ModernCarpentryandJoinery 10006722

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A a n ( A i ?!
C O P YR I G H T 1 906
B Y
R E D E RI C K J D RA K E
F . CO .
C H I CA G O I L L
, .
C O P Y R I G HT 19 1 0
B Y
R E D E R I C K J D RA K E
F . CO .
C HI CA GO I L L
, .
P R E FA C E
In a p revious —
vo lu m e M o dern —
C arpentry I m ade
r
a fairl y su c c essful a tt e m p t to put to g e th e a series o f
plain a n simple exa m ples of working pro ble m s and
d .
their s o luti on suited to the c ap acity o f all o rdinary

me c hani c s and owin g to t h e fact that m any th o usands
,
of th at volu m e have found their way int o the hands of

c arp enters and j o iners in the United S tates Me xic o ,
a n d C anada and t o the other fact that the auth or as

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well a s the p u blish ers h a v e eceived hundreds o f l et

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ters askin g for s o m ething m ore on the sa m e lines of a ,
hi gher grade it has been d etermined to m ak e another

r “
,
o m ore v o lume s on the sam e s u b j ect henc e

, , M odern
Carp entry and Joinery advanced c o urse .
I n the p resent work I h a ve drawn larg ely fro m a c

knowled g ed a u thorities and fro m workm en of rec o g
n iz e d ab ility to which h ave b een added the res u lts o f
my o wn exp erienc e and observation and my knowledge

of the kink s a n d secrets o f the wo o dworking trades .
r
I n a work o f thi s kind the reader m u st expect to find
So methin g he h as me t in othe p laces and perhap s in
,
other adap tati o ns b u t I th ink that u p on c areful anal

r
,
ys is h e will find th e p esentati o n o f the c ase s somewh at

improved , and rendered in a m ore sim p le and u nder
s t a n d a b l e m anner The selections to o I think will b e
mr rr
.
, ,
fo und m ore suitable and o e a pp op ia te to the p res

ent d ay p ractic e than m ost o f the m atter fo und in e r
r
-
c ent technic a l literat ure on the s u b j e ct At any ate

.
,
3
4 PREFAC E
it h as b een my endeav or in t h e f o r m ati on o f the present
v o lu m e t o plac e in a h andy f o rm instru c tive ex a mp l es
,
of t h e b etter cla s s o f work o f t h e c arpenters and

“ ”
j oiners ’
Art .
is n o t intended t o repe at W h at h as alre ady b een

It
pub lis h ed in t h e first v o lume o f M o dern Carp entry um
r
,
less s u ch repetition wi l l b e ne c essary t o explain o

f o rmu l ate s o me simi l ar matter .
Y o ung m e n are apt t o t h ink t h at b e c ause t h ey h ave

a fair kn o wled ge o f t h eir trades t h ey kn o w a l l t h at is
,
require d and if t h ey peruse the first volu m e of this

work a n d h ave mastered its c o ntents t h ey h ave
, ,
re ached t h e li mit T h is o f c o urse is a gre at m istake as

.
, , ,
will readi ly b e discovere d by a gl an c e o ver t h e matter

of th e present v o lume and I c an say ri g h t h ere and
, ,
now t h at even t h e present v o lu m e d o es n o t by any

r
,
mean s c o ver t h e w h o le subj e c t f o at le ast a h a l f d ozen

, ,
o ther vol um e s c ould b e written with out touchin g on
the other t wo a l re ady in t h e m arket and the s u bj ec t ,
wo u ld no t nearly b e exhausted .
It is not n ecessary for me t o quote the a ut horitie s

from wh o m I h ave drawn unless t h e matter is o f such
,
importanc e a s t o de m and spe cia l re c o gnition I may .
s a y however t h at in very few b ooks wri t ten durin g

, ,
th e last 25 ye ars o n t h e subj e c t of c arpentry t h ere h a s ,
b een but very litt l e presented t h at h ad n o t b een pub

r
l is h e d b ef o re in s om e f o r m o ot h er but t h e d e s c ip ,
r
tions gene ra l ly in m o st c ases— n o t in a ll— h ave b een
r
,
i mpr o ved m o re o l ess ; and t h e present b o o k does not

di ff er a gre at deal fr o m m ost ot h ers t h a t h a ve pre
ceded it o nly t ha t it is m o re up t o d a te and more
,
- -
s u ited t o 20th c ent u ry re quirem e n t s .

PRE FAC E 5
It r
m u st a lso b e u nde st o o d that while t h is b o o k
,
goe s out t o th e p u b lic under my n am e as auth o r I d o

r
,
n ot c l aim a utho rs h ip f o re ally it is mor e o f a c o m

, ,
p il a t ion th a n a n ori ginal work b ut I do clai m t ha t t h e

, ,
sele ctions a nd c o mpilat ions m a de a re b etter and more

suited t o th e w ants of the present day workman t h an
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c an b e found in a n y other simila work pu b lis h ed in

