LESSON 1 - Subject-Verb Agreement

DISCLAIMER: The content of this module is prepared and compiled for educational purposes only. No part of
this module may be used without the permission of the professors and the school. 
 
FOR THE STUDENTS: The Pre-Assessment contains questions that you need to ask yourself before starting
each lesson to gauge your level of knowledge on the topic and to prepare you for the discussions to come. You
do not need to write down your answers nor do you need to submit them to your professors. On the other
hand, the Self-Assessment parts are follow up exercises after each lesson that would help you practice and
apply the knowledge and skills learned. Like the Pre-Assessment, you do not need to submit these to your
professor to be graded. The case is different for the Performance Tasks. There are only two of these in the
duration of the whole semester – one for the Midterm and another for the Final. These need to be submitted
as these would be major bases for the computation of your grades for this course. 

 
Module 1 | Lesson 1 -  Subject – Verb Agreement
            Lessons in this module will focus on two of the most basic but most needed language
skills – Subject-Verb Agreement and Reading Comprehension. These skills are prerequisite
for a better command of the higher language skills.
Pre-Assessment
          1. Have your competence in using correct subject-verb agreement when speaking or
writing been appropriately honed during your years in basic education?
          2. In a scale of 1-10, how would you rate your competence in using correct subject-
verb agreement?
Learning Outcomes:
 
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
          1. Familiarize with the rules on Subject-Verb Agreement.
          2. Construct grammatically correct sentences thru proper use of subject-verb
agreement.
Core Content
            Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-
verb agreement.
 
Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas
a plural subject takes a plural verb.
 
Rules on Subject-Verb Agreement
1. The pronoun “YOU” always takes a plural verb.
Example:        You were invited to come.
You are asked to clean the room.
You sing so well.
 
2. If a sentence begins with HERE or THERE, the verb agrees with the subject which follows
it.
Example:        Here are the ways on how to preserve meat.
There is a huge gap between the rich and the poor.
 
3. If two subjects, one single and one plural, are connected by EITHER/OR or
NEITHER/NOR, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.
 Example:        Neither the players nor the coach is joining.
Either the conductor or the singers are attending the concert.
 
4. A singular subject followed by intervening words or phrases such as WITH, AS WELL AS,
IN ADDITION TO, ACCOMPANIED BY, TOGETHER WITH and NO LESS THAN, takes a
singular verb.
Examples:       Jake, accompanied by his sisters, is enrolling in PCC.
Daddy, as well as my brothers, is enjoying the party.
 
5. Singular subjects joined by AND require a plural verb, except when they mean one thing.
Examples:       Larry and Mercy are reading novels.
My teacher and friend is here.
My teacher and my friend are here. 
 
6. Two singular subjects joined by EITHER/OR or NEITHER/NOR take a singular verb.
Examples:       Either Mommy or Daddy is coming with me at the outbound.
Neither Ferdie nor Dulce is waiting for you.
 
7. If a singular subject is followed by a phrase containing a plural noun, the verb is singular.
Examples:       One of the boys is yelling so loud.
 One of the members is against the rule.
 
8. The indefinite pronouns SEVERAL, FEW, BOTH, MAN, OTHERS are always plural.
Examples:       Both were asking to be freed.
Several are seeking justice.
 
9. The indefinite pronouns SOME, MOST, ALL, NONE are singular or plural according to the
meaning of the sentence.
Examples:       Some of the girls were absent.
Some of the ice cream is left.
 
10. When any of the following indefinite pronoun is the subject, the verb is singular:
EVERYBODY, EACH, NO ONE, ANOTHER, ANYBODY, NOBODY, EVERY, NOTHING,
EVERYTHING, ANYONE, EITHER, NEITHER, EVERYONE, SOMEBODY, SOMEONE.
     Example:        Every man and woman in this hall is a member.
 
11. Expressions of time, money, weight, and distance are singular even if the form is plural.
   Examples:       Two years is a long time to wait.
    One million dollars was given back to the owner.
 
12. When the amount of money refers to separate units, the verb is plural.
                                     Examples:          Five 25-centavo coins were found.
                                          Sixty 100-peso bills were added to the budget.
 
13. The following words are always plural: PANTS, TROUSERS, PLIERS, SCISSORS, SHEARS,
and TONGS. However, if the  word PAIR is used, the verb is singular.
       Examples:       The pants are torn into two.
        The pair of scissors was placed on the table.
 
14.  Certain nouns, though plural in form, are singular in meaning and therefore take
singular verbs.
     Examples:       Mathematics is my favorite subject.
                                              The latest news is alarming to the public.
 
15. When the word is preceded by A, it takes a plural verb. When it is preceded by THE, it
takes a singular verb.
       Examples:       A number of students are waiting outside.
       The number of students outside is not recorded yet.
 
16. When fractions are used, the verb agrees with the object of the OF PHRASE.
                                          Examples:          One half of the cake was consumed.
                                              One fourth of the employees were attending the seminar.
 
17. These nouns may be singular or plural in meaning: ATHLETICS, GENETICS, POLITICS,
GYMNASTICS, STATISTICS. When the noun refers to an organized activity, it is singular;
when the noun refers to the activities of individuals within a group, or to varied activities, it
is plural.
                                           Examples:          Gymnastics is very popular among girls.
                                                The gymnastics shown in the field today were outstanding.
 
18. The name of a country is always regarded as singular.
                                          Examples:          The Bahamas has beautiful beaches.
                                               Philippines is a wondrous place.
 
19. Adjectives used as nouns are considered plural.
        Examples:       The poor are to be helped.
         The efficient are what this country needs.
20. Collective nouns may be singular or plural depending on whether the individual
members are acting individually or collectively. These nouns are: COMPANY, GROUP,
COMMITTEE, CROWD, JURY, FLOCK, or TEAM.
        Examples:       The committee is against the plan.  (acting collectively-singular)
         The committee are of different opinion. (acting individually- 
plural)
 
 21. In the use of mathematical expressions, the following are accepted:
                                            Examples:          Seven plus three is ten.                 Five times two are ten.
             Seven and three are ten.                  Five minus two is three.
 
22. Titles of books, plays, articles, movies, etc. are regarded as singular even though words
in the title may be plural.
        Examples:                   “In Dreams Begin Responsibilities” is a story by D. Schwartz.
         “Great Expectations” is a must-read novel.
 
23. Names of organizations take a singular verb when the whole organization is referred to,
and a plural verb when the members are referred to.
                        Examples:                   Lopez and Sons is a successful organization.
             Lopez and Sons are holding a two-day annual meeting.
24. If a sentence begins with the expletive IT, the verb is always singular even if the subject
that follows the verb is plural.
             Examples:                   It is the schools which must assume the responsibility.
              It is us who must take care of the environment.
 
 
Self-Assessment (Module 1, Lesson 1/Subject-Verb Agreement)
DIRECTIONS: Underline the correct verb for the subject of each sentence.
1. Carl (doesn’t, don’t) remember the combination.
2. Either the battery or the bulb in my flashlight (has, have) just failed.
3. Two students from our school (was, were) sent to a press conference in Ohio.
4. In Vermont there (is, are) several big ski resorts.
5. A large shrub (grow, grows) in the front yard.
6. They (type, types) rapidly.
7. Every student and teacher (was, were) present at the special assembly.
8. Both Paul Bunyan and Pecos Bill (is, are) legendary heroes in American folklore.
9. Neither mom nor my sisters (likes, like) that movie.
10. The plans and arrangements for the picnic (has, have) not been finalized yet.
11. Everyone in the room (is, are) a member of the debate team.
12. Nobody (remembers, remember) the right formula for the problem.
13. A card for Father’s Day (makes, make) my Dad very happy.
14. There (is, are) two fullbacks on a soccer team.
15. Here (is, are) the photos of the class party.

