metals have the high thermal and electrical
conductivity, ductility, and malleability that are characteristics of a metal. Every alkali metal atom
has a single electron in its outermost shell. Sodium, Lithium, Potassium, Rubidium, and Cesium
are Alkali Metals.
Alkaline Earth Metal
The Alkaline Earth Metals are all of the elements in the second column (column 2A) of the
periodic table. Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and Radium belong to this
group. These metals have two electrons in their outermost electron layer. Alkaline Earth Metals in
their pure forms are generally shiny and silvery.
Transition Metals
Transition metals are the elements that feature atoms that have an incomplete d sub-shell. D-
block simply implies that the element d-blocks are the final element to build up all accords to
building up principle. They give off electrons from their outer s orbital but mostly they lose
electrons on d orbital. They are unique from all other elements because of their common
properties. One property is they form a lot of compounds in a quite amount few states of oxidation.
Another property is they are famous for their tendency to form a lot of paramagnetic compounds.
This is mainly due to their low reactivity of their d unpaired electrons (Yonezawa, 2017).
For the most part they are good source of conductors. They are malleable, ductile, lustrous &
silver-white in color. But exception of it is the copper which is brownish red in color.
A great characteristic is they easily mix. The reason for it is because they have the same
atomic size. This results in more proficient mixture of one another in a crystal lattice. When two or
more metals mix or replace each other, we call the new name of a metal an alloy.
They can be found anywhere on earth at various amount. They are mostly not found on pure
substance, but rather on the certain compounds on earth’s crust. This signifies that we need to
extract the metals on an existing compound in one or two ways: pyrometallurgical which uses high
temperature and hydrometallurgical which uses aqueous solution.
They can also be sold at higher prices because of their rarity on the market. One of the
examples is the gold which is also known as shining dawn.
Lanthanides
Two rows of elements are placed below the main part of the periodic table. This makes the
table more compact. The elements in the top row are called the lanthanides. Lanthanides are soft,
malleable, shiny metals with high conductivity. They are mixed with more common metals to make
alloys. An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element, usually another metal.
Different lanthanides are usually found together in nature. They are difficult to separate from one
another because they all share very similar properties.
Actinides
Actinides are composed of 15 elements which ranges from number 89 to 103, which are
composed from actinium to lawrencium. The name of this certain metal derives from its first
element which is the actinium. While mostly of the actinides are synthetic elements, small amount
of uranium and thorium can be found on nature. Another property that is possessed by these
elements is radioactivity. Examples are the plutonium, thorium and uranium which are utilized on
building nuclear reactors or weapons.
 For many years the chemical elements reach its bottleneck and ended with a number of 92,
uranium. The scientists are uncertain of whether there is any other heavy element than uranium.
Until a discovery made by the scientists of University of California physicists by Edwin McMillan
(1907–1991) and Philip Abelson (1913–2004) on their study on nuclear fission. (Nuclear fission is
the splitting of an atomic nucleus, a process that releases large amounts of energy. Atomic bombs
and nuclear power plants operate on nuclear fission.). During their experiments on nuclear fission,
they found new evidence that support the research of another heavier element with an atomic
number of 94. They have found new elements which are the transuranium elements heavier than
uranium. The first discovery named as neptunium, comes from the planet Neptune. Just as the
name uranium derives from Uranus. Later on another discovery of transuranium found which is
the plutonium, which was named after Pluto. Later on more discoveries founded on transuranium:
americium (number 95) and curium (number 96) in 1944; berkelium (number 97) in 1949;
californium (number 98) in 1950; einsteinium (number 99) and fermium (number 100) in 1952;
mendelevium (number 101) in 1955; nobelium (number 102) in 1958; and lawrencium (number
103) in 1961.
Metalloids

They often create amphoteric oxides and behave in the same manner as semiconductors. The
usually considered elements on this group are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony &
tellurium. They more likely behave as non-metals when they cooperate with metals and behave
as metals when they react with non-metals. Hence, they are known as semi-metals. The
uncommon elements polonium and astatine are sometimes considered as metalloids.

Other metals
They are metals that can be based on two criterion: Each of these elements can be classified
as a metal or a non-metal based on the characteristics on their general chemical and physical
properties. These are group of elements that can be found on the right corner of the transition
metals on periodic table and also known as the post-transition metals. The elements classed as
"other metals" generally have the following properties in common: strong, ductile and malleable,
good conductors of heat and electricity, have a relative high density, and opaque.
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element. Steel is a common example of
an alloy. It contains iron mixed with carbon and other elements. Adding other elements to a metal
changes its structure and so changes its properties. The final alloy may have very different properties
to the original metal. By changing the amount of each element in an alloy, material scientists can
custom-make alloys to fit a given job (Shamsuddin, 2016).
Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was
commonly used by civilizations before iron extraction methods were developed. Other well-known
alloys include:
 brass: an alloy of copper and zinc. It does not tarnish and is used for door knobs, buttons and
musical instruments.
 solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It is used in electronics to attach components to circuit
boards.
 amalgam: an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings because it can be
shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Is gold an alloy?
Although pure gold is sometimes used in electronics, gold jewellery is always a mixture of gold
and other metals. Pure gold is actually quite soft. Adding small amounts of other metals makes the
gold hard enough to use in jewellery. Alloying gold with different metals also affects its colour. The
familiar yellow gold is an alloy of gold with copper and silver. Adding more copper than silver gives
redder shades. White gold is an alloy of gold with nickel, platinum or palladium. Around 12% of
people may be allergic to the nickel in white gold.
When is a copper coin not a copper coin?
A copper coin is not a copper coin when it is a copper-coated alloy!
Copper coins used to be made from pure copper but most ‘copper’ coins used around the
world are now made from copper alloys. Previously, as the value of copper increased, the metal used
to make the coin became worth more than the actual coins. A melted-down, pure copper coin could
have been sold for more than the face value of the coin! Since 1992, UK copper coins have been
made from copper-plated steel and are magnetic. A magnet can be used to separate copper coins by
age.
What is steel?
 Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon, nickel and chromium. Steel is
stronger than pure iron and can be used for everything from sauce pans to suspension bridges. The
atoms in pure iron are arranged in densely-packed layers. These layers can slide over each other.
This makes pure iron a very soft material. The atoms of other elements are different sizes. When
other elements are added to iron, their atoms distort the regular structure of the iron atoms. It is more
difficult for the layers of iron atoms in steel to slide over each other and so this alloy is stronger than
pure iron.
Steel can contain up to 2% carbon. Varying the amount of carbon gives steel different
properties. For example, a higher carbon content makes a hard steel. Different types of steel are
classified by how much carbon they contain.
 low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon
 high carbon steel contains more than 0.5% carbon.
Two other important types of steel are:
 stainless steel – an alloy of iron that contains at least 11% chromium and smaller amounts of
nickel and carbon
 titanium steel – an alloy of iron and titanium.
Smart Alloy
A smart material can change one or more of its physical characteristics under the influence of
an external stimulus. Shape memory alloy is a type of smart material made from metals that returns
to its original shape after being deformed. Nitinol is a type of shape memory alloy made from nickel
and titanium. This material can be used to make a pair of glasses that ‘remembers’ its shape and
does not break when crushed. Nitinol has also been used to hold badly broken bones in place while
they heal.

Polymers

a polymer is a molecular compound distinguished by a very high molar mass, ranging into
thousands and millions of grams, and is made up of many repeating units. The physical properties of
these so-called macromolecules vary greatly from those of small ordinary molecules and special
techniques are required to study them.

This statement is true. Polymers are not like an ordinary compound. They involve complex
chemical reactions to form. The words polymer comes from the Greek prefix poly- “Many” and mers-
“Parts”, thus many parts. Though, the word polymer is equated to the word macromolecules (giant
molecules). It is after a German Physicist, Hermann Staudinger, who clearly prove that such giant
molecules exist and called it macromolecules (Chang, 2008).

MONOMER, MER AND POLYMER

The process on which the formation of polymers undergoes is called polymerization, which
involves the chemical combinations of many small chemical units known as monomers “single parts”
(Winslow, 1979), a mer “repeating units” and a polymer “the macromolecule”. The diagram below
shows the molecular structure of polyethylene, an example of a polymer.

(POLYMERS)

POLYETHYLENE

ETHYLENE

Characteristics of Polymers

Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the following attributes.
First, polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Many chemicals we are using today such as
muriatic acid, chlorine and many more are so strong that it even damages our skin. The
characteristics of plastics provide safe, non-breakable packages for aggressive solvent. Second,
polymers can be both thermal and electrical insulators. A walk through your house will reinforce
this concept, as you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or
covered with polymeric materials. Polymers (e.g. kitchenware made of Teflon) can resist extreme
heat. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of polypropylene and the fiberfill in
winter jackets is acrylic and polyester. Third, generally, polymers are very light in weight with
significant degrees of strength. Kevlar is one example of this which is really strong yet light in
weight. Fourth, polymers can be processed in various ways. Injection Molding - plastic is melted in
a heating chamber and then forced by a plunger into cold molds to set; and Extrusions - melted
polymer is extruded through a die in continuous form to be cut into lengths or coiled. Fifth, polymers
are materials with a seemingly limitless range of characteristics and colors, because polymers
can mimic cotton, silk, wool fibers, porcelain, marble, aluminum and zinc. Lastly, Polymers can be
used to make items that have no alternatives from other materials. Polymers are used in many
medical purposes such as Dacron for artificial artery of the heart and blood bag used in blood
transfusion. These were according to American Chemistry Council (2005) and Smith (2005).

Polymers can be based on the ff.: origin, type of monomer involved, structure, mode of
polymerization, thermal response, and physical properties/application.

Polymers Based on Origin: Natural, Semi-synthetic and Synthetic Polymers

There are three types of polymers based on origin: natural, semi-synthetic and synthetic
polymers. Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil, and made by scientists and engineers.
Examples of synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene, polyester, Teflon, and epoxy. Natural
polymers occur in nature and can be extracted. They are often water-based. Examples of naturally
occurring polymers are silk, wool, DNA, cellulose and proteins (Natural vs Synthetic Polymers, 2016).
Semi-synthetic polymers are mostly derived from naturally occurring polymers by chemical
modifications. For example, cellulose is a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose on acetylation with
acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid forms cellulose diacetate polymers. It is used in
making thread and materials like films, glasses etc. Vulcanized rubber is also an example of
semisynthetic polymers used in making tires etc.; gun cotton which is cellulose nitrate used in making
explosive (Gouda, 2018).

Polymers Based Type of Monomer involved in the Structure: Homopolymer and Copolymer

Polymers Based on Structure: Linear, Branched, Cross-Link and Network

There are two types of Monomer involved in the Structure of Polymers. First, homopolymer-
same monomer is repeated throughout the chain of polymer; and copolymer- this is also known as
heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more different kinds of monomers.

Homopolymers

Homopolymers can be classified as linear, branched, cross linked and network homopolymers.

Linear polymers

Considered to be the simplest polymer, linear polymers have linear long polymeric chain of
same types of monomer units or simply a chain in which all of the carbon-carbon bonds exist in a
single straight line. Examples are HDPE (High-density polyethylenes) and Teflon which is made from
tetrafluoroethylene, a single strand of units made from two carbon atoms and four fluorine atoms.

Branched Polymers

Branched polymers have short or long branches bonded on parent polymeric or it occurs when
groups of units branch off from the long polymer chain. These branches are known as side chains
and can also be very long groups of repeating structures. A polymer with many branches is called
dendrimers. Example is LDPE (Low- density polyethylenes).

“HDPE (High-density polyethylenes) vs. LDPE (Low- density polyethylenes)”

High-density polyethylenes (HDPEs)

HDPEs are mostly linear molecules that pack closely together and can assume fairly ordered
crystalline structure. It’s rigid and has good tensile strength.

Examples: threaded bottles caps, toys, bottles and gallon milk jugs

Low- density polyethylenes (LDPEs)

LDPEs have plenty of side chains branching off polymer molecules. It’s waxy, bendable
plastics that are lower melting than HDPE (Smith, 2005).

Examples: Plastic bags, plastic film, electric wire insulation, etc.

Cross linked and Network polymers

They form long chains, either branched or linear, that can form covalent bonds between the
polymer molecules. As a result, it produces a stronger and more stable material, because cross-
linked polymers form covalent bonds that are much stronger than the intermolecular forces that
attract other polymer chains. Important example of this is when natural rubber is vulcanized.

* Vulcanization

Vulcanization is a process where the rubber is heated so the sulfur molecules in the
rubber polymer chains form covalent bonds with each other. This process was discovered by
Charles Goodyear in 1839, utilizing Hevea brasiliensis, a tree which produces a liquid resin
from the inner bark forming a natural rubber

Chemically a polymer Isoprene, C5H8

Classification of Polymers based on Molecular Forces: Thermoplastic and Thermosets,
Elastomers, Fiber-Forming Polymers

*Thermoplastics and Thermosets

Thermoplastics - polymers become soft on the application of heat and thus can be molded in the
desired shape.

Thermosets - polymers have individual chain bonded covalently during polymerization by application
of heat or chemical treatment. The shape cannot be changed and resist subsequent mechanical
deformation or heat softening or solvent attack.

Furthermore, thermoplastic can be classified as crystalline or amorphous according to Institute

of Applied Chemistry of NCTU.
ELASTOMERS

Elastomers (or rubbers) are polymers with considerable extensions which are reversible,
examples are natural and synthetic rubbers. Synthetic rubbers are now used much more extensively
and they are based on other polymers and produced from the distillation of oil. Many components do
not require great strength but they do require softness, flexibility and reversible elongation. Thus,
elastomers are ideal for such applications as resilient floor coverings, footwear and vehicle tires.

Fiber-Forming Polymers

The fiber forming polymers are linear macromolecules that are usually suitable for making
man-made fibers. The term “synthetic fiber” will be used to denote all man-made fibers manufactured
from non-cellulosic raw materials. Examples are hydrophobic polymer fibers like nylon and polyester
often blended with cotton, viscose or wool.

Polymer Recycling

According to Smith (2005), in recycling plastic in the United States, they follow the “Big Six”
Recycling code (1-6). The lower the number, the easier to recycle.

POLYMERIZATION
 Polymerization s a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to form larger
molecules that contain repeating structural units. It is usually formed with the same type of repeating
molecules (homopolymers) or form with two or more different molecules (copolymer).

TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION

There are two general types of polymerization reactions: addition polymerization and
condensation polymerization. In addition polymerization, the monomers add to one another in such a
way that the polymer contains all the atoms of the starting monomers. Ethylene molecules are joined
together in long chains (Chanda, 2017).

