Submitted to: Dr.

Sajid Hameed

Submitted by:Arooj Fatima

Roll no : 02

Subject: Veterinary Epidemioloy and Public Health

Semester: 8TH

Introduction of epidemiology and public health

Epidemiology Define:

The word epidemiology comes from the Greek words epi, meaning on or upon, demos, meaning
people, and logos, meaning the study of.

“Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events
in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems.”

Study:

 Epidemiology is often described as the basic science of public health, and for good
reason. First, epidemiology is a quantitative discipline that relies on a working knowledge
of probability, statistics, and sound research methods. Second, epidemiology is a method
of causal reasoning based on developing and testing hypotheses grounded in such
scientific fields as biology, behavioral sciences, physics, and ergonomics to explain
health-related behaviors, states, and events.

Objective:

There are five objectives of epidemiology:

1. Determination of the origin of a disease whose cause is known.

2. Investigation and control of a disease whose cause is either unknown or poorly understood.

3. Acquisition of information on the ecology and natural history of a disease.

4. Planning, monitoring and assessment of disease control programmes.

5. Assessment of the economic effects of a disease, and analysis of the costs and economic
benefits of alternative control programmes.

Components of epidemiology :
The first stage in any investigation is the collection of relevant data. Investigations can be either
qualitative or quantitative or a combination of these two approaches.

A)Qualitative investigations :

 The natural history of disease

The ecology of diseases, including the distribution, mode of transmission and
maintenance of infectious diseases, is investigated by field observation.
 Causal hypothesis testing If field observations suggest that certain factors may
be causally associated with a disease, then the association must be assessed by
formulating a causal hypothesis .

B)Quantitative investigations :

Quantitative investigations involve measurement and include surveys, monitoring and

surveillance, studies, modelling, and the biological and economic evaluation of disease control.
Types of epidemiological investigation :

There are four approaches to epidemiological investigation that traditionally have been called
'types' of epidemiology. These types are descriptive, analytical, experimental and theoretical
epidemiology.

1)Descriptive epidemiology:

Descriptive epidemiology involves observing and recording diseases and possible causal factors.
It is usually the first part of an investigation.

 For example,Darwin's theory of evolution was derived mainly from subjective

observations, but with slight modification it has withstood rigorous testing by
plant and animal scientists.

2)Analytical epidemiology :

Analytical epidemiology is the analysis of observations using suitable diagnostic and statistical
procedures

3)Experimental epidemiology:

Experimental epidemiologists observe and analyze data from groups of animals from which they
can select, and in which they can alter, the factors associated with the groups.

 The effects of varying the rate of exposure of mice maintained in groups of

various sizes provided insights into the behavior of human epidemic diseases such
as measles, scarlet fever, whooping cough and diphtheria, which followed similar
patterns to the experimental infections

4)Theoretical epidemiology:

Theoretical epidemiology consists of the representation of disease using mathematical 'models'

that attempt to simulate natural patterns of disease occurrence

Epidemiological subdisciplines:

Various epidemiological subdisciplines are now recognized. These generally reflect different
areas of interest.

1)Clinical epidemiology:

Clinical epidemiology is the use of epidemiological principles, methods and findings in the care
of individuals, with particular reference to diagnosis and prognosis and therefore brings a
numerate approach to traditional clinical medicine, which has tended to be anecdotal and
subjective.

2)Computational epidemiology :

Computational epidemiology involves the application of computer science to epidemiological

studies.

 These systems are commonly applied to disease diagnosis where they incorporate
a set of rules for solving problems, details of clinical signs, lesions, laboratory
results, and the opinions of experts; examples are identification of the cause of
coughing in dogs and the diagnosis of bovine mastitis.

3)Genetic epidemiology:

Genetic epidemiology is the study of the cause, distribution and control of disease in related
individuals, and of inherited defects in populations.

 The geneticist and epidemiologist are both concerned with interactions between
genetic and non-genetic factors only the frequently indistinct time of interaction
may be used to classify an investigation as genetic or epidemiological

4)Field epidemiology :

Field epidemiology is the practice of epidemiology in response to problems of a magnitude

significant enough to require a rapid or immediate action .

 For example, when outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease occur, field

epidemiologists promptly trace potential sources of infection in an attempt to limit
spread of the disease

5)Molecular epidemiology :

New biochemical techniques now enable microbiologists and molecular biologists to study small
genetic and antigenic differences between viruses and other microorganisms at a higher level of
discrimination than has been possible using conventional serological techniques.

 For example, nucleotide sequencing of European foot-and-mouth disease virus

has indicated that some outbreaks of the disease involved vaccinal strains,
suggesting that improper inactivation or escape of virus from vaccine production
plants may have been responsible for the outbreaks

Public health and Epidemiology:

Public health, broadly speaking, refers to collective actions to improve population health.
Epidemiology one of the tools for improving public health, is used in several Ways. Early
studies in epidemiology were concerned with the causes of communicable diseases, and such
work continues to be essential since. It can lead to the identification of preventive methods. In
this sense, epidemiology is a basic medical science with the goal of improving the health of
populations, and especially the health of the disadvantaged.

1)Causation of disease.

Although some diseases are caused solely by genetic factors, most result from an interaction
between genetic and environmental factors.

 For example ,Diabetes has both genetic and environmental components. We

define environment broadly to include any biological, chemical, physical,
psychological, economic or cultural factors that can affect health.

2)Natural history of disease

Epidemiology is also concerned with the course and outcome (natural history) of diseases in
individuals and groups.

3)Health status of populations

Epidemiology is often used to describe the health status of population groups knowledge of the
disease burden in populations is essential for health authorities, who seek to use limited
resources to the best possible effect by identifying priority health programmes for prevention and
care. In some specialist areas, such as environmental and occupational epidemiology, the
emphasis is on studies of populations with particular types of environmental exposure.

An intensive campaign to eliminate smallpox was coordinated over many years the World
Health Organization (WHO). An understanding of the epidemiology of smallpox was central to
its eradication, in particular by:

• providing information about the distribution of cases and the model,

mechanisms and levels of transmission;
• mapping outbreaks of the disease;
• evaluating control measures

4)Evaluating interventions

Epidemiologists evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of health services .This means
determining things such as the appropriate length of stay in hospital for specific conditions, the
value of treating high blood pressure, the efficiency of sanitation measures to control diarrheal
diseases.