Lesson 2: Reading Comprehension

DISCLAIMER: The content of this module is prepared and compiled for educational purposes only. No part of
this module may be used without the permission of the professors and the school. 
 
FOR THE STUDENTS: The Pre-Assessment contains questions that you need to ask yourself before starting
each lesson to gauge your level of knowledge on the topic and to prepare you for the discussions to come. You
do not need to write down your answers nor do you need to submit them to your professors. On the other
hand, the Self-Assessment parts are follow up exercises after each lesson that would help you practice and
apply the knowledge and skills learned. Like the Pre-Assessment, you do not need to submit these to your
professor to be graded. The case is different for the Performance Tasks. There are only two of these in the
duration of the whole semester – one for the Midterm and another for the Final. These need to be submitted
as these would be major bases for the computation of your grades for this course. 

Module 1 | Lesson 2 - Reading Comprehension

The job market now demands a workforce that is more highly educated than ever.
However, most people, children and adults, do not spend any significant portion of their
free time reading.
Without committing time to reading, no one can gain the reading skills or
knowledge they need to succeed in school, at work, or in life in general. The best way to
improve your reading efficiency is to read a lot.
In summary, people just aren't reading as much anymore and yet the need for
reading, comprehension, and communication skills (verbal and written) has increased.
 
Pre-Assessment
          1. How often do you read? When you read, what purpose do you have? Is it merely for
course compliance or is it for personal knowledge development?
          2. Is there a significant relationship between reading comprehension and competence
in other areas like Science or Mathematics?
 
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
          1. Exercise effective reading skills for better comprehension of text read.
          2. Determine word meaning, main ideas, details, and interpretations through proper
reading.
 
Core Content
 
What is Reading Comprehension?
      According to Webster's Dictionary, comprehension is "the capacity for
understanding fully; the act or action of grasping with the intellect."
       Webster also tells us that reading is "to receive or take in the sense of (as
letters or symbols) by scanning; to understand the meaning of written or
printed matter; to learn from what one has seen or found in writing or
printing.
 
Skills in Reading Comprehension
1.       Finding main ideas and  supporting details/evidence
2.       Making inferences and drawing  conclusions
3.       Recognizing a text's patterns  of organization
4.       Summarizing/Paraphrasing
5.       Reading for Information/details
6.       Reading and Interpreting non-  prose forms (e.g., graphs, tables,  charts,
diagrams)
7.       Understanding opinions and  detecting biases
8.       Identifying tone, mood and style
9.       Rhetorical patterns such as  (comparison-contrast, cause and  effect, description
and  narration)
 
Levels of Comprehension
The three levels of comprehension, or sophistication of thinking, are presented in
the following hierarchy from the least to the most sophisticated level of reading.
 
*Least = surface, simple reading
*Most = in-depth, complex reading
 
Level One: Literal
LITERAL - what is actually stated.
 Facts and details
 Rote learning and memorization
 Surface understanding only 
TESTS in this category are objective tests dealing with true / false, multiple choice and
fill-in-the blank questions.
Common questions used to illicit this type of thinking are who, what, when,
and where questions.
 
Level Two: Interpretive
INTERPRETIVE - what is implied or meant,  rather than what is actually stated.
  Drawing inferences
 Tapping into prior knowledge / experience
 Attaching new learning to old information
 Making logical leaps and educated guesses
                               Reading between  the lines to determine what is meant by what is stated.
TESTS in this category are subjective, and the types of questions asked are open-ended,
thought-provoking questions like why, what if, and how.
 
Level Three: Applied
APPLIED - taking what was said  (literal) and then what was meant by  what was said
(interpretive) and then  extend (apply) the concepts or ideas  beyond the situation.
 Analyzing
 Synthesizing
 Applying
In this level we are analyzing or synthesizing information and applying it to other
information.
 
IMPORTANT NOTE: For the sake of brevity, we will only be focusing on some of the most
important and most widely used comprehension skills. This would include Skimming and
Scanning for Details, Developing Vocabulary through Context Clues, Drawing Conclusions,
and Making Inferences.
Skimming
 Skimming - To read quickly to get the general idea of a passage
 When Skimming:
o      Don’t read everything but try to skip the text.
o      Read the first and last sentences of paragraphs.
o      Read the introduction and the summary.
o      Read a few examples until you understand the concepts they
are meant to illustrate. 
 How to Skim:
o      Read the title.
o      Read the subtitle or introduction.
o      Read the first sentences of each paragraph.
o      Notice any picture, charts, or graphics.
o      Read the summary or last paragraph if there is one.
 
Let’s skim the first and last sentences from the passage.
 In recent years, evidence has been collected which suggests that the proportion of
British children and teenagers who are unhappy is higher than in many other developed
countries around the world. For example, a recently published report set out to measure ‘well-
being’ among young people in nineteen European countries found that the United Kingdom
came bottom. The report was based on statistics and surveys in which young people answered
questions on a wide range of subject. The United Kingdom is a relatively unequal country with
a relatively high proportion of young people living in households with less than half the
national average income. This seems to have a negative effect on how they feel about
themselves.
Choose the heading that best matches the previous paragraph.
a. Parents are to blame for the state of children today
b. A report with many conclusions and worries about the United Kingdom
c. Growing up unhappy generation
d. There are so many social problems young people face today
 
Scanning
 Scanning – searching for specific information (key words)

                      Specific information may range from name, number, date, program, etc.
                      Scanning is rapidly running your eyes over the text in order to locate specific
details.
 Three Steps to Scanning:
o       search for key words
o       move quickly over the page
o       Less reading and more  searching

Now let’s scan for the info we selected.

In recent years, evidence has been collected which suggests that the proportion of
British children and teenagers who are unhappy is higher than in many other developed
countries around the world. For example, a recently published report set out to measure ‘well-
being’ among young people in nineteen European countries found that the United Kingdom
came bottom. The report was based on statistics and surveys in which young people answered
questions on a wide range of subject. The United Kingdom is a relatively unequal country with
a relatively high proportion of young people living in households with less than half the
national average income. This seems to have a negative effect on how they feel about
themselves.
 
How many European countries are in the first report?
Answer: Nineteen
In conclusion:
 Skimming and scanning is used when reading all types of documents.
  We skim to get the idea of what a document is about and typically skim all
documents before we actually begin to read.
 As we skim, we…
o      think about the topic
o      think about what we already know about the topic
o      start to guess or anticipate the details we are going to read
 We scan for specific information
 We work quickly when we skim and scan.
 
Context Clues
 Context - The use of words surrounding the unknown word to help determine the
unknown word’s meaning.
 Why are context clues important?
o      They help us define unfamiliar, difficult words in texts.
o      They help us to become better, perceptive readers.
o      They come in handy during tests when a dictionary or the
internet is not available to us.
 Where are context clues found?
o      In the same sentence as the difficult, unfamiliar word.
o     In the same paragraph or passage as the unknown word.
Context clues can be in the sentences following the word, for
example.
o      They are called context clues because they are found in the
“context” of the sentence or passage.
 Context Clue No. 1: Definition
o      The unfamiliar word is directly defined in the sentence in
which it appears.
o      Definitions are usually set off by commas or dashes, and may
include the use of the words, as, or, that is, and in other words.
o      Example: Apples, red fruits that grow on trees, are my
teacher’s favorite.
 Context Clue No. 2: Antonym or Contrast
o      The unfamiliar word is defined by using the word’s opposite
or contrasting meaning.
o     This type of context clue usually includes the words:
whereas, unlike, as opposed to, however, in contrast to, but, on
the other         
o      Example: Unlike Jen, who was easygoing, Jackie
was fastidious.
 Context Clue No. 3: Synonym or Restatement
o      Words with similar meanings are used within the same
sentence, or around the unfamiliar word.
 o     Example: Santa Clause was so portly that his doctor declared
him overweight.
 Context Clue No. 4: Inference
o      Word meanings are not directly stated in the text, but
definitions of unfamiliar words can be assumed by both prior
knowledge and the context in which the word sits.
o      Example: She was so famished that people felt sorry for her,
and gave her food to eat.
 Use the acronym SAID to remember the four types of context clues:
Synonym 
Antonym
Inference
Definition
 