Chain-Reaction (Addition) Polymerization

The polymerization can be represented by the reaction of a few monomer units:

The bond lines extending at the ends in the formula of the product indicate that the structure
extends for many units in each direction. Notice that all the atoms—two carbon atoms and four
hydrogen atoms—of each monomer molecule are incorporated into the polymer structure. Because
displays such as the one above are cumbersome, the polymerization is often abbreviated as follows:

nCH2=CH2 → [ CH2CH2 ] n

During the polymeriation of ethene, thousands of ethene molecules join together to make
poly(ethene) - commonly called polythene. The reaction is done at high pressures in the presence of
a trace of oxygen as an initiator.

Step 1: Chain Initiation

The oxygen reacts with some of the ethene to give an organic peroxide. Organic peroxides are
very reactive molecules containing oxygen-oxygen single bonds which are quite weak and which
break easily to give free radicals. You can short-cut the process by adding other organic peroxides
directly to the ethene instead of using oxygen if you want to. The type of the free radicals that start
the reaction off vary depending on their source. For simplicity we give them a general formula: Ra∙Ra∙

Step 2: Chain Propagation

In an ethene molecule, CH2=CH2, the two pairs of electrons which make up the double bond
aren't the same. One pair is held securely on the line between the two carbon nuclei in a bond called
a sigma bond. The other pair is more loosely held in an orbital above and below the plane of the
molecule known as a ππ bond.
 The sigma bond between the carbon atoms isn't affected by any of this. The free radical, Ra ,
uses one of the electrons in the ππ bond to help form a new bond between itself and the left hand
carbon atom. The other electron returns to the right hand carbon. You can show this using "curly
arrow" notation if you want to:

This is energetically worth doing because the new bond between the radical and the carbon is
stronger than the ππ bond which is broken. You would get more energy out when the new bond is
made than was used to break the old one. The more energy that is given out, the more stable the
system becomes. What we've now got is a bigger free radical - lengthened by CH2CH2. That can
react with another ethene molecule in the same way:

So now the radical is even bigger. That can react with another ethene - and so on and so on.
The polymer chain gets longer and longer.

Step 3: Chain Termination

The chain does not, however, grow indefinitely. Sooner or later two free radicals will collide
together.

That immediately stops the growth of two chains and produces one of the final molecules in
the poly(ethene). It is important to realize that the poly(ethene) is going to be a mixture of molecules
of different sizes, made in this sort of random way. Because chain termination is a random process,
poly(ethene) will be made up of chains of different lengths.

Step-Reaction (Condensation) Polymerization

A large number of important and useful polymeric materials are not formed by chain-growth
processes involving reactive species such as radicals, but proceed instead by conventional functional
group transformations of polyfunctional reactants. These polymerizations often (but not always) occur
with loss of a small byproduct, such as water, and generally (but not always) combine two different
components in an alternating structure. The polyester Dacron and the polyamide Nylon 66, shown
here, are two examples of synthetic condensation polymers, also known as step-growth polymers. In
contrast to chain-growth polymers, most of which grow by carbon-carbon bond formation, step-growth
polymers generally grow by carbon-heteroatom bond formation (C-O & C-N in Dacron & Nylon
respectively). Although polymers of this kind might be considered to be alternating copolymers, the
repeating monomeric unit is usually defined as a combined moiety.

Examples of naturally occurring condensation polymers are cellulose, the polypeptide chains
of proteins, and poly (β-hydroxybutyric acid), a polyester synthesized in large quantity by certain soil
and water bacteria. Formulas for these will be displayed below by clicking on the diagram.
Table 1. Classification of Polymers

Basis of Polymer Types Examples

Classification
1. Origin (a) Natural (as available in Natural rubber, natural silk,
nature) cellulose, proteins, starch etc.
(b) Hydrogenated, halogenated and
Semisynthetic cyclo (natural) rubber; cellulosics
(Man – made) (cellulose
esters/ethers), etc.
(c) Synthetic Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
(Man – made) styrene, polybutadiene, nylon
poly- amides, polycarbonates,
phenolics, amino resins, epoxy
resins etc.
2. Thermal response (a) Thermoplastics (they Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
soften or melt on heating styrene, nylon polyamides, linear
and harden on cooling over polyester [poly
many cycles of (ethylene
heating and cooling and terephthalate)] , etc.
retain solubility and
fusibility).
(b) Thermosetting (they Phenolic resin, amino resins,
usually soften or melt epoxy resins, diene rubbers
initially on heating, but fast (vulcanized), unsaturated
undergo chemical changes polyesters.
to finally
turn insoluble and infusible).
3. Mode of formation (a) Chain – growth or Polyethylene and other
addition polyolefins, Polystyrene and
related vinyl polymers etc.
(b) Step – growth or Polyesters and polyamides,
condensation polycarbonates, phenol (urea,
melamine) – formaldehyde resins,
epoxy resins etc.
4. Line Structure (a) Linear High density polyethylene (HDPE),
(having no branches) polyvinyls, bifunctional (polyesters
and polyamides) etc.
(b) Branched Low density polyethylene (LDPE),
(having branches) higher poly (α-olefins), phenolic
resoles and resitols, poly (3-
hydroxy alkanoates) etc.
 (c) Cross linked or network Phenolic C-stage (resite) resin, C-
(having a complex network stage amino (urea / melamine-
structure) formal- dehyde) resins, cured
epoxy resin and
unsaturated polyester resin etc.
5. Application and (a) Rubbers Natural rubber, (1, 4 cis poly
Physical properties (showing long – range isoprene) synthetic rubbers
elasticity) (polybuta- diene, SBR, nitrile
rubber, polychlo- roprene rubber,
polylacrylate rubber, polyurethane
rubbers, silicone rubbers etc.)
(b) Plastics Polyethylenes,
(shapable under pressure, polypropylen
aided by heat) e (isotactic), polystyrene, poly
(vinyl chloride), nylon polyamides
linear
aromatic polyesters and
polyamides, polycarbonates,
acetal resins etc.
(c) Fibres Cotton (cellulose), natural silk,
(available in fibrillar or artificial silk (rayons), poly
filamentous form) (ethylene terephthalate) fibre,
nylon polyamide fibres etc.

Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials are any material with any external dimension in the nanoscale which ranges
from 1-100 nanometers or internal or surface structure are in nanoscale (IOS, 2015). Moreover, the
European Commission (2011) defined a nanomaterial as any natural, incidental or manufactured
material containing particles in an unbound state or as an aggregate where 50% or more of the
particles’ size extends from 1-100 nm.

Fundamental Properties of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials nucleate, grow, and dissolve via a set of elementary chemical processes that
spontaneously redistribute charge and mass at the atomic scale. These processes include electron
and proton transfer reactions that rearrange ions and complexes into nanophases. They can be
understood by using thermodynamic, kinetic, and transition-state theory to describe intermediate
states along reaction pathways on free-energy landscapes. Classical nucleation theory describes ion-
by-ion assembly to form crystals, but nonclassical growth pathways are also important; these
pathways involve formation of intermediate multinuclear ion clusters and small nanomaterials that can
transition to relatively larger nanomaterials and bulk crystals by particle-based crystallization (Yoreo
et al 2015 & Van Driessche, 2017).

The distinct properties of all natural and anthropogenic nanomaterials stem primarily from the
comparatively high proportion of surface atoms relative to interior ones. At times, these properties are
best described using quantum mechanics. Smaller particles have fewer atoms, which translates to
fewer electron energy levels. Therefore, electron energy bands become discrete electron energy
states, of energies that are sensitive to particle size, a condition known as quantum confinement.
Nevertheless, however “nano” is defined or considered, size and shape are essential characteristics
because they exert primary control over reactivity and transport physics. Size and shape also
determine the types and distributions of reactive surface sites capable of chemical transformations
and, at times, the toxicity of nanomaterials. Owing to the high proportion of surface versus bulk atoms,
even the smallest variations in surface structures may control the fate and reactivity of nanomaterials
in air, water, soil, or biota. Through their influence on surface charging behavior, size and shape also
control the tendency for aggregation, a critically important aspect that can blend or obscure the
characteristics of individual particles as they adopt new characteristics in nanocomposites.

The interplay between growth, dissolution, evaporation, and aggregation are key aspects of
nanomaterials in the environment (Fig. 1). Oriented aggregation can result in the formation of larger
particles with complex shapes (Penn et al, 1998). But because of the complexity of natural settings,
most nanomaterials are found in heteroaggregated composites of different inorganic and organic
materials. These aggregates can diverge markedly from spherical shapes and may even form highly
branched or fractal structures, thereby fundamentally affecting transport properties and reactivities.
Rates of particle dissolution, although known or experimentally measurable for many pure-phase
nanomaterials in a well-dispersed state (Cwiertny et al 2009 & Schoepf Schoepf et al 2017), are
challenging to predict for complex nanomaterial aggregates that have substantial internal surface
areas with limited accessibility (Liu et al, 2008). Furthermore, these physical associations change as
the nanomaterials encounter and transition through different local environments. Only in relatively
simple systems can the evolution of particle size, shape, and aggregation state, and thus the
distribution of effective particle diameters, be predicted with reasonable accuracy (Mullaugh & Luther,
2011).

Shown are chemical formation mechanisms of nanomaterials, from complexes to clusters and
beyond, within aqueous solutions. This creates nanomaterials (teal solid curve) that are more stable
than the product of continuous growth (teal dashed curve), which results in larger bulk crystals
(represented here as a precipitated single crystal or a crystal formed by oriented attachment of
nanocrystals, OA) that have a free energy represented by the horizontal red dotted line. Moving
across the graphic from left to right, as shown by the curved arrow, symbolizes the myriad
interactions of stable nanomaterials in environmental media. Individual nanoparticles at an energy
represented by the horizontal purple dotted line tend to form heteroaggregates at an even lower free-
energy state. Here, net attractive interactions with unlike particles and compounds (green curve) tend
to outcompete processes that could lead to single-phase bulk crystals assembled by, for example,
OA (green dashed curve), producing, instead, long-lived composites of complex composition and
structure.

Engineered Nanoparticles

Engineered nanomaterials are materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are intentionally
produced for specific product applications. Furthermore, they possess different chemical and physical
properties from those larger forms of the same material (National Institute for Occupational Safety
and Health, 2018).

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), there are four main
types of engineered nanomaterials. These are mainly Carbon-Based, Metal-Based, Dendrimers, and
Nanocomposites.

 Carbon- Based Nanomaterials (CBNs)

From its name, carbon- based nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon which may form
hollow spheres, ellipsoids or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon nanomaterials are generally
called fullerenes whereas cylindrical ones are called nanotubes. These particles are best used in
improved films and coatings, stronger and lighter materials and electronics application.

Some examples of Carbon- Based Nanomaterials

Carbon Nanotubes

It is referred as the most widely used CBN. It is known for its tunable physical properties such
as diameter, length, surface functionalization and chirality. It is produced through arc discharge or
chemical water deposition of graphite. Carbon nanotubes have cylindrical carbon structure and wide
range of electrical and optical properties (Saito, et al, 1998).
 Figure 2. Carbon nanotube

Graphene

Graphene is the latest CBN to burst into the scene. It is derived from graphite through
exfoliation, a method introduced by Geim and Novoselov (2007). In addition, graphene is
extraordinarily strong and is famed as the strongest material ever known and tested. It is
supernaturally light and electrically super conductive (Science 321, 385 and Changu, 2008).

Figure 3. Graphene

Fullerenes

Fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Rice University’s researchers and was named after
Buckminster Fuller. Spherical fullerenes are called buckyballs, the C60 variant which resembles a
typical black and white soccer ball. On the other hand, cylindrical ones are called buckytubes
(Science Daily, 2018).

Buckminsterfullerene

Also known as buckyball, is a spherical close-caged structure made of sixty sp2 carbons. It has
a highly symmetrical structure which gives it its electronic properties (Kroto, et al, 1985).

Figure 4. Buckyball

 Metal- Based Nanomaterials

These are nanomaterials made up of metals, semiconductors and oxides. They have very
interesting mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties (Stephenson and Hubler,
2015). Metal- based nanomaterials may include quantum dots, nanogold, nanosilvers and metal
oxides.
Some examples of Metal-Based Nanomaterials

Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Nanoparticles

Iron oxide is one of the three main oxides of iron. It is a reddish brown, inorganic and is
paramagnetic in nature delivery and imaging, molecular and cellular tracking, detection of cancer,
diabetes, etc. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are known for their magnetic properties
and biocompatibility. Due to these properties, iron oxide nanoparticles are used in biomedical
applications such as for enhanced resolution content agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
(Morales, et al, 2003)

Gold Nanoparticle (Colloidal Gold)

Gold nanoparticles also known as colloidal gold are suspension or colloid of nanomaterial
particles of gold (Giljohan, et al, 2010). Colloidal gold solutions have either intense red color or dirty
yellowish color (Murphy, et al, 2008). According to Link, et al. (1999), the properties and applications
of gold nanoparticles depend upon its shape.

 Dendrimers

Dendrimers are nanosized polymers built from branched units. Their surfaces have numerous
chains which can be tailored to perform a specific chemical function. Moreover, this is also the reason
for being useful in catalysis. They may also be used for drug delivery due to its interior cavities which
other molecules could be placed. This is particular for three-dimensional dendrimers.

Some types of Dendrimers

Polyamidoamine (PAMAM)

Perhaps, the most well-known dendrimer. PAMAM has a diamine core, commonly
ethylenediamine which is reacted with methyl acrylate. Then, another ethylenediamine is reacted to
make the generation-0 (G-0). Eventually successive reactions create higher generations.

Peptide Dendrimers

These are dendrimers which held amino acid as branching or interior units. Diagnostic
purposes and vaccine delivery are some of its applications (Yasukawa, et al, 2008).

Multilingual Dendrimers

Dendrimers which hold multiple copies of functional group on their surface (Pushkar, et al,
2006).

 Nanocomposites

These are nanomaterials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix of a standard
material. The potential effect of this addition are mechanical strength and electrical and thermal
conductivity. They work as thin-film capacitors for computer chips, solid polymer electrolytes for
batteries, impellers, oxygen and gases barriers and many more (AzoNano, 2015)
Types of Nanocomposites (according to matrix)

Ceramic-Matrix Nanocomposite

In this type of nanocomposite, the main part or the matrix is a ceramic (a chemical compound
from the group of oxides, nitrides, borides, etc.). Usually, ceramic- matrix nanocomposites have metal
as the second component. The two components are finely dispersed in each other to create a
particular nanoscopic properties (Kruis, et a, 1998).

Metal-Matrix Nanocomposites

Also defined as reinforced metal matrix composites, having metal as the primary component.
The best example is the Carbon nanotube metal-matrix composite (Janas and Liszka, 2007). Other
examples are boron nitride reinforced metal matrix nanocomposites and carbon nitride metal-matrix
nanocomposites (Bakshi, et al, 2010).

Polymer-Matrix Nanocomposites

This type of nanocomposite can be produced by adding a nanoparticle to a polymer matrix to

enhance performance, functions, and properties. These are sometimes called nanofilled polymer
composites (Manias, 2007). Nanoparticles such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, molybdenum,
disulfide and tungsten disulfide are usually used as reinforcing agents (Rafiee, et al, 2009).

