Anaerobic organism

An anaerobic organism or anaerobe is any organism that does not require molecular
oxygen for growth. It may react negatively or even die if free oxygen is present. In
contrast, an aerobic organism (aerobe) is an organism that requires an oxygenated
environment. Anaerobes may be unicellular (e.g. protozoans,[1] bacteria[2]) or
multicellular.[3] Most fungi are obligate aerobes, requiring oxygen to survive.
However, some species, such as the Chytridiomycota that reside in the rumen of cattle,
are obligate anaerobes; for these species, anaerobic respiration is used because oxygen
will disrupt their metabolism or kill them. Deep waters of the ocean are a common Spinoloricus
anoxic environment. [3] nov. sp., a
metazoan that
metabolises

Contents with hydrogen,

lacking
First observation mitochondria
and instead
Classification
using
Energy metabolism hydrogenosomes.
Fermentation
Culturing anaerobes
Multicellularity
References

First observation
In his letter of 14 June 1680 to The Royal Society, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek described an experiment he
carried out by filling two identical glass tubes about halfway with crushed pepper powder, to which some
clean rain water was added. Van Leeuwenhoek sealed one of the glass tubes using a flame and left the
other glass tube open. Several days later, he discovered in the open glass tube 'a great many very little
animalcules, of divers sort having its own particular motion.' Not expecting to see any life in the sealed
glass tube, Van Leeuwenhoek saw to his surprise 'a kind of living animalcules that were round and bigger
than the biggest sort that I have said were in the other water.' The conditions in the sealed tube had become
quite anaerobic due to consumption of oxygen by aerobic microorganisms.[4]

In 1913 Martinus Beijerinck repeated Van Leeuwenhoek's experiment and identified Clostridium
butyricum as a prominent anaerobic bacterium in the sealed pepper infusion tube liquid. Beijerinck
commented:

We thus come to the remarkable conclusion that, beyond doubt, Van Leeuwenhoek in his
experiment with the fully closed tube had cultivated and seen genuine anaerobic bacteria,
which would happen again only after 200 years, namely about 1862 by Pasteur. That
Leeuwenhoek, one hundred years before the discovery of oxygen and the composition of air,
was not aware of the meaning of his observations is understandable. But the fact that in the
 closed tube he observed an increased gas pressure caused by fermentative bacteria and in
addition saw the bacteria, prove in any case that he not only was a good observer, but also was
able to design an experiment from which a conclusion could be drawn.[4]
Classification
For practical purposes, there are three categories of
anaerobe:
Obligate anaerobes, which are harmed by
the presence of oxygen.[5][6] Two examples
of obligate anaerobes are Clostridium
botulinum and the bacteria which live near
hydrothermal vents on the deep-sea ocean
floor.
Aerotolerant organisms, which cannot use
oxygen for growth, but tolerate its
presence.[7]
Facultative anaerobes, which can grow
without oxygen but use oxygen if it is
present.[7]
However, this classification has been questioned after
recent research showed that human "obligate
anaerobes" (such as Finegoldia magna or the
methanogenic archaea Methanobrevibacter smithii)
can be grown in aerobic atmosphere if the culture
medium is supplemented with antioxidants such as
ascorbic acid, glutathione and uric acid.[8][9][10][11]
Energy metabolism
Some obligate anaerobes use fermentation, while
others use anaerobic respiration.[12] Aerotolerant
organisms are strictly fermentative.[13] In the presence
of oxygen, facultative anaerobes use aerobic
respiration.[7] In the absence of oxygen, some
facultative anaerobes use fermentation, while others
may use anaerobic respiration.[7]
Fermentation
There are many anaerobic fermentative reactions.
Fermentative anaerobic organisms typically use the
lactic acid fermentation pathway:
C6 H12 O6 + 2 ADP + 2 phosphate → 2 lactic
acid + 2 ATP + 2 H2 O
Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria can be
differentiated by culturing them in test tubes of
thioglycollate broth:
1. Obligate aerobes need oxygen
because they cannot ferment or
respire anaerobically. They gather at
the top of the tube where the oxygen
concentration is highest.
2. Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by
oxygen, so they gather at the bottom of
the tube where the oxygen
concentration is lowest.
3. Facultative anaerobes can grow with
or without oxygen because they can
metabolize energy aerobically or
anaerobically. They gather mostly at
the top because aerobic respiration
generates more adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) than either
fermentation or anaerobic respiration.
4. Microaerophiles need oxygen
because they cannot ferment or
respire anaerobically. However, they
are poisoned by high concentrations of
oxygen. They gather in the upper part
of the test tube but not the very top.
5. Aerotolerant organisms do not require
oxygen as they metabolize energy
anaerobically. Unlike obligate
anaerobes, however, they are not
poisoned by oxygen. They can/will be
evenly distributed throughout the test
tube.
The energy released in this reaction (without ADP and phosphate) is approximately 150 kJ per mol, which
is conserved in generating two ATP from ADP per glucose. This is only 5% of the energy per sugar
molecule that the typical aerobic reaction generates.

Plants and fungi (e.g., yeasts) in general use alcohol (ethanol) fermentation when oxygen becomes limiting:

C6 H12 O6 (glucose) + 2 ADP + 2 phosphate → 2 C2 H5 OH + 2 CO2 ↑ + 2 ATP + 2 H2 O

The energy released is about 180 kJ per mol, which is conserved in generating two ATP from ADP per
glucose.

Anaerobic bacteria and archaea use these and many other fermentative pathways, e.g., propionic acid
fermentation, butyric acid fermentation, solvent fermentation, mixed acid fermentation, butanediol
fermentation, Stickland fermentation, acetogenesis, or methanogenesis.

Culturing anaerobes
Since normal microbial culturing occurs in atmospheric air, which contains molecular oxygen, culturing of
anaerobes requires special techniques. A number of techniques are employed by microbiologists when
culturing anaerobic organisms, for example, handling the bacteria in a glovebox filled with nitrogen or the
use of other specially sealed containers, or techniques such as injection of the bacteria into a dicot plant,
which is an environment with limited oxygen. The GasPak System is an isolated container that achieves an
anaerobic environment by the reaction of water with sodium borohydride and sodium bicarbonate tablets to
produce hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide. Hydrogen then reacts with oxygen gas on a palladium catalyst
to produce more water, thereby removing oxygen gas. The issue with the GasPak method is that an adverse
reaction can take place where the bacteria may die, which is why a thioglycollate medium should be used.
The thioglycollate supplies a medium mimicking that of a dicot plant, thus providing not only an anaerobic
environment but all the nutrients needed for the bacteria to multiply.[14]

Recently, a French team evidenced a link between redox and gut anaerobes [15] based on clinical studies of
severe acute malnutrition.[16] These findings led to the development of aerobic culture of "anaerobes" by
the addition of antioxidants in the culture medium.[17]

Multicellularity
Few multicellular life forms are anaerobic, since only aerobic respiration can provide enough energy for a
complex metabolism. Exceptions include three species of Loricifera (< 1 mm in size) and the 10-cell
Henneguya zschokkei.[18]

In 2010 three species of anaerobic loricifera were discovered in the hypersaline anoxic L'Atalante basin at
the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea. They lack mitochondria which contain the oxidative phosphorylation
pathway, which in all other animals combines oxygen with glucose to produce metabolic energy, and thus
they consume no oxygen. Instead these loricifera derive their energy from hydrogen using
hydrogenosomes.[19][3]

References
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