Making Inferences
 Inference - a decision reached on the basis of evidence in the reading and your own
background knowledge.
                    -an inference IS an educated guess about the text.
                    -an inference IS “reading between the lines.”
                    -an inference is NOT directly stated in the text you’re reading.
 The author/character implies, but you the reader infer when you make an educated
guess.
 How do you know when you’re being asked to make an inference? One of these
verbs will be used:
o      suggest (Which answer does the text suggest is …)
o      imply (Which answer does the author imply is …)
o      infer (What can you infer from the text as the reason….)
o      reasonably infer (What can you reasonably infer is…)
o      suggested that (The author suggested that who…)
o      with which would the author agree (With which answer
would the author agree as to…)
o     which sentence would the author most likely use…(Which
sentence would the author most likely use to explain…)
 What Inferring Can do for You
o      Define unknown words using context clues
o      Learn about a character
o      Picture the setting
o      Determine the author’s/character’s feelings and bias
o      Draw conclusions and make predictions based on facts
o      Use your prior knowledge to better understand the reading
  Example 1:
“His previous album was one of the year’s bestsellers, but it paled in comparison with
his 1982 follow-up Thriller.”
 
Question: Who can you reasonably infer is the singer of this album?  Pull from your
previous knowledge.
Answer: Michael Jackson
 Example 2:
“A woman walks into a hospital clutching her abdomen and cursing at her husband,
who trails behind her carrying a large bag.”
 
Question: What’s wrong with the woman?
Answer: Her water probably broke and she is about to give birth.
 
Drawing Conclusions
 Drawing Conclusions - You are making a judgment based on the information
provided and what you know in your head.
 When you are asked to draw a conclusion, you might have to:
o      Find an example
o      Note a contrast
o      Generalize
o      Identify a cause and effect relationship
o      Detect a mood
o      Recognize an analogy
o      Identify a time-and-place relationship
o      Make a comparison
o      Anticipate an outcome
 When selecting a choice the correct answer is either highly likely or certain.
 Example 1:
“Martin Scorsese is a director of astonishing power, and Gangs of New York is a
movie of astonishing imagination, ambition, and scope. The first fifteen minutes are as
dazzling as any images ever put on screen. The rest of the movie veers from brilliant to
flawed, but it is unfailingly arresting, provocative, and powerful.”
 
Question: What will be the reviewer's final opinion on the movie?
a. The reviewer will give the movie a negative review.
b. The reviewer will not like the movie past its first fifteen minutes.
c. The reviewer will not recommend the movie because it was made by
Martin Scorsese.
d. The reviewer will give the movie a positive review.
 Example 2:
 “Max has a very strong arm. He keeps his lucky leather glove in good condition.
All spring he practices to get in shape. He has a great fast ball and is working on his
curve ball. He plays for the City Diamondheads.”
                                    Question: What position does Max play in the team?
                                     Answer: Pitcher

 
Self-Assessment (Module 1, Lesson 2/Reading Comprehension)
DIRECTIONS: Read the following sentences/paragraphs carefully. Answer the questions
that follow.

For Questions 1-3:

Mount Rushmore is a huge carving in a stone cliff. The carving shows the faces of four
U.S. presidents. They are George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and
Abraham Lincoln. Mount Rushmore is in South Dakota. Each year many people visit this
amazing sight.

1. What is the main idea?

a. what Mount Rushmore is
b. where Mount Rushmore is
c. the names of the presidents

2. What is a detail that tells about the main idea?

a. how the four presidents were chosen
b. which presidents are at Mount Rushmore
c. why Mount Rushmore is in South Dakota

3. The best title for this paragraph would be?

a. The Face of Washington
b. Visiting South Dakota
c. Mount Rushmore Carvings
For Questions 4-6:
Crows are the robbers of the bird world. Crows especially like to steal food from other
birds. Sometimes they are very bold about taking things. They might chase another bird,
cackle at it, or even bump into it. At other times crows are sneaky. They get close and then
snatch food away when another bird isn’t looking.

4. The main idea of the paragraph is -

a. why crows like to take food
b. the kind of food that crows eat
c. how crows act like thieves

5. A detail that tells about the main idea is -

a. how crows can be sneaky
 b. how other birds fight crows
c. where crows make their nests

6. The best title for this paragraph would be -

a. A Bump from a Crow
b. Bandit Birds
c. What Crows Eat
7. At first, the surgery seemed to be successful. But several hours later, the patient’s
condition began to deteriorate, and it continued to worsen over the next few days. What
is the meaning of deteriorate?
a. stabilize b. surprise everyone c. decay or decline

8. When my grandfather meets someone with that much knowledge in a field, he finds that
their erudition frightens him and he is inclined to withdraw. What is the meaning of the
word erudition?
a. rudeness b. scholarliness c. illiteracy
9. He is so timorous that he cannot sleep in the dark. What is the meaning of timorous?
a. fearful b. courageous c. timid

10. It is refreshing to see students so excited, so zealous in doing their homework.

a. dedicated b. indifferent c. jealous
11. “I circle several times while I lose altitude trying to penetrate the shadows from
different vantage points, getting the lay of the land as well as I can in the darkness.”

Infer who is speaking in the given passage.

a. photographer b. explorer c. pilot

12. Deliberately, his right hand fumbled at his waist. But then both his hands balled
themselves into mighty knotty fists of iron.
Infer the emotion of the character described.
a. disappointment b. pain c. anger
13. He always abhorred the idea of accepting aid from others; he felt that every man should
be sufficient unto himself.
Infer the characteristic of the person described.
a. selfish b. proud c. independent
For Questions 14-15:
The Cook’s Prayer
Lord of all pots and pans and things
Since I’ve no time to be
 A saint by doing lovely things
Or watching late with Thee,
Or dreaming in the Dawnlight,
Or storming heaven’s gate
Make me a saint by getting meals
And washing up the plates.

14. Who is speaking in the poem?

a. a saint b. the Lord c. a cook

15. What do the last two lines mean? The speaker is saying that he _____.
a. be given patience so that he can do his work
b. likes his job and praying to his saints
c. wants to be a saint of pots and pans

EPR MODULE 2
Lesson 1: Sentence Unity and Coherence + Self-Assessment
DISCLAIMER: The content of this module is prepared and compiled for educational purposes only. No part of
this module may be used without the permission of the professors and the school. 
 
FOR THE STUDENTS: The Pre-Assessment contains questions that you need to ask yourself before starting
each lesson to gauge your level of knowledge on the topic and to prepare you for the discussions to come. You
do not need to write down your answers nor do you need to submit them to your professors. On the other
hand, the Self-Assessment parts are follow up exercises after each lesson that would help you practice and
apply the knowledge and skills learned. Like the Pre-Assessment, you do not need to submit these to your
professor to be graded. The case is different for the Performance Tasks. There are only two of these in the
duration of the whole semester – one for the Midterm and another for the Final. These need to be submitted
as these would be major bases for the computation of your grades for this course. 

 
Module 2 | Lesson 1 – Sentence Unity and Coherence
 
Writing had always been a form of communication and, as such, it shares the same
goal; being understood is always the end point. Misunderstanding is considered a
breakdown in the communication process. Thus, it is imperative for students to learn how
to properly write sentences in order for them to be clearly understood. This is where unity
and coherence comes in. Proficiency in these two skills would then be useful when writing
larger units such as paragraphs, compositions, or any type of discourse.
 
Pre-Assessment
Do you prefer writing shorter or longer sentences? Which do you think is better? Justify
your preference.
 