Generally, the realm of engineered nanomaterials is considerably vast as well as their

applications. They were categorized according to composition and those categories were further
divided into types. To sum up, there are four main types of engineered nanomaterials, namely,
Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, Metal-Based Nanomaterials, Dendrimers and Nanocomposites. Some
of the types and examples are recognized in this section to give a brief outlook in the bigger and
wider concept of engineered nanomaterials.

Synthesis of Engineered Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials Production – How nanomaterials are made?

Materials in the nanometer size are in demand for production for the past years. It is used in a broad
variety of applications. So as years continue to pass by, so is the production of nanomaterials. Its
production rate continues to immerse that almost all materials were made after it. It has been
compromising many products and is used in various technologies. For example, the Carbon Black,
has been used in tires since 1930 and as of now it is still being used by companies to produce tires.
Moreover, most nanoproducts are required to be processed through a series of production that
inhabits a precisely defined, narrow range of particle sizes (monodispersity) to attain a result.
The said series of processes are used to produce diverse nanoparticles, coatings, dispersions
or composites that are needed to make an engineered nanomaterial. This production involves a
thorough defined production and reaction conditions for obtaining such size-dependent particle
features. Particle size, chemical composition, crystallinity and shape can be controlled by temperature,
pH-value, concentration, chemical composition, surface modifications and process control.

 Approaches in the Synthesis on Nanomaterials

There are two approaches in the production of nanomaterials:
1. Top-Down Approach
It is a mechanical-physical particle synthesis based on the principles of Microsystems
technology. From its name Top-Down, it merely means that the process is done from top (bigger) up
to its base (lesser). Its production is done through the mechanical crushing of the source material
using a milling process or a chemical technique like engraving metals by acids to obtain desired
particles. This approach also seeks to make a small strategy by using the larger ones to address the
making of the particles. Examples of this approach are the High Energy Ball Milling, Laser Ablation,
and Lithography (Zabara, 2016).
2. Bottom-Up Approach
This approach is patterned on physicochemical principles of molecules or atomic self-
organization. Its production begins with that of the atom of a specific material by chemical processes
based on its alteration in different mediums such as a solution medium or gaseous medium (Zabara,
2016). This kind of synthesis manufactured selected and more complex structures from atoms or
molecules, better controlling sizes, shapes and size ranges. The production seeks to arrange smaller
components into more complex groups.
 This approach also depends merely on the chemical variation to come up with the desired
designs in manufacturing engineered nanomaterials. This includes the Gas (Vapor) Phase
Fabrication like the Pyrolysis and the Liquid Phase Fabrication such as Solvothermal Reaction and
Sol-Gel.
Synthesis in the Top-Down Approach

A. High Energy Ball Milling

It is a milling process in which a powder mixture is placed in a ball mill that is subjected to have
high-energy collision from the balls. This process was coined by Benjamin and his co-workers at the
International Nickel Company on 1960. They found out that this method, termed mechanical alloying,
could successfully produce fine, uniform dispersions of oxide particles (Al2O3, Y2O3, and ThO2) in
nickel-based superalloys that the conventional powder metallurgy method can’t do. With this kind of
production, the Engineered Nanomaterials came to life for its production are not easy to produce for
its unique size. This had changed the traditional method in which production of materials is carried
out by high temperature. (Cao, 2007).

This method is using different kinds of instrument to produce such production such as attritor,
planetary mill or a horizontal ball mill. The principle of this procedure is merely to establish the
nanomaterials. Planetary ball mill is the most frequently used system for mechanical alloying since
only a very small amount of powder is required. Therefore, the system is particularly suitable for
research purposes in the laboratory. The ball mill system consists of one turn disc (turn table) and two
or four bowls. The turn disc rotates in one direction while the bowls rotate in the opposite direction.
The centrifugal forces, created by the rotation of the bowl around its own axis together with the
rotation of the turn disc, are applied to the powder mixture and milling balls in the bowl. The powder
mixture is fractured and cold welded under high energy impact. (Cao, 2007).

B. Laser Ablation

Laser ablation has been studied for various applications in the late 1963 but has been
employed for synthesizing nanomaterials in the mid 1990s. Laser ablation means the removal of
materials from a surface by means of laser irradiation. The word “Laser ablation” is used to
emphasize the non-equilibrium vapor or plasma conditions that is created at the surface by laser
pulse, to distinguish from “laser evaporation,” which is heating and evaporation of material in
condition of thermodynamic equilibrium. Briefly, there are two essential parts in the laser ablation
device: a pulsed laser (CO2 laser, Nd-YAG laser, ArFexcimer laser, or XeClexcimer laser) and an
ablation chamber. The high power of the laser beam induces large light absorption on the surface of
target, which makes temperature of the absorbing material increase rapidly.

As a result, the material on the surface of target vaporizes into laser plume. In some cases, the
vaporized materials condensate into cluster and particle without any chemical reaction. In some other
cases, the vaporized material reacts with introduced reactants to form new materials. The condensed
particle will be either deposited on a substrate or collected through a filter system consisting of a
glass fiber mesh. Then, the collected nanoparticle can be coated on a substrate through drop-coating
or screen-printing process. (Cao, 2007).

Synthesis in the Bottom-Up Approach

Pyrolysis

A technique usually classified as vapour phase synthesis process in the production of the
nanomaterials. It is considered a chemical synthesis for it uses chemical reactions to obtain its
specific objective in synthesizing nanoparticles to produce nanomaterials. The routes of this synthesis
are: the Nanomaterial starts abruptly when a sufficient degree of supersaturation of condensable
products is reached in the vapour phase. When the nucleation occurs, fast particle growth takes place
by coalescence/coagulation rather than further nucleation. At sufficiently high temperatures, particle
coalescence (sintering) is faster than coagulation and spherical particles are formed. At lower
temperatures, coalescence slows down and partially sintered, non-spherical particles and/or loose
agglomerates of particles are formed.
 It follows that, to prepare small, spherical particles, it is necessary to create a high degree of
supersaturation for inducing the formation of a high density of nuclei and then quickly quench the
particle growth either by removing the source of supersaturation or by slowing down the kinetics. The
products that resulted from this process are done thoroughly to achieve the best engineered
nanomaterials we’re aiming for (Zabara, 2016).

 Solvothermal Reaction
Solvothermal Reaction is a method for preparing engineered nanomaterials such as nanobots and
nanorods. A liquid phase synthesis that involves the use of solvent under moderate to high pressure
typically between 1 atm and 10,000 atm and temperature typically between 100 °C and 1000 °C that
is responsible for the interaction of precursors during synthesis. The formation of nanocrystal is
controlled by manipulating the solvent supersaturation, chemical of interest concentration, and kinetic
control. This method can be used to prepare thermodynamically stable and metastable states
including novel materials that cannot be easily formed from other synthetic routes. Over the last
decade, a majority (~80%) of the literature concerning solvothermal synthesis has focused on
nanocrystals. If water is used as the solvent, the method is called “hydrothermal synthesis.” The
synthesis under hydrothermal conditions is usually performed below the supercritical temperature of
water (374 °C). The process can be used to prepare much geometry including thin films, bulk
powders, single crystals, and nanocrystals to produce engineered nanomaterials (Zabara, 2016).
 Sol-Gel
A well-established colloidal chemistry technology, which offers possibility to produce variety of
nanomaterials with novel, predefined characteristics in a simple process at a low cost. The term “sol”
originated from the name of a colloidal solution made of solid particles few hundred nm in diameter,
suspended in a liquid phase, while the gel refers to the solid macromolecule immersed in a solvent.
Sol-gel process consists in the chemical transformation of a liquid (the sol) into a gel state and with
subsequent post-treatment and transition into solid oxide material. The main benefits of sol–gel
processing are the high purity and uniform nanostructure achievable at low temperatures (Zabara,
2016).

Applications of Engineered Nanomaterial

Types of Carbon-Based Nanomaterial

Graphene, Nanodiamonds, Nanofiber, Fullerenes and Nanotube

Graphene can be used as energy storage and it is being studied and developed to be used in
manufacture of super capacitors which are able to be charged very quickly. Also it can be able to
store a large amount of electricity. Graphene – enhanced lithium ion batteries could be used in much
higher energy usage application such as electricity powered vehicles, smart phones, laptops, and
tablets PCs but at significant lower level of size and weight (La Fuente, n.d.).

The nontoxicity and biocompatibility of nanodiamonds (NDs) in their excellent physical

performance have rendered them attractive candidates for biomedical applications. Nanodiamonds
have great potential in drug nano formulations because of its small size compared with any carbon-
based nanomaterial. Nanodiamonds are nontoxic so they have the excellent absorption properties
that can be formulated into skin care products. Other application of nanodiamond is for skin care
meditation and wound healing.

Nanofiber layers produced from biopolymers (chitosan, gelatin, collagen, polykaprolakton and
etc.) can be used as wound healing for significant support of the wound healing process. Also, it is
possible to add antibacterial material and drugs to the nanofiber structure that can be used in
contaminated wounds.

Fullerenes belong to the class of inorganic molecules and show wide availability due to their
small size and biological activity. The fullerene core is hydrophobic and the functional group is
attached to its core. By attaching hydrophilic moieties, fullerene become water-soluble and capable of
carrying drugs and gene for the cellular delivery. Derivatized fullerene can cross the cell membrane
and bind to the mitochondria (Folley, 2002).

Carbon nanotubes or (CNTs) have the intrinsic characteristics desired in materials used as
electrodes in batteries and capacitors. They have tremendously high surface area that’s good for
electrical conductivity, their linear geometry makes their surface highly accessible to the electrolyte.
Aside from good electrical conductivity, they also have good mechanical properties which lead to
wealth application including advanced components.
Types of Metal-Based Nanomaterial

Quantum Dots, Nanogold and Nanosilver

Quantum dots can be used for producing images of cancer tumors and it is used to evaluate
the performance of cancer treatments. Also, it is used to produce miniature laser to be used in
communication devices. The advantage of this laser is its high speed data transfer with low power
consumption. Quantum dots can be used in computer or TV displays. Using quantum dot display
should be thinner, lower than current displays as well as able to be flexible.

The application of nanogold conjugated with therapeutic agents improve the pharmacokinetics
of the “free” drug and sustain release properties that makes it an attractive tool for drug delivery and
gene delivery.

Large surface area to volume ratio of gold nanoparticles enables their surface to be coated
with hundreds of molecules including therapeutics, targeting agents, and anti-fouling polymers. Also,
in DNA combined assembly, gold particles are used as efficient gene transfection tools.

Nanosilvers have antibacterial and conductive applications. For antibacterial application,

nanosilvers are used for wound dressing, appliances and cosmetics. For conductive application, they
are used as conductive inks and integrated into composites to enhance thermal and electrical
conductivity (Oldenburg, n.d.).

Dendrimers

The most promising potential of dendrimers is in their possibility to perform controlled and
specified drug delivery, which regards the topic of nanomedicine. One of the most fundamental
problems that are set toward modern medicine is to improve pharmacokinetic properties of drug for
cancer (Sampathkumar and Yarema, 2007).

There are many other areas of biological chemistry where application of dendrimer system
may be useful. One example is cellular delivery using carrier dendritic polymer used in the purification
of water dendrimer-based product (Tiwari, 2008).

PAMAM dendrimers have several applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. It has
also been used for gene delivery and delivery of diagnostic agents. PAMAM dendrimers are
nonimmunogenic, are water soluble, and possess terminal functional groups for binding various
targeting or guest molecules (Araújo et al, 2018). Polyadoamine (PAMAM) is a type of dendrimer,
containing variety of molecules, such as drugs and therapeutic agents that can be loaded in the
interior space and also in the surface of PAMAM dendrimers to control the rate of release of these
agents into the body.

Types of Composites

Ceramic Matrix and Metal Matrix Nanocomposite

Carbon nanotube is used to give more applications in nanocomposites. Ceramic matrix

nanocomposites are good in applications that require good thermal and electrical properties. They are
used as medical devices and implants, automotive, aerospace and power generation, tool and die
material (Soutter, 2013).

The other example is metal matrix nanocomposites. With the use of carbon nanotube, they can
be used in different industries, such as in sports: badminton, tennis racket and light weight bicycle;
aerospace: landing gears and aircraft brakes; automobile: gears, break shoes, piston rings and
cylinder liners.
 3rd exam

Chemistry of Atmosphere

Studies the chemical composition of the natural atmosphere, the way gases, liquids, and solids in
the atmosphere interact with one another and with the Earth's surface and associated biota.

This field is also concerned with how the activities of the human race changed or is changing the
both physical and chemical characteristics of the atmosphere.

It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on: Environmental Chemistry, Physics,

Meteorology, Computer Molding, Oceanography, Geology, Volcanology and etc.

The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes such as
volcano emissions and lightning. But, it has also been changed by human activity and these changes
are harmful to human health, crops, and, ecosystems.

Some of the problems addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain, ozone depletion,
photochemical smog, greenhouse gases, and global warming.

LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five layers that stretch from the surface to as far as 6,214 miles
above, where the last layer blends with space.

Troposphere (12 kilometers (7.5 miles) above) The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere. It
harbors about every single living thing and almost all human activity. It is also the area of atmosphere
where the weather occurs. The temperature in this area decreases as the altitude increases. the
densest layer, as almost all the atmospheric water vapor and clouds can be found here.

Stratosphere (12 to 50 kilometers (7.5 and 31 miles) above). The second layer of the
atmosphere; it is just above the troposphere. It is also where the ozone can be found and protects the
Earth from harmful ultraviolet . Unlike the troposphere, stratosphere temperature increases as the
altitude decreases.

Mesosphere (80 kilometers (50 miles) above). The third layer of the atmosphere. Similar to
troposphere, as you get higher, the temperature gets colder. his location's minimal amount of water
vapor forms the highest cloud in the atmosphere, the noctilucent clouds. This layer is thin enough that
the meteors burn up and create shooting stars.

Thermosphere 80-700 kilometers (50 and 440 miles) above is the next layer above the
mesosphere. It has a very thin air. It is also where the ionosphere located. Ionosphere is full of
electrically charged ions. The UV rays ionizes these gases. The temperature in this layer is
proportional to the altitude because of the density of the molecules in this layer and because solar
radiation makes up most of the uppermost part of this layer.

Exosphere (700 to 10,000 kilometers (440 and 6,200 miles) above) is the outermost layer of
the atmosphere. It extends up to 10,000 km above the surface. (Cassie’s Chemistry). Due to the low
pull of Earth’s gravity in this, the layer doesn’t behave like a gas, and the molecules escape into
space, and the uppermost part of this layer blends with outer space.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Today’s Atmosphere

The changes in the early atmosphere resulted to the atmosphere in the present. The
atmosphere today is mostly nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) with very small amounts of other gases
such as water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and noble gases such as argon, neon, xenon, and
krypton.
NITROGEN CYCLE

Nitrogen (N2) molecules can't be utilize straightforwardly by plant or creatures. It also held by a
very strond triple bond. Thus, there is a process that an organism needed to do. (Hill, 2013)

According to Bernhard (2010), the major transformations of nitrogen are nitrogen fixation,
assimilation, nitrification, denitrification, and ammonification.

Nitrogen Fixation is the process of converting N2 into biologically available nitrogen. Although
most nitrogen fixation is done by prokaryotes, some nitrogen can be settled abiotically by lightning or
certain modern procedures, including the burning of fossil fuels.

In Assimilation, plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil by their root hairs. If
nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into
amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia,
some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known
that there is a more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The
plant provides amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the
bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an
interdependent relationship. While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain
nitrogen by ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other
heterotrophs (including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium
as sole N sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.

Nitrification is the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate.

Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by utilizing nitrite as the electron acceptor to produce
gaseous nitrogen.

Denitrification the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing bioavailable
nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere.

Ammonification, it is a process when an organism excretes waste or dies, the nitrogen in its
tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen (e.g. amino acids, DNA). Various fungi and prokaryotes then
decompose the tissue and release inorganic nitrogen back into the ecosystem as ammonia.

OXYGEN CYCLE

Plants are the main creators of oxygen in the atmosphere through the process of
photosynthesis. Plant uses sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce energy and releases oxygen.
Animals breathe in the oxygen and then breathe out carbon dioxide. The plant can then use this
carbon dioxide and the cycle is complete.

Processes That Use Oxygen:

Respiration - animals and plants use up oxygen when they breathe.

Decomposing - When plants and animals die, they decompose. This process uses up oxygen and
releases carbon dioxide.

Rusting - This is also called oxidation. When things rust they use up oxygen.

Combustion - There are three things needed for fire: oxygen, fuel, and heat. Without oxygen you
can't have a fire. When things burn, they use up oxygen and replace it with carbon dioxide.

CARBON CYCLE

This cycle is divided into two phases: The phase when carbon transcends into the atmosphere as it is
emitted, and the phase when carbon is absorbed

 First Phase

Respiration – the process of inhaling and exhaling.

Decomposition – the process of decay when a dead organism (either plants or animals) or even
animal wastes become an organic matter and then be absorbed by fungi and bacteria.

Combustion – the process of burning materials.

 In Between Phase

Diffusion – the process that can absorb carbon through algae and release carbon when temperature
is warm.
 Second Phase

Photosynthesis – the process of fixing carbon dioxide into oxygen and formulating necessary
molecules.

PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of energy in the form
of light.

The upper atmosphere forms outer defense against radiation and high energy particles that
continuously bombard the Earth. These causes to two chemical changes: photodissociation and
photoionization.

Photodissociation is a chemical reaction that degrades compounds by bombarding the

molecule with photons. Photodissociation of O2 formed atomic oxygen (O). Photoionization is when a
molecule in the upper atmosphere absorbs solar radiation, it ejects an electron to form cation (Brown,
et al., 2012).

OZONE IN THE ATMOSPHERE

Ozone shapes a sort of layer in the stratosphere, where it is more focused than anyplace else
and this generally high fixation is referred to "ozone layer" or "ozone shield"

Ozone and oxygen atoms in the stratosphere ingest bright light from the Sun, giving a shield
that keeps this radiation from going to the Earth's surface. While both oxygen and ozone together
absorb 95 to 99.9% of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, only ozone effectively absorbs the most
energetic ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-B. This ultraviolet light can cause biological
damage like skin cancer, tissue damage to eyes and plant tissue damage.

Acid Rain
 It is also called as Acid Deposition. It is any kind or form of precipitation that contains acidic
components such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid that falls into the ground from the atmosphere (United
States Environment Protection Agency, 2017).

It is the result when sulfuric dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere.
The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals that is present in the atmosphere to
form sulfuric and nitric acids. Small portions of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from that
natural sources such as volcanoes but majority of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels in the
industrial plants.

The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity.

 Vehicles and heavy equipments. and

 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

 SO2 and NOX can be blown by the winds over long distances and across borders,
making it not only the problem of those people who live close to the source but for
everyone in general.

 Forms of Acid Deposition

 Dry Deposition

-A form of acid deposition. This is when gases and dust particles become acidic.
The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to earth through dry
deposition depends on the amount of rainfall an area receives.

 Wet Deposition

-Is what we commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric acid and nitric acids fall
to the ground mixed in rain, snow, fog, or hail.

 Measuring Acid Rain

Ozone depletion

According to the National Geographic (2009), the deteriorating of the ozone layer is due to the
emission of pollution that contains Bromine (Br) and Chlorine (Cl). This deterioration allows large
amount of ultraviolet (uv) B rays to reach Earth, which can cause harm to animals and skin cancer
and cataracts in human.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) are the primary culprit of the ozone layer deterioration. When CFC’s
reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to ultraviolet rays, which causes them to breakdown
into substances. The chlorine in the CFC reacts with oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone
molecule.

The ozone layer, particularly the layer above the Antarctic has been impacted by the pollution
since the mid-1980’s. About 90 percent of the CFC’s currently in the atmosphere were emitted by the
industrialized countries in the Northern Hemisphere, including the United States and Europe.

LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND POLICY RESPONSES

MONTREAL PROTOCOL This protocol aims to lower and regulate the

production and consumption of nearly 100 ozone-
depleting substances (ODS). This protocol
entered into force for signature last 1988, and
several 197 states have signed this.

UN FRAMEWORK CONVENTION ON CLIMATE The UNFCCC’s objective is to stabilize

CHANGE greenhouse gas concentrations in the
atmosphere. It aims to make the concentration
only at a level that would prevent dangerous
interference in the climate system. This
convention was adopted in 1992, and 195 state
parties joined the force.

KYOTO PROTOCOL This protocol extended the UNFCCC’s objective

to reduce the greenhouse gas concentration in
the atmosphere to prevent anthropogenic danger
to the climate. This was adopted last 1997 and
had 192 parties.

PARIS AGREEMENT The Paris Agreement sets a global framework

that limits global warming to below two °C or
even 1.5°C. It also aims for countries to help
each other deal with the impacts of climate
change. One hundred ninety-six parties adopted
it in December 2015.

BASEL CONVENTION ON HAZARDOUS The Conference of Plenipotentiaries adopted this

WASTES last 1989. This convention aims to reduce the
generation of hazardous waste to protect human
and environmental health from its dangerous
effects.

STOCKHOLM CONVENTION ON POPS Stockholm Convention is an international treaty

that entered into force in 2004. This treaty aims to
protect human and environmental health from the
dangerous effects of POPs.

ROTTERDAM CONVENTION ON PIC The Rotterdam Convention is an international

treaty aiming to facilitate hazardous chemical
trading. They ensure that chemicals are only
exported to countries that wish to receive them.
The convention was adopted last 2004.

MINIMATA CONVENTION ON MERCURY Minimata Convention is the latest global

agreement about health and the environment,
adopted in 2013. They aim to reduce the
widespread global mercury pollution.
 CHEMISTRY OF WATER

Water is very essential no one has ever proclaimed that they do not need water. Approximately
3/4 of the world is water, 72.8% of it is saltwater and therefore is undrinkable and the remaining
21.2% is the freshwater. Approximately 60% of the freshwater is the glaciers, 30% of it is the
freshwater on ground and 10% is beneath. About 60-70% of our body is made up of water (Khan
Academy,2018). Not just humans but most of the other animals needed water. Even bacteria are
made up of water.

Water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen.

PROPERTIES OF WATER:

1. POLARITY

Khan Academy (2018) states that water is a "polar" molecule which means that it has an
uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative charge near the oxygen atom
due the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial positive charges near the hydrogen atoms. An
electrostatic attraction between the partial positive charge near the hydrogen atoms and the partial
negative charge near the oxygen results in the formation of a hydrogen bond as shown in the
illustration. The ability of ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due to polarity. For example,
in the illustration below sodium chloride is shown in its crystalline form and dissolved in water.

2. HYDROGEN BONDING

Due to their polarity, water molecules attract each other. The positive end of a hydrogen atom
associates with the negative end of another oxygen atom. Hydrogen bonds, weak interactions that
form between a hydrogen with a partial positive charge and a more electronegative atom, such as
oxygen. The hydrogen atoms involved in hydrogen bonding must be attached to electronegative
atoms, such as O, N, or F (Khan Academy, 2018).

3. COHESION

According to Khan Academy (2018), cohesion refers to the attraction of molecules for other
molecules of the same kind, and water molecules have strong cohesive forces due to their ability to
form hydrogen bonds with one another. This will result into forming surface tension.
  SURFACE TENSION, the tendency of a liquid’s surface to resist rupture when
placed under tension or stress. Water molecules at the surface (at the water-air
interface) will form hydrogen bonds with their neighbors, just like water molecules
deeper within the liquid. However, because they are exposed to air on one side,
they will have fewer neighboring water molecules to bond with, and will form
stronger bonds with the neighbors they do have. Surface tension causes water to
form spherical droplets and allows it to support small objects, like a scrap of
paper or a needle, if they are placed carefully on its surface.

4. ADHESION

Khan Academy (2018), defines that adhesion is the attraction of molecules of one kind for
molecules of a different kind, and it can be quite strong for water, especially with other molecules
bearing positive or negative charges.

 CAPILLARY ACTION is a reaction that results from adhesion that enables water
to “climb” upwards through thin glass tubes (called capillary tubes) placed in a
beaker of water. This upward motion against gravity, known as capillary action,
depends on the attraction between water molecules and the glass walls of the
tube (adhesion), as well as on interactions between water molecules (cohesion).

5. DENSITY

Water has lower density in its solid form due to the way hydrogen bonds are oriented as it
freezes. Specifically, in ice, the water molecules are pushed farther apart than they are in liquid water.
That means water expands when it freezes. You may have seen this for yourself if you've ever put a
sealed glass container containing a mostly-watery food (soup, soda, etc.) into the freezer, only to
have it crack or explode as the liquid water inside froze and expanded (Khan Academy, 2018).

6. HEAT CPACITY
 Water has a high specific heat capacity, which is defined as the amount of heat needed to
raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius. The amount of heat needed
to raise the temperature of 1 g water by 1 °C is has its own name, the calorie. Because of its high
heat capacity, water can minimize changes in temperature(Khan Academy,2018).

7. EVAPORATIVE COOLING

Water has a high heat of vaporization, the amount of energy needed to change one gram of a
liquid substance to a gas at constant temperature. Water’s heat of vaporization is around 540 cal/g at
100 °C, water's boiling point. Note that some molecules of water – ones that happen to have high
kinetic energy – will escape from the surface of the water even at lower temperatures. As water
molecules evaporate, the surface they evaporate from gets cooler, a process called evaporative
cooling (Khan Academy, 2018).

8. UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

Khan Academy (2018) states that water can form electrostatic interactions (charge-based
attractions) with other polar molecules and ions. The polar molecules and ions interact with the
partially positive and partially negative ends of water, with positive charges attracting negative
charges (just like the + and - ends of magnets). When there are many water molecules relative to
solute molecules, as in an aqueous solution, these interactions lead to the formation of a three-
dimensional sphere of water molecules, or hydration shell, around the solute. Hydration shells allow
particles to be dispersed (spread out) evenly in water. If you stir table salt into water, the crystal lattice
of NaCl will begin to dissociate into Na+ and Cl- ions. (Dissociation is just a name for the process in
which a compound or molecule breaks apart to form ions.) Water molecules form hydration shells
around the ions: positively charged Na+ ions are surrounded by partial negative charges from the
oxygen ends of the water molecules, while negatively charged Cl- ions are surrounded by partial
positive charges from the hydrogen ends. As the process continues, all of the ions in the table salt
crystals are surrounded by hydration shells and dispersed in solution.

9. ACIDS AND BASES

According to Khan Academy (2018), solutions are classified as acidic or basic based on their
hydrogen ion concentration relative to pure water. Acidic solutions have a higher H+ concentration
than water (greater than 1 × 10^ (-7)), while basic (alkaline) solutions have a lower H+ concentration
(less than 1 × 10^(-7)) Typically, the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution is expressed in terms of
pH.

10. pH SCALE

The pH scale is used to rank solutions in terms of acidity or basicity (alkalinity). Since the scale
is based on pH values, it is logarithmic, meaning that a change of 1 pH unit corresponds to a ten-fold
change in H+ ion concentration. The pH scale is often said to range from 0 to 14, and most solutions
do fall within this range, although it’s possible to get a pH below 0 or above 14. Anything below 7.0 is
acidic, and anything above 7.0 is alkaline, or basic (Khan Academy, 2018).

11. BUFFERS

Buffers, solutions that can resist changes in pH, are key to maintaining stable H+ start
superscript, plus, end superscript ion concentrations in biological systems. When there are too many
H+ ions, a buffer will absorb some of them, bringing pH back up; and when there are too few, a buffer
will donate some of its own H+ ions to reduce the pH. Buffers typically consist of an acid-base pair,
with the acid and base differing by the presence or absence of a proton (a conjugate acid-base pair)
(Khan Academy, 2018).

12. VAPOR PRESSURE

The pressure wielded on the surface of a substance in equilibrium with its own vapor called
vapor pressure. In figure 4, inside a sealed container, water molecules from a bowl of water will
occupy the air until equilibrium is attained. There will be no net movement of water molecules
between the two components at equilibrium since there is an equal number of water molecules
entering the air from the water as they are leaving it. The water vapor pressure in the bowl is
measured as the force of the vapor acting downward on the water's surface.

13. THERMAL STRATIFICATION

happens when the density differences between the higher and lower layers are sufficiently
great that the wind cannot mix the two strata. Line between Epilimnium and hypolimnium is called
thermocline.

Freshwater
Definition of Freshwater

Fresh water is vital to life and yet it is a finite resource. Of all the water on Earth, just 3% is
fresh water. Although critical to natural and human communities, fresh water is threatened by a
myriad of forces including overdevelopment, polluted runoff and global warming. With this in mind,
WWF partners with communities, businesses and others to decrease pollution, increase water
efficiency and protect natural areas to ensure enough clean water exists to conserve wildlife and
provide a healthy future for all.

Water Cycle

also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous circulation of water in
Water cycle,
the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in the water cycle, the most important
are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of
water within the cycle remains essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is
continually changing.

Process of Water Cycle

Evaporation
Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the
water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. Studies have shown that the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers
provide nearly 90 percent of the moisture in the atmosphere via evaporation, with the remaining 10
percent being contributed by plant transpiration (Perlman, 2016).
Transpiration
It is the process of transporting moisture through plants from their roots to tiny pores on
the underside of their leaves, where it transforms into vapor and is released into the atmosphere.
Evaporation of water from plant leaves is essentially what transpiration is.
Condensation
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water.
Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the formation of clouds. These
clouds may produce precipitation, which is the primary route for water to return to the Earth's surface
within the water cycle. Condensation is the opposite of evaporation (Perlman, 2016).
Precipitation
Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow,
or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery of atmospheric
water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain (Perlman, 2016).
Runoff
It is precipitation that moves from the ground surface into areas where water collects
because it did not evaporate or get (infiltrated) absorbed into the soil. Contributes to erosion and
transports chemicals and other materials from the ground to rivers, where the water eventually ends
up.