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
          1. Familiarize with unity and coherence in the sentence level.
           2. Write better sentences by using unity and appropriate transitional devices.
 
Core Content
Sentence Unity
 A sentence has unity if it expresses only one main idea.
 How to Achieve Sentence Unity
      Consistent Use of Tenses

                              *A verb in an adverbial clause generally agrees with the tense of the verb in
the main clause.
Example: We finished our work before we watched the game. 
 
                              *The verb in the adjective clause doesn’t need to agree in the tense with the
verb in the main clause when the two actions are not necessarily related in time of
occurrence.
Example: Ms. Darcy, who was my teacher in elementary, is now in
Antarctica.
 
                               *The verb takes the present tense of the verb if the idea being expressed is
a universal truth or a relatively permanent condition.  
Example: The sun rises in the east.
 
                                *Use the tense form of the word that tells the time of action one wishes to
express.
Example: He was in Manila last week, but now he is in Baguio.
 
      Consistent Use of Number
                                  *Avoid unnecessary shifting from first person to third  person or vice
versa
Example: If the students pass their project on time, they will obtain a
good mark.
 
      Consistent Use of Persons of Pronouns

                                  *Shifting persons of pronouns will destroy unity. The pronouns must

agree with their antecedents.
Example:        The man was read his rights.
She is inviting us to attend her celebration.
 
      Consistent Use of Subject

                                 *Do not shift subject in a sentence.

Example: Students stay up late at night but the projects are not usually
accomplished.
 (wrong because of shift of subject from student to
project)
 
      Consistent Use of Voice

                                  *Voice is the aspect of a verb that tells whether the subject performs or
receives the action.
Example:     The department chair held a meeting and discussed some
important matters for the upcoming seminar. (Active)
An inspirational message is given. (Passive)
 
      Consistent Use of Language

                                  *Use the same language throughout the sentence. Avoid the use of foreign
terms and phrases which have not been incorporated into the language. As much as
possible, never resort to language mixing.
                                  *Also, be consistent with the use of register (formal, informal, slang).
Example:        Aren’t we going home yet? I am gutom na.
                                    (wrong because of language mixing)
                          
            Sentence Coherence
           It means putting ideas in logical order showing their relationship with one another.
The sentence elements should be in proper word order.
         Coherence is achieved when sentences and ideas are connected and flow together
smoothly. An essay without coherence can inhibit a reader’s ability to understand the ideas
and main points of the essay. Coherence allows the reader to move easily throughout the
essay from one idea to the next, from one sentence to the next, and from one paragraph to
the next.
  How to Achieve Coherence
      Use Repetition to Link Ideas, Sentences, and Paragraphs

                                 *Repeating key words or phrases helps connect and focus idea(s)

throughout the essay. Repetition also helps the reader remain focused and headed in the
right direction. 
      Example: Most students are intimidated by the works of William
Shakespeare. They believe Shakespeare’s sonnets and plays are
far too complicated to read and understand.
 
      Use Transitional Expressions to Link Ideas, Sentences, and Paragraphs
                                 *Transitional expressions, such as however, because, therefore, and in
addition, are used to establish relationships between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs.
They serve as signals to let the reader know the previous idea, sentence, or paragraph is
connected to what follows.
                                                 Example: Many students believe they cannot write a good
essay because they are not writers. However, as they practice writing and work on
developing their writing skills, most students are able to gain the needed confidence to
start thinking of themselves writers.
 
      List of Transitional Devices and their Use

To Add:    and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further,

furthermore, nor, too, next, lastly, what's more, moreover, in
addition, first (second, etc.)
 
To Compare:      whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, however,
nevertheless, on the contrary, by comparison, where,
compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, but,
although,   conversely, meanwhile, after all, in contrast,
although this may be true
 
 To Prove:       because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously,
evidently, furthermore, moreover, besides,  indeed, in
fact, in addition, in any case, that is
 
To Show Exception:      yet, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of,
despite, of course, once in a while, sometimes
 
To Show Time:         immediately, thereafter, soon, after a few hours,
finally, then, later, previously,    formerly, first
(second, etc.), next, and then
 
To Repeat:                      in brief, as I have said, as I have noted, as has been
noted
 
To Emphasize:          definitely, extremely, obviously, in fact, indeed, in
any case, absolutely, positively, naturally,
surprisingly, always, forever, perennially,
eternally, never, emphatically, unquestionably,
without a doubt, certainly, undeniably, without
reservation
 
To Show Consequence:          first, second, third, and so forth. A, B, C, and
so forth. next, then, following this, at this
time, now, at this point, after, afterward,
subsequently, finally, consequently,
previously, before this, simultaneously,
concurrently, thus, therefore, hence, next,
and then, soon
 
To Give an Example:      for example, for instance, in this case, in another
case, on this occasion, in this situation, take the
case of, to demonstrate, to illustrate, as an
illustration, to illustrate
 
To Summarize or Conclude:   in brief, on the whole, summing up, to
conclude, in conclusion, as I have shown,
as I have said, hence, therefore,
accordingly, thus, as a result,
consequently
 
      Use Pronouns to Link Sentences
                                 *Pronouns are used to link or connect sentences by referring to preceding
nouns and pronouns. Pronouns can also help create paragraphs that are easy to read by
eliminating wordiness and unnecessary repetition.
         Example: Mr. Thompson agreed to meet with members of the
worker’s union before he signed the contract. He was
interested in hearing their concerns about the new insurance
plan.
 
      Use Synonyms to Link Ideas and Create Variety
                                  *Synonyms are words that have the same or nearly the same meaning as
another word. They provide alternative word choices that can add variety to an essay and
can help eliminate unnecessary repetition.
           Example: Teenagers face an enormous amount of peer pressure
from friends and schoolmates. As a result, many young
adults are exhibiting signs of severe stress or depression at an
early age.
 
      Use Parallel Structures to Link Ideas, Sentences, and Paragraphs
                                  *Parallelism is the use of matching words, phrases, clauses, or sentence
structures to express similar ideas. Parallel structures allow the reader to flow smoothly
from one idea, sentence, or paragraph to the next and to understand the relationships and
connections between ideas.
           Examples:  Usually, the children spend the summer
weekends playing ball in park, swimming in the
neighbor’s pool, eating ice cream under the tree,
or camping in the backyard.
 
At the museum, the class attended a lecture where the
speaker demonstrated how the Native Americans made
bows and arrows. They also attended a lecture where a
sword smith demonstrated how the Vikings crafted
swords.

Lesson 2: Rhetoric
DISCLAIMER: The content of this module is prepared and compiled for educational purposes only. No part of
this module may be used without the permission of the professors and the school. 
 
FOR THE STUDENTS: The Pre-Assessment contains questions that you need to ask yourself before starting
each lesson to gauge your level of knowledge on the topic and to prepare you for the discussions to come. You
do not need to write down your answers nor do you need to submit them to your professors. On the other
hand, the Self-Assessment parts are follow up exercises after each lesson that would help you practice and
apply the knowledge and skills learned. Like the Pre-Assessment, you do not need to submit these to your
professor to be graded. The case is different for the Performance Tasks. There are only two of these in the
duration of the whole semester – one for the Midterm and another for the Final. These need to be submitted
as these would be major bases for the computation of your grades for this course. 
  
            Module 2 | Lesson 2 – Rhetoric
                      As Aristotle defined the term, rhetoric is “the faculty of observing in any given case the
available means of persuasion.”
Today, people sometimes use the word “rhetoric” in a negative light. For example,
they might say that a politician is “all rhetoric and no substance,” meaning the politician
makes good speeches but doesn’t have good ideas. This is an important point – a person
can be good at rhetoric without actually having good ideas! To use an extreme example,
John C. Calhoun was an extremely talented rhetorician who used his skills to argue in
defense of slavery!
 