CHEMISTRY OF SOIL

Soil is an important material in sustaining life on our planet. It is a very special mix of inorganic and
organic material in form of colloids, water and different gases, and decomposed plant and animal
material, all in a variable but balanced proportions (Bear, 1964). This is the reason why soil is very
important for the underlying systems that govern how our environment works, because the soil is the
interface between the different spheres of our planet (i.e. Atmosphere for the air in soil; lithosphere for
the weathered rocks and mineral in soil; hydrosphere for the water content of soil; and the biosphere
for the organic matter, living and dead, in the content of soil).

On the soil is where we plant our crops that keeps most of the living things alive, it is where we
build our buildings and houses that shelter and protect us, and it is where we lived our lives and
where we will be living our lives for a very long time. And, it is evident that we just take for granted
the wonders of soil that we depend on. So now, this report will help us appreciate and understand
the important role of soil and its chemistry.

Basic Soil Components:

Mineral Material

The largest component of soil is the mineral portion. Soils mineral have two types, the primary
minerals and secondary minerals. Primary minerals are those soil materials that are the same to the
parent material from which they formed, such as those found in sand and silt. On the other hand,
secondary minerals are result from the weathering of the primary minerals, which releases important
ions and form more stable mineral forms such as silicate clay (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Primary minerals are formed at high temperature and pressure under reducing condition
without free oxygen. The secondary minerals are normally found in the clay fraction of the soil
(Balasubramanian, 2017).

Water

Water is the second basic component of soil. It is important for transporting nutrients to
growing plants, soil organisms and facilitating chemical decomposition. Also, the capacity of soil to
hold water is dependent on soil texture. The smaller particles in soils, the more water the soil can
retain. Clay soil have the greatest water holding capacity and sand the least (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Organic Matter

Organic matter is the next basic component that is found in soils at level of approximately 1%
to 5%. Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by living organisms that is returned to
the soil and goes through the decomposition process. At any given time, it consists of a range of
materials from the intact original tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed
mixture of materials known as humus. Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissue. Plant
residues contain 60 – 90 percent moisture. The remaining dry matter consists of carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, and small amounts of Sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium
(Balasubramanian, 2017).

Gases

Air is the next basic component of soil because air can occupy the same space as water.
Oxygen is essential for root and microbe respiration which helps support plant growth, carbon dioxide
and nitrogen are also important for belowground plant function (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Microorganisms

Microorganism are very small forms of life that can sometimes live as single cells. Many more
microorganisms exist in topsoil because it has more food supplies, than the sub soil. They are
specially existing in the area next to plant roots, which called rhizosphere (Balasubramanian, 2017).

Physical Properties:

Soil Texture

According to Moody (2008), that the soil texture is depends on the balance of sand, silt, and
clay in soil. Texture is significant since it will affect the soil’s water-holding capacity, porosity and
aeration, hydraulic conductivity, compatibility, resistance to root penetration, nutrient-holding capacity
and resistance to acidification.

Soil colour

Soil color does not affect the behavior and use of soil; however, it can indicate the composition
of the soil and give clues to the conditions that the soil is subjected to. Soil can exhibit a wide range of
colour; gray, black, white, reds, browns, yellows and under the right conditions green. Soil color has
been found to be the property of soil that most reflects its pedogenic environment and history. Soil
organic matter and iron oxides contribute most to soil color. Organic matter darkens soil, while iron
oxides produce a range of soil colors that are dependent on the oxidation state of the iron (Moody,
2008).

Soil Structure

According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger sized aggregates
that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of aggregation and the whole size affect a
soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that the soil structure describes the proportion and shape
of the aggregate. Also, the soil consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance.
Consistence has major effects on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease
of seedling emergence and deepness of root penetration.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL

The soil is composed, in the mineralogical sense, of mostly minerals from rocks found in the
crust of the Earth. The rocks found in the surface of the Earth are formed due to the cooling of
magma; these rocks go through the rock cycle, and they transform and weather physically, chemically,
and biologically. This process of weathering is a key factor in the formation of soil. The most
abundant type of rock found in the Earth’s crust is the igneous rocks since the other types of rocks
(the metamorphic and sedimentary rocks) are derived from the igneous rocks. Since igneous rocks
are the most abundant type of rock it is the major contributor of the soil’s mineralogical content;
simply put the mineralogical content of an igneous rock is closely related to the mineralogical content
of the average soil. The minerals that consist the average igneous rocks and intensively weathered
soil are as follows:

Minerals Average of Igneous Columbiana Clay

Rocks (Costa Rica)
SiO2 60 26
Al2O3 16 49
Fe2O3 7 20
TiO2 1 3
MnO 0.1 0.4
CaO 5 0.3
MgO 4 0.7
K2O 3 0.1
Na2O 4 0.3
P2O5 0.3 0.4
SO3 0.1 0.3
 Total 100.5% 100.4%
Chemical Composition of Average Igneous Rocks and an Intensively Weathered Soil.
Adapted from Bohn, McNeal, and O'Connor, 1985. Retrieved from: Fundamentals of Soil Science
(Foth, 1991)

The minerals in the soil from the rocks are divided into two groups: Primary minerals and
Secondary minerals. The primary minerals comprise and provides all the chemical elements in soils
in the form of minerals. These minerals react with other substances creating cations and anions, or
they maybe cations and anions themselves. The most common type of primary minerals are the
silicates and oxides of different metals (Karthanasis, 2006). And, it is evident in the table that the
abundance of these minerals greatly affects the chemical elements found in the soil.

Element (Symbol) Parts Per Million Percentage (%)

(ppm) by weight
Oxygen (O) 461,000ppm 46.1%
Silicon (Si) 282,000ppm 28.2%
Aluminum (Al) 82,300ppm 8.23%
Iron (Fe) 56,300ppm 5.63%
Calcium (Ca) 41,500ppm 4.15%
Sodium (Na) 23,600ppm 2.36%
Magnesium (Mg) 23,300ppm 2.33%
Potassium (K) 20,900ppm 2.09%
Titanium (Ti) 5,650ppm 0.565%
Hydrogen (H) 1,400ppm 0.14%
Elements in the Earth’s Crust
Adopted from: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th Edition. Retrieved from:
https://education.jlab.org

From the table, we can see that oxygen constitutes almost half of the elements in the soil, this
is because of the oxygen bonded with different metal ions (or oxides) and most of the elemental
composition of most minerals have oxygen in them (e.g. silicates, aluminosilicates, hydroxides, etc.).
Silicon is the second most abundant in the composition of Earth’s crust, because most of the minerals
are composed with a silicon tetrahedra, and since silicon is very much like carbon (they both have 4
valence electron) and is very abundant in the Earth’s mantle most of the rocks and minerals that are
formed here in the crust will most likely be silicon based.

Soil Structure

According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger sized aggregates
that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of aggregation and the whole size affect a
soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that the soil structure describes the proportion and shape
of the aggregate. Also, the soil consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance.
Consistence has major effects on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease
of seedling emergence and deepness of root penetration.

Soil Horizon

According to Balasubramanian (2017), each soil horizon might be slightly or very much
different from the other layer existing above or below it. Each horizon also tells a story about the
makeup, age, texture and other characteristics of that layer. The layers are divided as top-soil layer,
sub-soil layer, and the bed rock layers. He also said that most of the soils have four or five major
horizons. These are designated as O, A, B, C, E and R.

The O-Horizon (humus +litter layer):

The O horizon is very common in many surfaces with lots of vegetative cover. It is the layer
made up of organic materials such as dead leaves and surface organisms, twigs and fallen trees. It
has about 20% organic matter and this horizon is often black or dark brown in color
(Balasubramanian, 2017).

The A-Horizon (top-soil + root zone):

 The A horizon may be seen in the absence of the O horizon, usually known as the top soil. It is
the top layer soils for many grasslands and agricultural lands. Typically, this horizon is made of sand,
silt and clay with high amounts of organic matter. This layer is most vulnerable to wind and water
erosion and it is also known as the root zone (Balasubramanian, 2017).

The E-Horizon:

The E horizon is usually lighter in color, often occurring below O and A horizons. It is often rich
in nutrients that are leached from A and O horizons. It has a lower clay content and common in
forested lands or areas with high quality O and A horizons (Balasubramanian, 2017).

The B-Horizon (Mineral Dominated Zone):

The B horizon has some similarities with the E horizon. This horizon is formed below the O, A
and E horizons and may contain high concentrations of silicate clay, iron, aluminum and carbonates.
It is also called the illuviation zone because of the accumulation of minerals and in this layer where
roots of big trees exist (Balasubramanian, 2017).

The C-Horizon (Saprolite layer):

C horizon are mineral layers which are not bedrock and are little affected by pedogenic
processes and lack properties of O, A, E or B horizons. The C horizon lacks all the properties of the
layers above it. It is mainly made up of broken bedrock and no organic material (Balasubramanian,
2017).

The R-Horizon:

The R horizon is bedrock horizon. It contains materials that are compacted and cemented by
the weight of the overlying horizons. It is the hard layer of unweathered parent material and all kinds
are rock types exist as basement (Balasubramanian, 2017).

COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

According to Tan (2010), a colloid is defined in the textbook term as a state of matter
consisting of very fine particles that approach, but never reach molecular sizes. And, according to
Bear (1964), a colloidal system is a dispersion of finely divided particles distributed in a continuous
phase. This means that colloids are the particles that have the upper size limit of 0.2µm, and a lower
sized limit of approximately 0.005µm or 50Å (the size of a molecule).

Many chemical and biological properties and reactions happen in the colloidal state of matter,
and these reactions are: adsorption, absorption, desorption. Sorption in general is “a physical and
chemical process by which one substance becomes attached to the other”. Adsorption is “the uptake
and retention of one material within another” (Tan, 2010), this process only refers to the accumulation
of the molecules or substances in the surface of the adsorbing substance. Whereas absorption is the
process where a fluid will be dissolved in solid or a liquid throughout their entire bulk. These two
sorption processes are often confused with one another. To avoid confusion, we must keep in mind
that absorption involves the entire bulk of the absorbing material to assimilate and dissolve the
molecules or substances, while adsorption only involves the surface of the adsorbing material to
accumulate the molecules or substances. Desorption is the removal of molecules or substances that
was either absorbed or adsorbed.

The inorganic constituents in the soil are the sand (2 - 0.1mm), silt (0.1 - 0.002mm), and clay
(< 0.002mm). Since sand and silt are too big to be classified as a colloid, only fine clay particles are
considered as soil colloids. These clay particles can structurally be crystalline, disordered, or
amorphous (Tan, 2010).

The organic constituents in the soil or the Soil Organic Matter (SOM) are composed of Liable
SOM and Stable SOM (Foth, 1991). The liable SOM is composed of the readily decomposable plant
or animal material in the soil, while the stable SOM is the fully decomposed animal or plant material
also called humus. Soil humus or humus particles are the organic colloid particles in the soil. These
organic matters in the soil is mostly composed of carbohydrates, amino acids, peptides, proteins,
nucleic acid, lipids, and lignins. These particles have their own colloidal properties and affects the
soil structure and chemistry in slightly different ways (Tan, 2010).

Because of the clay particles and humus particles being small, its surface area increases as its
size decreases (as to most other materials). This increase in surface area drives the clay particle’s
and humus particle’s adsorption properties and is responsible for the cation exchange happening in
the soil and plants. This increase in surface area also makes the clay particle and humus particle
carry an electronegative charge, due to isomorphous substitution and the dissociation of hydroxyl
groups. Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of an ion in the silicate structure of clay by
another ion that has the same size, this type of process is not affected by soil pH level thus dubbed
as a permanent structural charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010). While the other cause of the
electronegative charge of soil particles is the dissociation of OH groups on the crystal edges or
exposed planes in clay and humic substances when the pH level is high, this process is affected by
the pH thus dubbed as variable charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010).

Alkaline medium: –Al–OH + OH– ↔ –Al–O– + H2O

Acid medium: –Al–OH + H+ ↔ –Al–OH2+

Soil particles can also carry positive charges when an H+ ion is added to the hydroxyl group of
the minerals and compounds in the soil particles; this process is dependent on the pH level and the
valence electron of the metal in the soil particle. This property allows the anion exchanges in some
tropical soils (Tan, 2010).

ION EXCHANGE IN SOIL

SOIL pH

Soil pH is an important property of soil involved in the growth of plants, mainly because it
affects the nutrient content and the CEC of the soil. Soil pH can also be called the master determinant
(Tan, 2010), because most of the properties of the soil is dependent on the pH, namely: rate of
decomposition, plant growth, concentration of micronutrients, weathering of primary minerals, and the
formation of clay minerals. These properties of soil are all somewhat dependent on the pH of the soil,
this shows the importance of determining the soil’s pH level. For example, the solubility of iron
compounds decreases if the soil pH increases, thus an alkaline soil tends to be deficient in iron (Foth,
1991). The common range of soil pH is 4-10, higher or lower than that pH would be described as very
strongly acidic or alkaline soil, as described in the diagram below (Foth 1991) (Tan, 2010).
 Soil pH ranges and soil reaction classes.
Adapted from: Brady, N. C., The Nature and Properties of Soils, 8th ed., Figure 17–3, 463,
MacMillan, New York, 1974. Reprinted and electronically produced by permission of Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Source of alkalinity. According to Foth (1991), there are two main contributors for the alkalinity
of the soil and these are the carbonate hydrolysis and mineral weathering. Most soils in the world are
rich in calcium carbonate, these soils are called calcareous, this abundance in CaCO3 is due to the
parent material’s abundance in CaCO3. The hydrolysis of calcium produces OH- ions, as described
below, resulting to alkalinity in the soil solution.

CaCO3 + H2O → Ca2+ + HCO3- + OH-

Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble; thus, this reaction can only produce a pH level as
high as 8.3 when there is an equilibrium with the atmospheric carbon dioxide. Mineral weathering
can also contribute to the soil’s alkalinity, specifically the weathering of primary minerals. This
weathering of primary minerals uses H+ and produces OH-, reducing the soil’s probability of becoming
acidic while increasing its alkalinity.