Although rhetoric is often connected with making speeches, it applies just as well to
writing.

Pre-Assessment

          1. What are the different rhetorical appeals?

          2. In today’s highly commercialized world, in what different contexts is rhetoric used?
 
Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

           1. Identify different rhetorical devices used in different popular mediums.

           2. Apply rhetorical appeals to write more convincing arguments.
 

Core Content

Rhetoric

 Rhetoric is the ancient art of persuasion. It’s a way of presenting and making your
views convincing and attractive to your readers or audience. In the classical world,
rhetoric was considered one of the most important school subjects, and no
gentleman was raised without extensive formal training in the skill. That’s why the
politicians of, say, the 19th century were so eloquent and well-spoken
in comparison with modern politicians.
 Rhetoric matters because arguments matter. If you can persuade people to come
around to your point of view, you can be more successful in all sorts of subjects. And
it’s not just an academic skill! Think about the job process: when you write a cover
letter, your job is to convince the employer that you are the best person for the job.
 How will you do this? By using effective rhetoric in the letter. Similarly, your success
at the interview stage will depend largely on the way you use rhetoric to present
yourself.
 Examples of the Use of Rhetoric
Example 1: Rhetoric in Public Speaking
 
“The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never
forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the
unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is
rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us.”
 
       Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address is widely praised as
one of history’s greatest speeches. Though the speech took less
than two minutes to deliver, the country was deeply moved by
it. In those two minutes, Lincoln summarized all the pain and
suffering that had been brought by the Civil War and looked
forward to the good that might someday come from a Union
victory. Although Lincoln wasn’t trying to persuade his
audience of anything in particular, he was presenting an
overall view or understanding of the war, which he wanted his
listeners to accept as their own.
 
 Example 2: Rhetoric in Advertisement

      Advertisements are a very subtle form of rhetoric. Every

advertisement you see is an attempt to persuade you that you
should take a certain action – usually buying a product or
supporting a political candidate. Knowing this, you can analyze
the various techniques that advertisements use. Are they
stimulating your appetites, such as your desire for food or
companionship? Are they using the emotions? Are they
presenting logical arguments?
 
          Example 3: Rhetoric in Literature and Scholarship
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones;
So let it be with Caesar.
                                                                                                                          (William
Shakespeare, Julius Caesar)
 
      Shakespeare’s plays, especially his histories, are full of high
rhetoric. The most famous example is probably Marc Antony’s
funeral oration from Julius Caesar. In the speech, Marc Antony
faces a hostile crowd, most of whom are celebrating Caesar’s
death. But, through careful rhetoric, Marc Antony convinces
them that they should not be too quick to celebrate, and that
Caesar may not have been such a bad man after all. The speech
is a brilliant synthesis of pathos and logos, since it appeals both
to the audience’s logical minds and to their emotional hearts.
 
          Example 4: Rhetoric in Media and Pop Culture            
                                                            “Clear eyes, full hearts…CAN’T LOSE!”  (Friday Night Lights)
      Every sports movie has a scene, usually at the dramatic
climax, of stirring locker-room rhetoric. You know the scene:
our heroes are losing by twenty points at halftime. They can’t
possibly come back from this. But the coach stands in front of
them and starts, quietly, to persuade them not to give up. By
the end, he’s yelling passionately and the team is fired up to go
back out and earn the win. These speeches rarely use logic, but
they’re very emotional – in Aristotle’s terms, they’re based
almost entirely on pathos.
 
Rhetorical Appeals
         Rhetorical appeals refer to ethos, pathos, and logos. These are classical Greek terms,
dating back to Aristotle, who is traditionally seen as the father of rhetoric. To be
rhetorically effective (and thus persuasive), an author must engage the audience in a
variety of compelling ways, which involves carefully choosing how to craft his or her
argument so that the outcome, audience agreement with the argument or point, is
achieved. Aristotle defined these modes of engagement and gave them the terms that we
still use today: logos, pathos, and ethos.

LOGOS : Appeal to LOGIC

Logic. Reason. Rationality. Logos is brainy and intellectual, cool, calm, collected, objective.

When an author relies on logos, it means that he or she is using logic, careful
structure, and objective evidence to appeal to the audience. An author can appeal to an
audience’s intellect by using information that can be fact checked (using multiple sources)
and thorough explanations to support key points. Additionally, providing a solid and non-
biased explanation of one’s argument is a great way for an author to invoke logos.
 For example, if I were trying to convince my students to complete their homework, I
might explain that I understand everyone is busy and they have other classes (non-biased),
but the homework will help them get a better grade on their test (explanation). I could add
to this explanation by providing statistics showing the number of students who failed and
didn’t complete their homework versus the number of students who passed and did
complete their homework (factual evidence).

Logical appeals rest on rational modes of thinking, such as

    Comparison – a comparison between one thing (with regard to your topic)
and another, similar thing to help support your claim. It is important that the
comparison is fair and valid – the things being compared must share significant
traits of similarity.
    Cause/effect thinking – you argue that X has caused Y, or that X is likely to
cause Y to help support your claim. Be careful with the latter – it can be difficult
to predict that something “will” happen in the future.
    Deductive reasoning – starting with a broad, general claim/example and using
it to support a more specific point or claim.
     Inductive reasoning – using several specific examples or cases to make a
broad generalizatio
     Exemplification – use of many examples or a variety of evidence to support a
single point
     Elaboration – moving beyond just including a fact, but explaining the
significance or relevance of that fact
     Coherent thought – maintaining a well organized line of reasoning; not
repeating ideas or jumping around
 

PATHOS : Appeal to EMOTIONS

When an author relies on pathos, it means that he or she is trying to tap into the
audience’s emotions to get them to agree with the author’s claim. An author using pathetic
appeals wants the audience to feel something: anger, pride, joy, rage, or happiness.  For
example, many of us have seen the ASPCA commercials that use photographs of injured
puppies, or sad-looking kittens, and slow, depressing music to emotionally persuade their
audience to donate money.

Pathos-based rhetorical strategies are any strategies that get the audience to “open
up” to the topic, the argument, or to the author. Emotions can make us vulnerable, and an
author can use this vulnerability to get the audience to believe that his or her argument is a
compelling one.

Pathetic appeals might include

       Expressive descriptions of people, places, or events that help the reader to
feel or experience those events
      Vivid imagery of people, places or events that help the reader to feel like he
or she is seeing  those events
      Sharing personal stories that make the reader feel a connection to, or
empathy for, the person being described
      Using emotion-laden vocabulary as a way to put the reader into that specific
emotional mindset (what is the author trying to make the audience feel? and
how is he or she doing that?)
    Using any information that will evoke an emotional response from the

audience. This could involve making the audience feel empathy or disgust for
the person/group/event being discussed, or perhaps connection to or rejection
of the person/group/event being discussed.
When reading a text, try to locate when the author is trying to convince the reader
using emotions because, if used to excess, pathetic appeals can indicate a lack of substance
or emotional manipulation of the audience.
 
ETHOS: Appeal to VALUES /TRUST
Ethical appeals have two facets: audience values and authorial credibility/character.

On the one hand, when an author makes an ethical appeal, he or she is attempting
to tap into the values or ideologies that the audience holds, for example, patriotism,
tradition, justice, equality, dignity for all humankind, self preservation, or other specific
social, religious or philosophical values (Christian values, socialism, capitalism, feminism,
etc.). These values can sometimes feel very close to emotions, but they are felt on a social
level rather than only on a personal level. When an author evokes the values that the
audience cares about as a way to justify or support his or her argument, we classify that as
ethos. The audience will feel that the author is making an argument that is “right” (in the
sense of moral “right”-ness, i.e., “My argument rests upon that values that matter to you.
Therefore, you should accept my argument”). This first part of the definition of ethos, then,
is focused on the audience’s values.

On the other hand, this sense of referencing what is “right” in an ethical appeal
connects to the other sense of ethos: the  author. Ethos that is centered on the author
revolves around two concepts: the credibility of the author and his or her character.

Credibility of the speaker/author is determined by his or her knowledge and

expertise in the subject at hand. For example, if you are learning about Einstein’s Theory of
Relativity, would you rather learn from a professor of physics or a cousin who took two
science classes in high school thirty years ago? It is fair to say that, in general, the professor
of physics would have more credibility to discuss the topic of physics. To establish his or
her credibility, an author may draw attention to who he or she is or what kinds of
experience he or she has with the topic being discussed as an ethical appeal (i.e., “Because I
have experience with this topic –and I know my stuff! – you should trust what I am saying
about this topic”). Some authors do not have to establish their credibility because the
audience already knows who they are and that they are credible.

Character is another aspect of ethos, and it is different from credibility because it
involves personal history and even personality traits. A person can be credible but lack
character or vice versa. For example, in politics, sometimes the most experienced
candidates – those who might be the most credible candidates – fail to win elections
because voters do not accept their character. Politicians take pains to shape their character
as leaders who have the interests of the voters at heart. The candidate who successfully
proves to the voters (the audience) that he or she has the type of character that they can
trust is more likely to win.

Thus, ethos comes down to trust. How can the author get the audience to trust him
or her so that they will accept his or her argument? How can the author make him or
herself appear as a credible speaker who embodies the character traits that the audience
values?
In building ethical appeals, we see authors
      Referring either directly or indirectly to the values that matter to the
intended audience (so that the audience will trust the speaker)
     Using language, phrasing, imagery, or other writing styles common to people
who hold those values, thereby “talking the talk” of people with those values
(again, so that the audience is inclined to trust the speaker)
       Referring to their experience and/or authority with the topic(and therefore
demonstrating their credibility)
       Referring to their own character, or making an effort to build their
character in the text
When reading, you should always think about the author’s credibility regarding the
subject as well as his or her character. Here is an example of a rhetorical move that
connects with ethos: when reading an article about abortion, the author mentions that she
has had an abortion. That is an example of an ethical move because the author is creating
credibility via anecdotal evidence and first person narrative. In a rhetorical analysis
project, it would be up to you, the analyzer, to point out this move and associate it with a
rhetorical strategy.
 
Self-Assessment
DIRECTIONS: Identify the rhetorical appeal used in the following. Write the letter only.
A- Ethos B – Pathos C - Logos

1. "Our expertise in roofing contractqing is evidenced not only by our 100 years in the
business and our staff of qualified technicians, but in the decades of satisfied customers
who have come to expect nothing but the best." (ETHOS)
2. "Ladies and gentlemen of the jury: we have not only the fingerprints, the lack of an alibi,
a clear motive, and an expressed desire to commit the robbery… We also have video of
the suspect breaking in. The case could not be more open and shut."(LOGOS)
3. "If you’re still unsure, please consider that my advanced degree and field work speak for
themselves." (ETHOS)
4. "More than one hundred peer-reviewed studies have been conducted over the past
decade, and none of them suggests that this is an effective treatment for hair loss."
(LOGOS)
5. "It’s a matter of common sense that people deserve to be treated equally. The
Constitution calls it ‘self-evident.’ Why, then, should I have been denied a seat because
of my disability?" (PATHOS)
6. "Don’t be the last person on the block to have their lawn treated – you don’t want to be
the laughing stock of your community!" (PATHOS)
7. "You’ll make the right decision because you have something that not many people do:
you have heart." (PATHOS)
8. "As a doctor, I am qualified to tell you that this course of treatment will likely generate
the best results." (ETHOS)
9. "My three decades of experience in public service make me the ideal candidate for your
mayor." (ETHOS)
10. They’ve worked against everything we’ve worked so hard to build, and they don’t care
who gets hurt in the process. Make no mistake, they’re the enemy. (PATHOS)
11. "You don’t need to jump off a bridge to know that it’s a bad idea. Why then would you
need to try drugs to know if they’re damaging? That’s plain nonsense." (LOGOS)
12. "The data is perfectly clear: this investment has consistently turned a profit year-
overyear, even in spite of market declines in other areas." (LOGOS)
13. "The algorithms have been run in a thousand different ways, and the math continues to
check out." (LOGOS)
14. "There’s no price that can be placed on peace of mind. Our advanced security systems
will protect the well-being of your family so that you can sleep soundly at night."
(PATHOS)
15. "Better men than us have fought and died to preserve this great nation. Now is our turn
to return the favor. For God and country, gentlemen!" (PATHOS)

Self- Assessment

DIRECTIONS: Read the following sentences correctly then encircle the letter of the best
transitional device to complete each of the sentences.
 1. A vegetarian can be defined as someone who does not eat meat, fish, or other animal
products, such as eggs or cheese; _____, he or she eats vegetables, fruits, grains, and seeds.
a. consequently
b. because
c. furthermore
d. instead
e. for example

2. _____ this diet consists of non-meat food sources, a vegetarian typically consumes less fat
and cholesterol than an individual who consumes meat.
a. Consequently
b. Because
c. Furthermore
d. Instead
e. For example

3. _____, raising animals for food uses valuable land, water, and energy.
a. Consequently
b. Because
c. Furthermore
d. Instead
e. for example

4. _____, adopting a vegetarian diet helps conserve the valuable resources that our future
depends on.
a. Consequently
b. Because
c. Furthermore
d. Instead
e. For example

5. _____ many educators and parents have praised the Harry Potter series, some Christian
parents have called for a ban on the books in their schools and libraries.
a. although
b. In addition
c. Such as
d. However
e. Indeed

6. Some churches have even gone as far as burning the books, citing biblical injunctions
against witchcraft, _____ those in Exodus and Leviticus.
a. although
b. in addition
c. such as
d. however
e. indeed
 7. _____, some Christians believe the books are compatible with Christianity,
a. Although
b. In addition
c. Such as
d. However
e. Indeed

8. _____, that they embody basic Christian beliefs. (BONUS, wrong question construction)
a. Although
b. In addition
c. Such as
d. However
e. Indeed

9. _____, in the summer of 2006, western Europe experienced some of the hottest weather
on record. (BONUS, wrong question construction)
a. In fact
b. For example
c. Unfortunately
d. Moreover
e. But

10. ______, this temperature increase is not an isolated occurrence.

a. In fact
b. For example
c. Unfortunately
d. Moreover
e. But

EPR MODULE 3

Lesson 1: Paragraph Writing

Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students define paragraphs in
terms of length: a paragraph is a group of at least five sentences, a paragraph is half a
page long, etc. In reality, though, the unity and coherence of ideas among sentences is
what constitutes a paragraph. A paragraph is defined as “a group of sentences or a
single sentence that forms a unit” (Lunsford and Connors 116). Length and appearance
do not determine whether a section in a paper is a paragraph. For instance, in some
styles of writing, particularly journalistic styles, a paragraph can be just one sentence
long. Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences that support one main
idea. In this handout, we will refer to this as the “controlling idea,” because it controls
what happens in the rest of the paragraph.
Pre-Assessment
1. How do you decide what to put in your paragraph?
2. What methods can be used to make writing not only easy, but also effective in
accomplishing one’s goals in writing?
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
1. Familiarize with different methods used in writing effective paragraphs.
2. Apply these different methods in writing paragraphs.
 