Sources for acidity. There are three main processes that contribute to the soil’s acidity:
respiration of plants and soil organisms, mineralization of organic matter, natural precipitation (Foth,
1991). The respiration of plants and other soil organism releases carbon dioxide in the soil which
reacts with water forming carbonic acid (H2CO3), this weak acid contributes H+ to the soil solution.
The mineralization of organic matter also contributes to the acidity of the soil, because organic matter
mineralization produces organic acids and the mineralized nitrogen and sulfur form the organic matter
will oxidize to nitric and sulfuric acids increasing the soil’s acidity. The normal process of precipitation
also slowly contributes to the soils acidity over the course of time, because when precipitation occurs
the atmospheric carbon dioxide will react with the precipitate forming carbonic acid and gives the
natural precipitation a slightly acidic pH level

ENERGY

gy

Energy is one of the most fundamental and a universal concept of physical science for
everything that happens in the world involves energy (Woodford, 2018). There were three broad
categories of energy that we consume every day. First, the food we eat to keep our bodies going- this
comes from plants and animals in which our stomach digest to produce a sugary substance glucose
where the blood transports around our bodies to power our muscles. Second, the energy we use in
our homes that comes from the coal, gas, and oil. Lastly, the fuel we put in our vehicle mostly came
from the oil. But all of this energy was originated from a giant fireball called ‘sun’ which provides 99%
of energy we use on Earth (Woodford, 2018). Theoretically, energy is an attribute of matter that can
manifest itself in different ways (can be converted into different forms of energy). It can be measured
only indirectly through its effects on matter that requires, loses, or possesses it (Zumdahl & Decoste,
2014).
 Energy is a quantitative property of a system which can be a kinetic, potential or any other
forms. It cannot be seen, weighed, touched or smelled but it can be felt. Thus, the nature of energy is
governed with the laws of thermodynamics. This tells on how and why does the energy is transferred
(Hinrichs, 1991).

Law of Thermodynamics

In physics, thermodynamics deals with the relationship between heat and other forms of
energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of energy
and how it affects matter. Thermal energy is the energy a substance or system has due to its
temperature, i.e., the energy of moving or vibrating molecules (Lucas, 2015). According to Energy
Education, heat is energy transferred between substances or systems due to a temperature
difference between them. As a form of energy, heat is conserved, i.e., it cannot be created or
destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one place to another. Heat can also be converted to
and from other forms of energy. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the
particles in a sample of matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees designated on a standard
scale (American Heritage Dictionary).

System and Surroundings

In chemistry, the system is the chemical reaction that consists of molecules. Everything that is
not a part of the system constitutes its surroundings. The system and surroundings are separated by
a boundary (Brown, 2000).

Figure 1. An abstract of system and surroundings

According to Brown (2000), there are three types of systems in thermodynamics namely: open,
closed, and isolated.

Open system

Can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings. The stovetop example would be
an open system, because heat and water vapor can be lost to the air.

Figure 2. Both energy and matter exchange

Closed System

A system that can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not matter. If we put a very
tightly fitting lid on the pot from the previous example, it would approximate a
closed system.
 Figure 3. Only the energy can exchange with its surroundings.

Isolated System

Is one that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings. A perfect isolated
system is hard to come by, but an insulated drink cooler with a lid is conceptually similar to a true
isolated system. The items inside can exchange energy with each other, which is why the drinks get
cold and the ice melts a little, but they exchange very little energy (heat) with the outside environment.

Figure 4. There is no exchange of energy and matter occurs in this example.

1st law of Thermodynamics

A law of thermodynamics states that energy is neither be created nor destroyed, but can only
be transferred or changed from one form to another known as “conservation of energy”. This means
that any change in the internal energy (ΔE) of a system is given by the sum of the heat (q) that flows
across its boundaries and the work (w) done on the system by the surroundings: ΔE=q+w (Boundless
Learning, 2018).

Figure 5. Energy is transfered from the ball to the pins. No energy is lost.

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

A law of thermodynamics wherein the entropy of any isolated system always increases.
Isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermal equilibrium—the state of maximum entropy
of the system. More simply put: the entropy of the universe (the ultimate isolated system) only
increases and never decreases (Boundless Learning, 2018).
 Figure 6. This shows that the higher entropy the higher its random and less ordered.

3rd Law of Thermodynamics

It states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the temperature
approaches absolute zero. The entropy of a system at absolute zero is typically zero, and in all cases
is determined only by the number of different ground states it has. Specifically, the entropy of a pure
crystalline substance (perfect order) at absolute zero temperature is zero. This statement holds true if
the perfect crystal has only one state with minimum energy (Boundless Learning, 2018).

Figure 7. The temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy approaches a constant.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

It states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are
also in equilibrium with each other. Thermal equilibrium means that when two bodies are brought into
contact with each other and separated by a barrier that is permeable to heat, there will be no transfer
of heat from one to the other (Lucas, 2015).

Figure 8. Shows the equilibrium with each other.

Spontaneous Processes and Nonspontaneous Processes

Spontaneity does not imply that the reaction proceeds with great speed. For example, the
decay of diamonds into graphite is a spontaneous process that occurs very slowly, taking millions of
years. The rate of a reaction is independent of its spontaneity, and instead depends on the chemical
kinetics of the reaction. Every reactant in a spontaneous process has a tendency to form the
corresponding product. This tendency is related to stability. On the other hand, an endergonic
reaction (also called a nonspontaneous reaction or an unfavorable reaction) is a chemical reaction in
which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed. The total amount of
energy is a loss (it takes more energy to start the reaction than what is gotten out of it) so the total
energy is a negative net result. Endergonic reactions can also be pushed by coupling them to another
reaction, which is strongly exergonic, through a shared intermediate (Boundless Learning, 2018).

Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

Exothermic reactions are reactions or processes that release energy, usually in the form of
heat or light. In an exothermic reaction, energy is released because the total energy of the products is
less than the total energy of the reactants. On the the other hand, endothermic reactions are
reactions that require external energy, usually in the form of heat, for the reaction to proceed. Since
endothermic reactions draw in heat from their surroundings, they tend to cause their environments to
cool down (Boundless Learning, 2018).

Work, Heat, and Temperature

Work is a force applied to an object over a certain distance. This aids with the energy in order
the object to move. On the other hand, heat is the quantity of energy stored or transferred by thermal
vibrations of molecules. At absolute zero, a system has no heat energy. Temperature is the average
vibrational energy of all molecules within the system. These three are present in the energy
(Woodford, 2018).

Energy Conversion

The energy conversion is a process of changing energy from one form to another. This can be
done anytime and everywhere (Hinrichs, 1991).

Energy Efficiency

It is the amount of useful energy extracted from a system divided by the total energy put into a
system. It may also be thought of as the efficiency with which we are capable of utilizing a resource. If
we don't use the energy released from the chemical bonds in a resource, the energy goes into waste
heat, sound, thermal vibrations, or light. The more energy conversion steps there are in a process,
the more energy you lose as waste heat (Hinrichs, 1991).

Measuring energy

According to Walker 1996, energy cannot be seen, weighed, touched or smelled but it can be
felt. Hence, measuring the energy is to determine its efficiency process has been done. Since energy
is a quantitative, the heating value of “fuel” has been use to measure on how much a certain resource
converts into heat (motion of molecules). There are measuring units in energy: Joules (J), the
common measuring units where 1 joule is equal to one newton meter (N*m). Another one, is the
British Thermal Unit or the BTU where one BTU is the amount of energy required to raise one pound
of water 1o C. Thus, the calorie where the unit of measure of the energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C (Hinrichs, 1991).

Types of Energy

Potential Energy

Energy stored in a motionless object, giving it the potential to cause change (Zumdahl &
Decoste, 2014). It is written in the formula of:

PE= m x g x h

According to Damelin (2007), there are types of potential energy:

1. Elastic Potential Energy – Energy stored by things that stretch or compress (springs, elastic,
rubberbands)

2. Chemical Potential Energy - energy stored in chemical bonds between atoms (Snickers bar,
food, even gasoline)

3. Gravitational Potential Energy – energy stored by things that are above Earth (book sitting
on shelf, person standing on a cliff, rollercoaster perched at the top of a hill)

Kinetic Energy

It is associated with the motion of an object (Zumdahl & Decoste, 2014). It is

written in the formula of:

 KE = ½ m x v2

Forms of Energy

Heat Energy

It is the result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms, molecules or ions in solids,
liquids and gases. Heat energy can be transferred from one object to another. The transfer or flow
due to the difference in temperature between the two objects is called heat (Science Learning Hub,
2018).

For example, an ice cube has heat energy and so does a glass of lemonade. If you put the ice
in the lemonade, the lemonade (which is warmer) will transfer some of its heat energy to the ice. In
other words, it will heat up the ice. Eventually, the ice will melt and the lemonade and water from the
ice will be the same temperature. This is known as reaching a state of thermal equilibrium.

Moving particles
Matter is all around you. It is everything in the universe – anything that has
both mass and volume and takes up space is matter. Matter exists in different physical forms – solids,
liquids and gases.

All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, molecules and ions. These tiny particles are
always in motion – either bumping into each other or vibrating back and forth. It is the motion of
particles that creates a form of energy called heat (or thermal) energy that is present in all matter.

Chemical Energy

It is the potential energy stored in the arrangement of atoms within molecules.

Breaking chemical bonds requires energy, while forming new chemical bonds releases energy. The
more energy that's released when a bond forms, the more stable that bond is. These bonds are
stable because the same amount of energy must be put into these bonds to break them again (this is
an example of conservation of energy). When bonds between atoms are broken or formed, this is
called a chemical reaction (Energy Education, 2018).

Electromagnetic Energy

It is said to be the type of energy which comes from electromagnetic waves. These radiation
travels with the speed of light and can be composed of radio waves, TV waves, radar waves, heat,
light, X-rays, visible waves, etc. The Sun, the earth and the ionosphere are main sources of
electromagnetic energy in nature (Science Struck, 2018). This means that the energy source required
to transmit information (in the form of waves) from one place (material) to another. This information
can be in the form of light, heat, or in any other form.

Nuclear Energy

It is the energy in the nucleus of an atom. Atoms are the smallest particles that can break a
material. At the core of each atom there are two types of particles (neutrons and protons) that are
held together. Nuclear energy is the energy that holds neutrons and protons (National Nuclear
Regulator, 2017).

Nuclear energy can be used to produce electricity. This energy can be obtained in two ways:
nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined
or fused together to form a larger atom. The sun produces energy like this. In nuclear fission,
atoms are split into smaller atoms, releasing energy. Actually, nuclear power plants can only
use nuclear fission to produce electricity.

When one of these two physical reactions (nuclear fission or nuclear fusion)
success, atoms experiment a slight loss of mass. This mass lost generates a big amount of heat
energy, explained by Albert Einstein with his famous equation E = mc2.
 Although the production of electricity is the most common utility there are many other uses of
nuclear energy in other sectors, such as medical, environmental or wartime (atomic bomb).

Mechanical Energy

It is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion or its position. Well, that seems
simple enough, but what is energy? Energy is the ability to do work, where work is the movement of
an object when a force is applied to it. For example, a person doing push-ups is doing work by
applying force to the floor. Since the floor doesn't typically move, the person will move away from the
floor. That same person could apply a force to a book and move it over his or her head. In each case,
work is done when the applied force causes an object to move (Study.com, 2018).

Mechanical energy includes: potential energy, also known as energy of position. The potential
energy Epot of a mass m, for example, is equal to Epot = m g h, where g is the acceleration due to
gravity and h is the height. Potential energy can be found in elastic deformation, in which the original
shape of a material is recovered after an external force is removed (U.S. Department of Energy,2018).

There is also kinetic energy, also known as energy of motion, Ekin = ½ m v2, which arises from
the motion of a mass m with a velocity v. Similar to kinetic energy of translation (the energy of moving
from place to place) the rotational energy of a body with angular velocity ω and a moment of
inertia I with respect to the rotational axis is described by Erot = ½ I ω2.

ELECTROCHEMISTRY

study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move. This movement of electrons is
called electricity, which can be generated by movements of electrons from one element to another in
a reaction known as an oxidation-reduction ("redox") reaction.

Electrochemistry and its principles constitute the fundamental base for the evolution of
numerous entities of the physical world and are also essential for all activities of living beings. As a
matter of course, electrochemical technology based on electrochemistry also plays an important role
in many modern manufacturing processes and products especially in the fields of micro technology
which revolutionize almost all aspects of everyday life. Electrochemistry shows wide acceptability in
achieving required shape of products and implementation in micro manufacturing processes, which
has been established as a multibillion dollar market with applications in information, entertainment,
medical, automotive, telecom, and many other technologies (Bhattacharyya, 2015).

Electrochemistry concerns chemical phenomena associated with charge separation, usually in

liquid media, such as solutions. The separation of charge is often associated with charge transfer,
which can occur homogeneously in solution between different chemical species, or heterogeneously
on electrode surfaces. It can thus be seen immediately that its applications are extremely wide and
will be indicated later. In order to ensure electro neutrality, two or more charge transfer half-reactions
take place simultaneously, in opposite directions: oxidation (loss of electrons or increase in oxidation
state) and reduction (gain of electrons or decrease in oxidation state) (Brett, 2014).

Oxidation- Reduction Reaction

Oxidation-reduction reaction, also called redox reaction, any chemical reaction in which
the oxidation number of a participating chemical species changes. The term covers a large
and diverse body of processes. Many oxidation-reduction reactions are as common and familiar
as fire, the rusting and dissolution of metals, the browning of fruit,
and respiration and photosynthesis—basic life functions. Most oxidation-reduction (redox) processes
involve the transfer of oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms, or electrons, with all three processes sharing
two important characteristics: (1) they are coupled—i.e., in any oxidation reaction
a reciprocal reduction occurs, and (2) they involve a characteristic net chemical change—i.e.,
an atom or electron goes from one unit of matter to another (Gregersen, 2009).

Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number, while reduction involves a decrease in

oxidation number. Usually,​ the change in oxidation number is associated with a gain or loss of
electrons, but there are some redox reactions (e.g., covalent bonding) that do not involve electron
transfer. Depending on the chemical reaction, oxidation and reduction may involve any of the
following for a given atom, ion, or molecule: Oxidation - involves the loss of electrons or hydrogen OR
gain of oxygen OR increase in oxidation state. Reduction - involves the gain of electrons or hydrogen
OR loss of oxygen OR decrease in oxidation state (Helmenstine, 2018)

Balancing Redox Reactions

To balance redox reactions, assign oxidation numbers to the reactants and products to
determine how many moles of each species are needed to conserve mass and charge. First,
separate the equation into two half-reactions, the oxidation portion and the reduction portion. This is
called the half-reaction method of balancing redox reactions or the ion-electron method. Each
half-reaction is balanced separately and then the equations are added together to give a balanced
overall reaction. We want the net charge and number of ions to be equal on both sides of the final
balanced equation (Helmenstine, 2017).

Voltaic cell

A voltaic cell is a cell where chemical reactions between dissimilar conductors connected
through an electrolyte and a salt bridge produce electric energy. A galvanic cell can also be powered
by spontaneous oxidation-reduction reactions. Essentially, a galvanic cell channels the electrical
energy produced by the electron transfer in a redox reaction. The electrical energy or current may be
sent to a circuit, such as in a television or light bulb (Helmenstine, 2018).