CORE CONTENT
How do I decide what to put in a paragraph?
Before you can begin to determine what the composition of a particular paragraph will
be, you must first decide on an argument and a working thesis statement for your paper.
What is the most important idea that you are trying to convey to your reader? The
information in each paragraph must be related to that idea. In other words, your
paragraphs should remind your reader that there is a recurrent relationship between
your thesis and the information in each paragraph. A working thesis functions like a
seed from which your paper, and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is an organic
one—a natural progression from a seed to a full-blown paper where there are direct,
familial relationships between all of the ideas in the paper.
The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins with the germination of a
seed of ideas; this “germination process” is better known as brainstorming. There are
many techniques for brainstorming; whichever one you choose, this stage of paragraph
development cannot be skipped. Building paragraphs can be like building a skyscraper:
there must be a well-planned foundation that supports what you are building. Any
cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions of the foundation can cause your whole
paper to crumble.
So, let’s suppose that you have done some brainstorming to develop your thesis. What
else should you keep in mind as you begin to create paragraphs?
Every paragraph in a paper should be:
 Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should be related to a single
controlling idea (often expressed in the topic sentence of the paragraph).
 Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all refer to the central idea, or
thesis, of the paper (Rosen and Behrens 119).
 Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical manner and should
follow a definite plan for development (Rosen and Behrens 119).
  Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph should be adequately
explained and supported through evidence and details that work together to
explain the paragraph’s controlling idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).
How do I organize a paragraph?
There are many different ways to organize a paragraph. The organization you
choose will depend on the controlling idea of the paragraph. Below are a few
possibilities for organization, with links to brief examples:
 Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to finish.
 Description: Provide specific details about what something looks, smells, tastes,
sounds, or feels like. Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.
 Process: Explain how something works, step by step. Perhaps follow a sequence
—
first, second, third.
 Classification: Separate into groups or explain the various parts of a topic.
 Illustration: Give examples and explain how those examples prove your point.
5-step process to paragraph development
Let’s walk through a 5-step process for building a paragraph. For each step there is an
explanation and example. Our example paragraph will be about slave spirituals,
the original songs that African Americans created during slavery. The model paragraph
uses illustration (giving examples) to prove its point.
Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create a topic sentence
Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the controlling idea. This idea
directs the paragraph’s development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will
appear in the form of a topic sentence. In some cases, you may need more than one
sentence to express a paragraph’s controlling idea. Here is the controlling idea for our
“model paragraph,” expressed in a topic sentence:
Model Controlling Idea and Topic Sentence
“Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings.”
 
Step 2. Explain the controlling idea
Paragraph development continues with an expression of the rationale or the explanation
that the writer gives for how the reader should interpret the information presented in the
idea statement or topic sentence of the paragraph. The writer explains his/her thinking
about the main topic, idea, or focus of the paragraph. Here’s the sentence that would
follow the controlling idea about slave spirituals:
Model explanation
“On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul; but on
another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance.”
Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)
Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or
evidence for the idea and the explanation that came before it. The example serves as
a sign or representation of the relationship established in the idea and
explanation portions of the paragraph. Here are two examples that we could use to
illustrate the double meanings in slave spirituals:
Model Example A
“For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O Canaan, Sweet Canaan”
spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed their desire to escape to the
North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics: “I don’t expect
to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don’t expect to stay.”
Model Example B
“Slaves even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)” to announce
to other slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings.”
 
Step 4. Explain the example(s)
The next movement in paragraph development is an explanation of each example and
its relevance to the topic sentence and rationale that were stated at the beginning of the
paragraph. This explanation shows readers why you chose to use this/or
these particular examples as evidence to support the major claim, or focus, in your
paragraph.
Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them until all points/examples
that the writer deems necessary have been made and explained. NONE of your
examples should be left unexplained. You might be able to explain the relationship
between the example and the topic sentence in the same sentence which introduced
the example. More often, however, you will need to explain that relationship in a
separate sentence. Look at these explanations for the two examples in the slave spirituals
paragraph:
Model explanation for Example A
“When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of their departure
from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could have been
describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but to the North.”
Model Explanation for Example B
“The relationship between example B and the main idea of the paragraph’s
controlling idea is clear enough without adding another sentence to explain it.”
 
Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or transition into the next paragraph
The final movement in paragraph development involves tying up the loose ends of the
paragraph and reminding the reader of the relevance of the information in
this paragraph to the main or controlling idea of the paper. At this point, you can
remind your reader about the relevance of the information that you just discussed in
the paragraph. You might feel more comfortable, however, simply transitioning your
reader to the next development in the next paragraph. Here’s an example of a sentence
that completes the slave spirituals paragraph:
Model Sentence for Completing a Paragraph
“What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed
messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could
not say.”
Notice that the example and explanation steps of this 5-step process (steps 3 and 4)
can be repeated as needed. The idea is that you continue to use this pattern until you
have completely developed the main idea of the paragraph.
Here is a look at the completed “model” paragraph:
Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings. On one level, spirituals referenced
heaven, Jesus, and the soul, but on another level, the songs spoke about
slave resistance. For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O Canaan,
Sweet Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed their desire
to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following
lyrics: “I don’t expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I
don’t expect to stay.” When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking of
their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however, they also could have
been describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but to the North.
Slaves even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)” to announce to other
slaves the time and place of secret, forbidden meetings. What whites heard as merely
spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The hidden meanings in
spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could not say

Lesson 2: The Persuasive Essay

In persuasive writing, a writer takes a position FOR or AGAINST an issue and writes to
convince the reader to BELIEVE or DO something. It is commonly found in:
 advertisements to get the reader to buy a product;
 newspapers, magazines, essays and other texts to get the reader to accept a point
of view;
 speeches, petitions, and political cartoons to convince readers to believe a certain
political viewpoint; and
 blogs, web pages, and social media sites to convince the reader to subscribe to or follow
the author.
Some more specific examples are editorials, essays, advertisements, speeches,
petitions, political cartoons, editorial letters, blogs, tweets, facebook posts, and advice
columns.
Pre-Assessment
1. What is your experience with writing persuasive essays?
2. If you have never written one, have you ever tried to convince someone to act a
certain way or do something?
3. If so, what techniques did you use? What kind of argument did you make?
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Gather evidence in narrative, historical, or numerical form to strengthen claims made
in a persuasive essay.
2. Create a short persuasive paragraph that addresses a specific audience and support
a clearly stated thesis with facts, statistics, and/or other forms
 
Core Content
Gathering Evidence to Support Claims
What are Primary and Secondary Sources?
A note on terminology: many researchers distinguish between primary and secondary
sources of evidence (in this case, “primary” means “first” or “original,” NOT “most
important”).
 Primary Sources include original documents, photographs, interviews, and so forth.
o Example: If you are writing a paper about the movie “The Matrix,” the movie
itself, an interview with the director, and production photos could serve as
primary sources of evidence.
 Secondary Sources present information that has already been processed or interpreted by
someone else.
o Example: A movie review from a magazine or a collection of essays about the
film (The Matrix) would be secondary source.
Where can I Find Evidence?
Print and Electronic Sources. Books, journals, websites, newspapers, magazines,
and documentary films are some of the most common sources of evidence for
academic writing.
Observation. Sometimes you can directly observe the thing you are interested in,
by watching, listening to, touching, tasting, or smelling it.
Interviews. An interview is a good way to collect information that you can’t find through
any other type of research. An interview can provide an expert’s opinion, biographical or
first-hand experiences, and suggestions for further research.
Personal Experience. Using your own experiences can be a powerful way to appeal
to your readers. You should, however, use personal experience only when it
is appropriate to your topic, your writing goals, and your audience. Personal experience
should not be your only form of evidence in most papers, and some disciplines frown on
using personal experience at all.
 