In redox reactions, electrons are transferred from one species to another. If the reaction is
spontaneous, energy is released, which can then be used to do useful work. To harness this energy,
the reaction must be split into two separate half reactions: the oxidation and reduction reactions. The
reactions are put into two different containers and a wire is used to drive the electrons from one side
to the other. In doing so, a Voltaic/ Galvanic Cell is created (Singh & Gho, 2018).

STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIAL

Standard cell potential (E°cell) is defined as the potential of a cell measured under standard
conditions—that is, with all species in their standard states (1 M for solutions, concentrated solutions
of salts (about 1 M) generally do not exhibit ideal behavior, and the actual standard state corresponds
to an activity of 1 rather than a concentration of 1 M. Corrections for nonideal behavior are important
for precise quantitative work but not for the more qualitative approach that we are taking here. 1 atm
for gases, pure solids or pure liquids for other substances) and at a fixed temperature, usually 25°C
(Tanis, 1990).

As stated above, the standard reduction potential is the likelihood that a species will be
reduced. It is written in the form of a reduction half reaction. An example can be seen below where
"A" is a generic element and C is the charge.

AC++Ce−→A(1)(1)AC++Ce−→A

Reduction Half-Reaction Standard Reduction Potential (V)

F2(g)+2e- → 2F-(aq) +2.87

S2O82-(aq)+2e- → 2SO42-(aq) +2.01

O2(g)+4H+(aq)+4e- → 2H2O(l) +1.23

Br2(l)+2e- → 2Br-(aq) +1.09

Ag+(aq)+e- → Ag(s) +0.80

 Fe3+(aq)+e- → Fe2+(aq) +0.77

I2(l)+2e- → 2I+(aq) +0.54

Cu2+(aq)+2e- → Cu(s) +0.34

Sn4+(aq)+2e- → Sn2+(aq) +0.15

S(s)+2H+(aq)+2e- → H2S(g) +0.14

2H+(aq)+2e- → H2(g) 0.00

Sn2+(aq)+2e- → Sn(g) -0.14

V3+(aq)+e- → V2+(aq) -0.26

Fe2+(aq)+2e- → Fe(s) -0.44

Cr3+(aq)+3e- → Cr(s) -0.74

Zn2+(aq)+2e- → Zn(s) -0.76

Mn2+(aq)+2e- → Mn(s) -1.18

Na+(aq)+e- → Na(s) -2.71

Li+(aq)+e- → Li(s) -3.04

Cell Potentials under Standard Conditions

Standard cell potential is the potential of a cell measured under standard conditions or just
simply the difference between the reduction potentials (Petrucci, Harwood, Herring, & Madura, 2007).
When solving for the standard cell potential, the species oxidized and the species reduced must be
identified. This can be identified using the table above. Standard Cell Potential can be identified using
the equation below:

E°cell=E°cathode−E°anode

Wherein:

E°cell= Standard Cell Potential

E°cathode= standard potential value of the element being reduced

 E°anode= standard potential value of the element being oxidized.

Illustrated in the diagram above is the Cell Potential between Cu and Zn.

Oxidation-Reduction Reaction (Redox Reaction)

A type of chemical change where electron transfer occurs is classified as an oxidation-

reduction or simply called as redox process. The ability of the electrons to be transferred from one
species to another is dependent on the species’ reduction or oxidation potential.

Oxidation involves the loss of electrons by substance being oxidized. The substance that
oxidizes it is called oxidizing agent and causes itself to be reduced during the process. On the other
hand, Reduction involves the gain of electron by substance being reduced. The substance that
reduces it is called reducing agent in turn causes itself to be oxidized.

Strong oxidizing agents are typically compounds with elements in high oxidation states or with
high electronegativity, which gain electrons in the redox reaction. Reducing agents are typically
electropositive elements such as hydrogen, lithium, sodium, iron, and aluminum, which lose electrons
in redox reactions (Anderson,2017).

Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant

Electromotive force (Emf) is a characteristic of any energy source capable of driving electric
charge around a circuit. In other words, it is the energy thereby gained per unit electric charge.

Formula:

Emf= V ＋ Ir
 Free energy is the energy required by a system in order to work. There are two types of Free
energy: the Helmholtz free energy and Gibbs free energy. Helmholtz free energy is the maximum
amount of work a system can do at constant volume and temperature. We can use it when the
pressure is changing during the work of the system. On the other hand, Gibbs Free energy the
maximum amount of work a system can do at constant pressure and temperature (Smith, 2018).

Moreover, Equilibrium constant (K) is the ratio of concentration of the products to the
concentration of the reactants. It is used to expresses the relationship between products and
reactants of a reaction at equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction at a given temperature.

Cell Potentials under Non-Standard Conditions

Redox reaction in the real world rarely occur under standard conditions. Thus, to still determine
the direction of the electron in any conditions, we can use the Nernst Equation.

In 1889, Walter Nernst (1864-1941), a German scientist develop a mathematical relationship

that enable us to calculate cell potentials and the direction of a spontaneous reaction at, other than
standard-state condition.

General form of Nernst Equation:

Concentration Cell

The Concentration cell is a type of galvanic cell that is comprised of two half-cells with the
same electrodes but differing in concentrations. A concentration cell acts to dilute the more
concentrated solution and concentrate the more dilute solution creating a voltage as the cell reaches
an equilibrium. This is achieved by transferring the electrons from the cell with the lower
concentration to the cell with higher concentration (Petrucci, 2007).

There are two main types of Concentration cell: Electrolyte Concentration Cell and the
Electrode Concentration cell. Electrolyte Concentration cell comprises of two same electrodes that
are dipped in an electrolyte which possesses different concentration level. While the Electrode
concentration cell consists of two cells where identical electrodes are dipped in the same solution with
different levels of concentrations.

BATTERIES, FUEL CELLS, CORROSION AND ELECTROLYSIS

One of the oldest and most important applications of electrochemistry is to the storage and
conversion of energy. Devices that carry out these conversions are called batteries. Batteries are so
ubiquitous nowadays as they are almost invisible to us. Alessandro Volta an Italian physicist invented
the first true battery out of stacked discs of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) separated by cloth soak in salty
water in 1800 (Stephen Lower,2018).

Batteries are very essential device as they store chemical energy that is converted into
electricity. Throughout time battery technology brought undeniably innovations to mankind as they
were developed with enough capacity to store the power generated with domestic solar or wind
systems which tend to supply and power our home at more convenient way. So now, this report will
help us to appreciate and understand the important usage of this batteries and how thus it works.
BATTERY

A battery is an electrochemical cell or series of cells that produces an electric current. It

contains all the reactants needed to produce electricity (OpenStax, 2016). There are two basic types
of battery namely as; (1) primary(disposable) batteries;(2) secondary(rechargeable) batteries. Primary
(disposable) batteries are single-use batteries because they cannot be recharged. Common primary
battery is the dry cell, alkaline and button battery. The dry cell is a zinc-carbon battery. The zinc can
serve as both a container and the negative electrode. The positive electrode is a rod made of carbon
that is surrounded by a paste of manganese oxide, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, carbon powder,
and a small amount of water. Alkaline batteries were developed in the 1950s partly to address some
of the performance issues with zinc–carbon dry cells. They are manufactured to be exact
replacements for zinc-carbon dry cells. As their name suggests, these types of batteries use alkaline
electrolytes, often potassium hydroxide. It can deliver about three to five times the energy of a zinc-
carbon dry cell of similar size. Button batteries are small disc-shaped batteries containing lithium, zinc,
mercury, silver, or manganese. The major advantages of the mercury and silver cells are their
reliability and their high output-to-mass ratio. These factors make them ideal for applications where
small size is crucial, as in cameras and hearing aids (OpenStax,2016) (Brown et al, 2018).

The diagram shows a cross section of a flashlight battery, a zinc-carbon dry cell.

Alkaline batteries were designed as direct replacements for zinc-carbon (dry cell) batteries.
 Button batteries.

Secondary (rechargeable) batteries is a type of electrical battery which can be charged,

discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or primary battery,
which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. These are the types of batteries found in
devices such as smartphones, electronic tablets, and automobiles. The most common rechargeable
batteries are lead acid, Nickel-cadmium, Nickel-metal-hydride and Lithium-ion. Lead-acid battery is
the oldest rechargeable battery system, it is the type of secondary battery used in your automobile. It
is inexpensive and capable of producing the high current required by automobile starter
motors. Nickel-cadmium battery is consisting of a nickel-plated cathode, cadmium-plated anode, and
a potassium hydroxide electrode. Used in where long service life, high discharge current and
extreme temperatures are required. Main applications are power tools, medical devices, aviation and
UPS. Nickel-metal-hydride serves as a replacement for Nickel-cadmium as it has only mild toxic
metals and provides higher specific energy. Nickel-metal hydride is used for medical instruments,
hybrid cars and industrial applications. Ni-MH battery packs are finding immediate use in portable
electronic applications such as laptop, notebook, and sub-notebook computers, cellular
communication devices, and consumer electronic devices such as camcorders. Lithium-ion battery
are among the most popular rechargeable batteries and are used in many portable electronic devices.
Lithium-ion batteries are common in home electronics. They are one of the most popular types of
rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density, tiny memory effect and
low self-discharge. LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, battery electric
vehicle and aerospace applications (OpenStax, 2016).

FUEL CELLS

A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Fuel cells are
similar to batteries but require a continuous source of fuel, often hydrogen. They will continue to
produce electricity as long as fuel is available (OpenStax, 2016).

Hydrogen fuel cells is a process of using hydrogen as fuel and it will react with oxygen to form
electricity, water, and heat as the products. It’s been used to supply power for satellites, space
capsules, automobiles, boats, and submarines (Brown et al,2018) (OpenStax, 2016).

CORROSION

The gradually degradation of metals due to an electrochemical process. Formation of rust on

iron, tarnish on silver, and the blue-green patina that develops on copper are all examples of
corrosion (OpenStax, 2016). Corrosion occurs when most or all of the atoms on the same metal
surface are oxidized, damaging the entire surface. Mostly of metals are easily oxidized: they tend to
lose electrons to oxygen and other substances in the air or in water.
(https://www.electrochem.org/corrosion-science).

CORROSION OF IRON

The corrosion of iron is better known as rusting. It is an oxidation-reduction process that

destroys iron objects left out in open, moist air. The whole subject of corrosion of iron is therefore an
electrochemical one, and the rate of the corrosion is simply a function of electromotive force and
resistance of circuit (Bill Nimmo and Gareth Hinds, 2003)

Oxidation half-reaction: Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e- Equation 1

Reduction half-reaction: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- → 4OH-(aq) Equation 2

2Fe(s)+ O2(g)+2H2O(l)→2Fe2+(aq)+4OH-(aq) Equation3

Fe2+(aq)+2OH-(aq)→Fe(OH)2(s) Equation4
4Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g) + xH2O(I)→ 2Fe2O3•(x+4)H2O(s) Rust Equation 5

PREVENTING CORROSSION OF IRON

We commonly use iron and other steel products in different ways to improve our daily basis of
living easier and efficiently. So, preventing the rusting of this materials is given prioritize nowadays. A
lot of ways to prevent iron from rusting but the most common and best way are galvanization, painting,
electroplating. Galvanization is a process in which the Iron sheets are coated with a layer of Zinc
which prevents rusting. Zinc is more reactive than iron so when we used it as a shield this element
will oxidized faster rather than the iron. Painting the Iron surface will create a barrier between the Iron
and the atmosphere, which will protect the Iron from rusting. Iron sheets can be electroplated with a
metal which is more reactive than Iron, so that instead of the Iron getting oxidized, the other metal
gets oxidized this process called as electroplating (OpenStax, 2016).

ELECTROLYSIS

According to Surabhi Sinha (2014), Electrolysis is a process by which electric current is

passed through a substance to effect a chemical change. The process is carried out in an electrolytic
cell, an apparatus consisting of positive and negative electrodes held apart and dipped into a solution
containing positively and negatively charged ions. According to Adam Felman (2017), an electrolyte
is a substance that conducts electricity when dissolved in water. According to Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt (2010), electrodes any terminal that conducts an electric current into or away from various
conducting substances in a circuit, as the anode or cathode in a battery or the carbons in an arc lamp,
or that emits, collects, or controls the flow of electrons in an electron tube, as the cathode, plate,
or grid. Anode is considered negative and Cathode positive for Electrochemical Cells (Voltaic or
Galvanic Cell) which Redox Reaction happens spontaneously. While the opposite occurs for the
Electrolytic Cell, Anode is considered positive and cathode is considered negative, because an
external power supply is added and force the redox reaction to occur backward, making such a not
spontaneous redox reaction to happen Zerobyte Johnsons (2017).

ELECTROLYTIC CELL

An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy into chemical energy. Here, the anode is positive
and cathode is the negative electrode. The reaction at the anode is oxidation and that at the cathode
is reduction. The concept of reversing the direction of the spontaneous reaction in a galvanic cell
through the input of electricity is at the heart of the idea of electrolysis.

The Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride

In molten sodium chloride, the ions are free to migrate to the electrodes of an electrolytic cell.
A simplified diagram of the cell commercially used to produce sodium metal and chlorine gas. Sodium
is a strong reducing agent and chlorine is used to purify water, and is used in antiseptics and in paper
production (OpenStax, 2016)
Passing an electric current through molten sodium chloride decomposes the material into sodium
metal and chlorine gas. Care must be taken to keep the products separated to prevent the
spontaneous formation of sodium chloride.

The Electrolysis of Water

According to Martin Chaplin (2018), electrolysis of water is the decomposition to give hydrogen
and oxygen gases due to the passage of an electric current. According to OpenStax (2016), it is
possible to split water into hydrogen and oxygen gas by electrolysis. Acids are typically added to
increase the concentration of hydrogen ion in solution.

Water decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen gas during electrolysis. Sulfuric acid was added to
increase the concentration of hydrogen ions and the total number of ions in solution, but does not
take part in the reaction. The volume of hydrogen gas collected is twice the volume of oxygen gas
collected, due to the stoichiometry of the reaction.

The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride

 The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride is the more common example of electrolysis
because more than one species can be oxidized and reduced. When the experiment is run, it turns
out chlorine, not oxygen, is produced at the anode. The unexpected process is so common in
electrochemistry that it has been given the name overpotential. The overpotential is the difference
between the theoretical cell voltage and the actual voltage that is necessary to cause electrolysis
(OpenStax, 2016).

QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF ELECTROLYSIS

The amount of current that is allowed to flow in an electrolytic cell is related to the number of
moles of electrons. The number of moles of electrons can be related to the reactants and products
using stoichiometry (OpenStax, 2016). According to Moore et al. (2017), a simple relationship
between the amount of substance produced or consumed at an electrode during electrolysis and the
quantity of electrical charge Q which passes through the cell discovered by Michael Faraday in the
year 1833.