Using Evidence in an Argument
Does evidence speak for itself? Absolutely not. After you introduce evidence into your
writing, you must say why and how this evidence supports your argument. In other
words, you have to explain the significance of the evidence and its function in your
paper. What turns a fact or piece of information into evidence is the connection it has
with a larger claim or argument: evidence is always evidence for or against something,
and you have to make that link clear.
Incorporating Evidence into my Paper
There are many ways to present your evidence. Often, your evidence will be included
as text in the body of your paper, as a quotation, paraphrase, or summary. Sometimes
you might include graphs, charts, or tables; excerpts from an interview; or photographs
or illustrations with accompanying captions.
Referencing
Please see attached APA Poster from Purdue OWL.
To download the poster, click this link:
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/
apa_formatting_and_style_guide/images/20200129APAPoster.jpg
 
Writing the Persuasive Essay
Persuasive Arguments should have the following:
 A claim
 Evidence Supporting the claim (reasons)
 An opposing viewpoint with counter-arguments
 A conclusion
Making a Claim
A writer must express an opinion to turn a topic into a claim. For example, if your topic is
“school start time,” then a possible claim could be “school should start later in the day.”
Remember that your claim has to be arguable, meaning it needs to have at least two
sides.
Thesis statements or claims avoid:

o the first person (I believe, In my opinion, etc.).
 o unclear language (It seems, etc.).
o attempting two topics at once (even if they seem related). Pick one and stick with
it.
o just stating a fact. A thesis is something you plan to make an argument about.
Example:

Claim Opposing Viewpoints

Starting later will allow more

sleep for
School should start later in
FOR students. Rested students are
the day
good
students.

Starting later will take away

AGAINST time from
after-school activities.

After determining your claim, write a Thesis Statement.

Step 1: TOPIC
State the topic under consideration: dogs.
Step 2: ISSUE
State the specific issue in the form of a debating proposition (for something). The issue
usually answers the question “what?” What about dogs?

o


 Dogs should be subject to leash laws.
 Dogs make great pets.
Step 3: Position + Rationale (because-clause)
Your topic and issue = your position
Now, using a because-clause.

o


 Dogs should be subject to leash laws because they are
natural wanderers.
Writing the Introduction
www.nova.edu
The introduction is the most general part of the paper. It helps provide a roadmap for
further discussion or analysis. This simplified formula offers components for a basic
introduction:

o Definition: Identify, define, and/or describe the topic, concept, or literary
theme. What will you be talking about?
o Relevance: Show the importance of your topic, concept or theme. How
does it relate to or impact society?
o Thesis: Copy the thesis statement you generated in the previous step.
Writing the Body of the Essay
www.nova.edu
The body of the essay is the most detailed part. It involves addressing each supporting
detail in a separate fully developed paragraph. Make sure to include the necessary
evidence from your research. It is imperative that each supporting detail be announced
or introduced within the text. This introduction is called a topic sentence and it is found
at the beginning of a paragraph. The topic sentence is a statement you make about the
supporting detail.
 
Counter Arguments
www.cusd80.com

There are two ways you can go with the counter-claim/rebuttal paragraph:
1. You can admit the other side has a point, but show how their logic is faulty.
Example: 
Many people believe the answer to texting while driving is to use hand’s free
devices. Admittedly, this is a feasible option and may be better than traditional hands-
on texting. However, the driver is still suffering from the cognitive distraction of
performing another task while driving.
2. You can shoot down the other side, and show how they are wrong.
Example:
Some may believe that texting while driving with hands free devices is the answer to a
ban on texting. However, it has been proven that it is not the actual process of texting
while driving that distracts the driver. It is the cognitive distraction, or the thinking
required in order to complete the task that distracts drivers.
Here is an example of counter-claim and rebuttal paragraph:
Some may believe that texting while driving with hands free devices is the answer to a
ban on texting. However, it has been proven that it is not the actual process of texting
while driving that distracts the driver. It is the cognitive distraction, or the thinking
required in order to complete the task that distracts drivers. The majority of drivers will
still be distracted no matter if they are using a hands free device or the traditional form
of texting. Therefore, the only answer to texting and driving problem is for states to
create laws completely banning texting while driving.
 
Writing the Conclusion
www.nova.edu

Conclusion brings the paper to a close. It should be similar to the introduction,

but worded differently. It allows you to reiterate and summarize the main points of the
essay.
The following components comprise a conclusion:

o
 Relevance: Repeat the importance of your topic.
 Review: Reiterate the points you discussed.
 Summary: Summarize your conclusions.
Other Considerations...
Audience and Author’s Purpose
www.readwritethink.org

When writing persuasively, always remember the interaction between the writer and the
reader. The writer is trying to persuade a reader who may be enthusiastic or resistant or
simply disinterested. Persuasive writing must be well organized, but it must also
hook the reader, and then keep him or her engaged with creative and authentic word
choice.
Persuasive Techniques
People aren’t always logical. Emotion can play a key role in decision- making.
That’s why writers and speakers use persuasive techniques, or methods that are
intended to sway people’s feelings and actions.

o

 Appeals by Association
 Emotional Appeals
 Loaded Appeals
Appeals by Association
Link an idea or a product to something or someone positive or influential

o
 Bandwagon Appeal - Taps into people’s desire to belong
  Testimonial - Uses celebrities or satisfied customers to persuade
 Transfer - Connects a product, a candidate, or a cause with a
positive image or idea
Emotional Appeals
Use strong feelings, rather than facts, to persuade

o
 Appeal to Pity - Taps into people’s compassion for others
 Appeal to Fear - Preys upon people’s fear for their safety
 Appeal to Vanity - Uses flattery to win people over
Loaded Language
Uses words with strongly positive or negative associations

o
 Words with Positive Associations - Call up favorable images,
feelings, or experiences
 Words with Negative Associations - May bring to mind unpleasant
images, feelings,
or experiences; often create a sense of distrust or unease
 
Persuasive Essay Sample # 1
Do dogs make perfect pets?
Cats or dogs are a much-debated topic, and most pet lovers and owners differ when
it comes to the question of the best pet. Dogs might be faithful, but cats make the
perfect pets. A cat snuggling to gain affection can be the best touch for any human.
The kneading behavior of the cat is considered the best form of display of the
bonding between the owner and the pet. The soft furry touch is soothing and can make
one feel wanted, loved, and cared. Cats are the best companions.
No worries about grooming a cat, one can save the visits to the grooming centers
for cats take care of themselves. They are one of the few rare species that are
particular about hygiene—no lice infections or litters. Cats are well behaved and use
the litter box. Thus they are worried about free pets.
A few exciting and intriguing toys for the pet is all that is required to keep it busy
and engaged. They can be alone for hours without chewing the rug or that odd
bathroom slipper. They don’t need chains and collars to keep them behaved. One can
be at peace even with the furry friend locked inside, alone.
A pet that snuggles up to you to be loved, grooms itself, uses the litter box
without supervision, and can be left alone for hours is no doubt the best pet one can
have.
 
Persuasive Essay Sample # 2
Why Should People Avoid Too Much Television?
Television, the most powerful tool of mass media, has entertained the world for
decades and is a trusted source of information and family entertainment. However,
excessive use of television in every household has earned it the notorious nickname of
‘The Idiot box.’ It cannot be denied that like all things, too much television affects our
lives adversely.
The twenty-four hours broadcast of programs, is one of the significant causes of
sleeplessness, in most adults in the age group of 40-50 years in the U.S. The habit of
switching on the television after a hard day’s work can be appealing. However, when it
takes up your essential sleep time, it causes serious lifestyle issues.
Most people who watch television for long hours are prone to health complications. 80%
of people who watch T.V. for more than 8 hours a day are obese, have high blood
pressure, and suffer from heart ailments. Lack of physical activity and exercise and
sitting for long hours in from of the T.V. sets are causes of these health complications.
Television is a powerful mass media tool that affects our daily lives. Too much
information and lack of adequate means of expression often make one anxious and
affect mental health. In a survey, 87% of respondents in the age group of 18-28 years
agreed that repeated telecasts of any T.V. news involving violence had affected their
mental and emotional health.
Television can be a source of knowledge and entertainment when used wisely. One
must avoid being a ‘couch potato’ with physical, mental, and emotional disorders sitting
in front of the ‘idiot box’ for long hours.