The Faraday constant

The Faraday constant is the single most important information in electrolysis calculations. The
charge that each electron carries is 1.60 x 10 ^ -19 coulombs. That means the 1 mole of electrons
must carry6.02 x 10^23 x 1.60 x 10^-19 coulombs= 96320 coulombs.It is usually taken as 9.65 x
10^4 C mol-1(coulombs per mole) or 96500 coulombs per mole.

Coulombs

The coulomb is a measure of the quantity of electricity. If a current of 1 amp flows for 1 second,
then 1 coulomb of electricity has passed.

Number of coulombs = current in amps x time in seconds

NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Nuclear chemistry is the study of the chemical and physical properties of elements as
influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic nucleus and is associated with nuclear reactions
and isotopes (Helmenstine, A.M., 2018). Moreover, according to Loveland, Morrissey, & Seaborg
(2006), nuclear chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies the chemical and physical properties
of the heaviest elements, recognition of radioactive decay is an important part of work. Nuclear
chemistry has ties to all branches of chemistry. The continuation of nuclear chemistry focuses on the
elements involved in synthesis of new elements and transuranium elements. It also focuses on the
relationship and calculation of binding energy and mass defect.

Nuclear reaction is a change in the identity or characteristics of an atomic nucleus that results
when it is bombarded with an energetic particle, as in fission, fusion, or radioactive decay while
Isotopes are each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons
but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in
chemical properties; in particular, a radioactive form of an element. (Nuclear reaction and Isotope,
n.d.)

In a nuclear reaction Fission means an atom splits into two parts, either through natural decay
or when instigated within a lab, it releases energy and Fusion occurs when two light atoms bond
together, or fuse, to make a heavier one. The total mass of the new atom is less than that of the two
that formed it; the "missing" mass is given off as energy, as described by Albert Einstein's famous
"E=mc2" equation (Redd N.T., 2012).

In addition, according to Helmenstine, A.M., 2018, Transmutation means "to change from one
form into another" or to transmute is to change from one form or substance into another; to transform
or convert.

Radioactivity
 Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles or high
energy photons resulting from a nuclear reaction or decomposition of a nucleus to form a different
nucleus. With this decomposition is the introduction of half-life which means the time required to
convert one half of a reactant to product or a radioactive sample to decay. The term is commonly
applied to radioactive decay, where the reactant is the parent isotope and the product is a daughter
isotope (Helmenstine, A.M., 2018).

Radioactive Elements

An element is subject to spontaneous degeneration of its nucleus accompanied by the

emission of alpha-particles, beta-particles, or gamma rays. All elements with atomic number greater
than 83 are radioactive (Radioactive Element, n.d.).

This is a list or table of elements that are radioactive and contains the elements that
have no stable isotopes. Each element is followed by the most stable known isotope and its half-life.
This list is sorted by increasing atomic number (Helmenstine, T., 2017).

Element Most Stable Isotope Half-life

of Most Stable Istope
Technetium Tc-91 4.21 x 106 years
Promethium Pm-145 17.4 years
Polonium Po-209 102 years
Astatine At-210 8.1 hours
Radon Rn-222 3.82 days
Francium Fr-223 22 minutes
Radium Ra-226 1600 years
Actinium Ac-227 21.77 years
Thorium Th-229 7.54 x 104 years
Protactinium Pa-231 3.28 x 104 years
Uranium U-236 2.34 x 107 years
Neptunium Np-237 2.14 x 106 years
Plutonium Pu-244 8.00 x 107 years
Americium Am-243 7370 years
Curium Cm-247 1.56 x 107 years
Berkelium Bk-247 1380 years
Californium Cf-251 898 years
Einsteinium Es-252 471.7 days
Fermium Fm-257 100.5 days
Mendelevium Md-258 51.5 days
Nobelium No-259 58 minutes
Lawrencium Lr-262 4 hours
Rutherfordium Rf-265 13 hours
Dubnium Db-268 32 hours
Seaborgium Sg-271 2.4 minutes
Bohrium Bh-267 17 seconds
Hassium Hs-269 9.7 seconds
Meitnerium Mt-276 0.72 seconds
Darmstadtium Ds-281 11.1 seconds
Roentgenium Rg-281 26 seconds
Copernicium Cn-285 29 seconds
Nihonium Nh-284 0.48 seconds
Flerovium Fl-289 2.65 seconds
Moscovium Mc-289 87 milliseconds
Livermorium Lv-293 61 milliseconds
Tennessine Unknown
Oganesson Og-294 1.8 milliseconds

Reference: International Atomic Energy Agency ENSDF database (Oct 2010)

Radioactive Decay

Occurs when an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiation and when a nucleus
has a higher energy level than a potentially more stable version (Nuclear-Power., 2018). Typically this
difference in energy released is what is called ionizing radiation which means radiation with enough
energy so that during an interaction with an atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit
of an atom, causing the atom to become charged or ionized (WHO, 2018).

Types of Radioactive Decay Emissions

There are three types of radioactive decay each named for exactly what is released from the
nucleus as it decays. First is Alpha Decay which is the spontaneous radioactive decay where an
alpha particle is produced. An alpha particle is essentially a helium nucleus of two protons and two
neutrons. Although alpha decay presents a significant radiation risk if the radioactive source is
inhaled or ingested, alpha particles are too large to penetrate very far through the skin or other solids
and require minimal radiation shielding and have relatively low energy. A sheet of paper, for example,
blocks alpha particles. General equation: “α particle=helium-4 nucleus=42 He” (Helmenstine, A.M.,
2018).

Second is Beta Decay which refers to the spontaneous radioactive decay where a beta
particle is produced. Essentially there are two types of beta decay where the beta particle is either
an electron or a positron. An electron is a negatively charged particle of an atom while a positron or
anti-electron is the antimatter counterpart to an electron. A positron has the same mass as an
electron and a spin of 1/2, but it has an electrical charge of +1. When a positron collides with an
electron, annihilation occurs which results in the production of two or more gamma ray photons.
General equation: “β particle=electron=0 -1e”(Helmenstine, A.M., 2017).

Beta Decay / Negatron Emission

Nuclides can be radioactive and undergo nuclear decay for many reasons. Beta decay can
occur in nuclei that are rich in neutrons that are the nuclide contains more neutrons than stable
isotopes of the same element. These "proton deficient" nuclides can sometimes be identified simply
by noticing that their mass number A (the sum of neutrons and protons in the nucleus) is significantly
more than twice that of the atomic number Z (number of protons in nucleus). In order to regain some
stability, such a nucleus can decay by converting one of its extra neutrons into a proton, emitting an
electron and an antineutrino (ν). The high energy electron emitted in this reaction is called a beta
particle and is represented by (o-1e-) in nuclear equations. Lighter atoms (Z < 60) are the most likely to
undergo beta decay. The decay of a neutron to a proton, a beta particle, and an antineutrino (v) is
0n → 0p + -1e-+v (Nuclear Decay Pathways, 2018).
1 0 1 + 0

Beta Decay / Positron Emission

Nuclides that are imbalanced in their ratio of protons to neutrons undergo decay to correct the
imbalance. Nuclei that are rich in protons relative to their number of neutrons can decay by
conversion of a proton to a neutron, emitting a positron (01e+) and a neutrino (νe). Positrons are the
antiparticles of electrons; therefore a positron has the same mass as an electron but with the opposite
(positive) charge. In positron emission, the atomic number Z decreases by 1 while the mass number
A remains the same (Nuclear Decay Pathways, 2018).

Lastly is the Gamma decay is one type of radioactive decay that a nucleus can undergo. The
difference of this type of decay process from alpha or beta decay is that no particles are ejected from
the nucleus when it undergoes this type of decay. Instead, a high energy form of electromagnetic
radiation gamma ray photon is released. Gamma rays are simply photons that have extremely high
energies which are highly ionizing. As well, gamma radiation is unique in the sense that undergoing
gamma decay does not change the structure or composition of the atom. Instead, it only changes the
energy of the atom since the gamma ray carries no charge nor does it have an associated mass.
General equation: “γ=high frequency electromagnetic energy=0 0γ” (US EPA, 2015).

This form of radiation if often released when electrons transition from an unstable Excited
State; is an energy level of an electron that is higher and less stable than other levels; to state of
nucleus that has reached stability which is the Ground Sate; lowest, most stable energy level of an
electron. General equation: A* → A+γ (EDP Sciences, n.d.)
 But there is one more type of radioactive decay and that is Spontaneous Fission; is a form of
radioactive decay where an atom's nucleus splits into two smaller nuclei and generally one or more
neutrons without any outside help. Spontaneous fission generally occurs in atoms with atomic

numbers above 90 (Helmenstine, A.M., 2016).

Source: EDP Sciences, n.d.

Nuclear stability

Is a concept that helps to identify the stability of an isotope. The two main factors that
determine nuclear stability are the neutron/proton ratio and the total number of nucleons in the
nucleus. The principal factor for determining whether a nucleus is stable is the neutron to proton ratio.
Elements with (Z<20) are lighter and these elements' nuclei and have a ratio of 1:1 and prefer to have
the same amount of protons and neutrons (Nuclear Magic Numbers, 2018). A nucleon is the
collective term for protons and neutrons. Nucleons are the particles found in the nucleus of atoms
(Bethel A. et. al., 2018).

Synthesis of New Elements

From terrestrial rocks and mineral, scientist have been looking for traces of unknown
substances; in the process chemical elements were discovered. But they stopped looking for
unknown substances and instead they began synthesizing new elements in laboratories. (“Ungson”,
2016).

List of all synthesized elements:

Element Symbol At. No.

Technetium Tc 43
Promethium Pm 61
Astatine At 85
Francium Fr 87
Neptunium Np 93
Plutonium Pu 94
Americium Am 95
Curium Cm 96
Berkelium Bk 97
Californium Cf 98
 Einsteinium Es 99
Fermium Fm 100
Mendelevium Md 101
Nobelium No 102
Lawrencium Lr 103
Rutherfordium Rf 104
Dubnium Db 105
Seaborgium Sg 106
Bohrium Bh 107
Hassium Hs 108
Meitnerium Mt 109
Darmstadtium Ds 110
Roentgenium Rg 111
Copernicium Cn 112
Ununtrium Uut 114
Ununpentium Uup 115
Ununseptium Uus 117
Ununoctium Uuo 118

Transuranium Elements

Any chemical element with atomic numbers greater than 92 and lies beyond uranium in the
periodic table are transuranium elements. Twenty-six of these elements was discovered and named
while some are waiting for confirmation of their discovery. (“Seaborg”, 2016).

List of transuranium elements

Binding Energy and Mass Defect

The difference in mass between an atom and the sum of the masses of the protons, neutrons,
and electrons of the atom is called mass defect. (“Helmenstine”, 2017). The energy required to break
down a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons is called the nuclear binding energy. “This
represents the conversion of mass and energy that occurs during an exothermic nuclear reaction.”
(“Burdge”, 2017, section 20.2). Einstein’s formula, E = mc2, may be applied to calculate the binding
energy of a nucleus. (“Helmenstine”, 2017).

Rate of Radioactive Decay

Another approach to describing reaction rates is based on the time required for the concentration of a
reactant to decrease to one-half its initial value. This period of time is called the half-life of the
reaction, written as t1/2. Thus the half-life of a reaction is the time required for the reactant
concentration to decrease from N0 to (1/2)N0. If two reactions have the same order, the faster reaction
will have a shorter half-life, and the slower reaction will have a longer half-life.

The half-life of a first-order reaction under a given set of reaction conditions is a constant. This is not
true for zeroth- and second-order reactions. The half-life of a first-order reaction is independent of the
concentration of the reactants. This becomes evident when we rearrange the integrated rate law for a
first-order reaction to produce the following equation:

�� �����
ln =− �� = ln
�0 ����0

Substituting (1/2)N0 for Nt and t1/2 for t (to indicate a half-life), the equation becomes

1
�0
ln 2 =− ��1/2
�0

0.693
�1/2 =
�

Example 1: If you have a 1.35 mg sample of Pu–236, calculate the mass that will remain after 5.00
years. Half-life of Pu-236 is 2.86 yrs.

Given: mass Pu-236=1.35 mg; t=5 yrs; t1/2=2.86 yrs

Required: mass remaining=?

Solution:

0.693
�1/2 =
�

0.693
�=
�1/2

0.693
�=
2.86 ���

� = 0.2423/��

��
ln =− ��
�0

�� = �0 �−��
 0.2423
− 5 ���
�� = 1.35 �� � ��

�� = �. ��� ��

Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a technique which is used
to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace radioactive impurities were selectively
incorporated when they were formed. The method compares the abundance of a naturally
occurring radioactive isotope within the material to the abundance of its decay products, which form
at a known constant rate of decay. The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907
by Bertram Boltwood and is now the principal source of information about the absolute age of rocks
and other geological features, including the age of fossilized life forms or the age of the Earth itself,
and can also be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made materials.
Together with stratigraphic principles, radiometric dating methods are used
in geochronology to establish the geologic time scale.[3] Among the best-known techniques
are radiocarbon dating, potassium–argon dating and uranium–lead dating. By allowing the
establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant source of information about the ages
of fossils and the deduced rates of evolutionary change. Radiometric dating is also used to
date archaeological materials, including ancient artifacts.
Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are accurate and the
materials to which they can be applied.
Radiocarbon Dating
Carbon-14 dating, also called radiocarbon dating, method of age determination that
depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (carbon-14). Carbon-14 is continually formed in
nature by the interaction of neutrons with nitrogen-14 in the Earth’s atmosphere; the neutrons
required for this reaction are produced by cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere.
Radiocarbon present in molecules of atmospheric carbon dioxide enters the biological carbon
cycle: it is absorbed from the air by green plants and then passed on to animals through the food
chain. Radiocarbon decays slowly in a living organism, and the amount lost is continually replenished
as long as the organism takes in air or food. Once the organism dies, however, it ceases to absorb
carbon-14, so that the amount of the radiocarbon in its tissues steadily decreases. Carbon-14 has a
half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the radioisotope present at any given time will
undergo spontaneous disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years. Because carbon-14 decays
at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an organism died can be made by measuring
the amount of its residual radiocarbon.
The carbon-14 method was developed by the American physicist Willard F. Libby about 1946.
It has proved to be a versatile technique of dating fossils and archaeological specimens from 500 to
50,000 years old. The method is widely used by Pleistocene geologists, anthropologists,
archaeologists, and investigators in related fields.
Example 2: An ancient skull gives 4.50 dis/min∙g C. If a living organism gives 15.3 dis/min∙g C, how
old is the skull?

Given: ratet=4.50 dis/min∙g C; rate0=15.3 dis/min∙g C

Required: Age of skull, t=?

Solution:

0.693
�1/2 =
�

0.693
�=
�1/2

0.693
�=
5730 ���
 � = 1.209�10−4 /��

�����
ln =− ��
����0

�����
ln
����0
� =−
�

4.50 dis/min ∙ g C
ln
15.3 dis/min ∙ g C
� =−
1.209�10−4 /��

� = �. ����� ���