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this o any other c ou ntry
F RE D T H O D G S O N
.
,
E dit or a nd Compile r .
C ollin gw o od
,
P R E FA C E T O S E C O N D E D ITI O N .
M OD E RN CARP E NT R Y .
(A D V A N C E D S E RIE S .
)
VO L . 11 .
A p ref a ce is introduction o
an f oreword to a r
r
new book o a new disco u rse but in this c a se it is a
r
, ,
second introdu ction to a well known bo ok which h a s e -
ce n t ly h a d very im p ortant im p rovements a nd a nnexe s
added to the original work ; a n d the au thor finds it d iffi

cult to say mu ch of the main work other th a n wa s sai d
in the p reface sent ou t in the fi rst edition of thi s vol u me ; .
and the recent a dditi ons are hardly bulky eno u gh to
r
warr a nt a len g thy introduction as they may be t aken ,
as being in the s a me class a s the gene al contents o f

the work which is good p r a ctical instr u ctive up t o date
r
- -
, , , ,
and equal if n ot s u perior t o anything of the kind ofi e e d

, ,
to American workmen The most reliable indication of

.
l
the merits of a book of this kind is the o p inio n s of t h e

r
,
practic a l men who b uy s u ch books f o p ro fi t a ble u se ;

and the thousands o f fl atteri n g letters that h ave been
received by the a uthor and publishers these few years
bear the stronges t testimony of the sterling v al u e of t h e
first edition To give extracts from th es e l etters would
r
.
take up as m u ch space a s the contents of the vol u me e

quires s 0 th a t cannot be attem p ted and may n ot be
'
r
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neces sa y b u t I m ay be p a rdoned for off ering a few

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7
8 PR E FA C E
wh ich may p erh ap s p rove as effective a s a thou sand

would
I a m wel l pleased wit h your book V ol 2 ,

M odern.
,
Carpentry I t is t h e best thing

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’
I ever saw o f t h e kind ,
and h as h e l ped me wonderfu ll y . L O UI S D UP REY Win ,
n ip e g M an
, .
We five of yo u r books in ou Trade Tea ch ing De r

r
us e
p a t me n t an d find M odern C ar pentry t h e most u seful

‘ ’
,
we h ave We m a ke it a text b ook

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”
R E V J B G A U TH EI R -
. . . .
,
I bervill e College I bervi l le Quebec , ,

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‘
M odern C arpentryse c ond volu me arrived some ,
’
,
time a go and I found in it just wh at I w a nted and thi s

, ,
J O H N WIL K S
”
repays me more than ten fol d the cos t .
,
M inneapol is M inn ,
.
You r book M odern Car p entry second vol ume i s

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a dandy I h ave got a l ot of good t h ings out of it I

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wou l d n ot take f o it if I could not buy anot h er .
Good l u ck to y ou J A M E S E WEE K S S a n Francisco C al

. .
, , .
As before st a ted I could fill a volume with si mil a r ex

,
tracts b ut my modes ty forb ids me from giving more un

,
asked .
This is my p reface to thi s second vol u me of the new

“ ” “
edition o f M odern Car p entry I t is like a Donkey s .
’
” “ ”
Gallo p short and sweet but somewhat wobb ly
, ,
.
F RE D T HO DG S O N . .
Collingwood O n t ,
.
PA R T I .
S O L ID G EO M ETRY .
I NTR O D UCTO R Y .
In the first volu m e o f M odern C arp entry I gave a

short treatise on p lain o r C arpente s Geometry r
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,
which I trust the student h as m astered and t h us pre ,
p a red h imself for a h ighe r grad e in t h e s ame s c ience

r
,
namely S olid Ge ome t y : a nd t o this end the f o llow

,
!
in g t reatise h as b een sele ct ed as b ein g t h e most si mp l e

,
and the most t h oro u gh a vailab le .
S olid geometry i s t h at branc h of geometry w h i c h

r
Lt e a t s of soli d s obj ects of thre e d imensi ons
(len gth b re a dth a nd thickness )
,
. By means of s o lid
geo m etry t h ese obj e c ts c an b e represented o n a plane
s urfac ,
e such a s a s h eet o f p aper in suc
,
h a m anner
that th e di m ensions o f t h e o bj e ct c an b e ac curately
m e asure d from the drawin g by me ans of a rule o r
“ ”
scale T h e geo m e tri cal drawing s supp l ied by t h e
r r
.
ar c h ite ct o engine er f o t h e buil der s use are wit h ’

,
few ex cepti o ns probl em s in s o lid ge om etry and t h ere

, ,
fore a c ert ain amo un t o f know l ed ge o f t h e subj e ct is

indispensab le n ot only t o t h e drau g ht s m an wh o pre
rr
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p ares t h e drawin gs b ut als o to the builde o work

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m an who h a s t o int erpret t h em .
As th e ge o metrical re p resent a tions of ob j ects c on

sist entirely o f lines and p oints it follows that if p o
,
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j e c t io n s of line s a nd p o ints c an b e a c curately dr a wn
,
9
10 M OD E RN CARP E N TRY
t h e represent a ti o n o f o bj e c ts wi l l present n o furth er
di ffi culty A study o f l in es and p o ints however is
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s o mew ha t c onfusin g un l es s t h e t h e o ry o f pr o jecti on

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h as first b ee n grasp ed and f o t h is re as o n t h e sub

,
j e c t wi l l b e intr o duc ed by a si mp l e c on c rete exa mp l e ,
r r
Ve tica l P
j o ec t r
mn s (o Ele v a t ion s ) a nd r
Ob lon g Ro o m
r
Ho izo n ta l R e j e c tion (o Plan ) of a
Ta bl e in th e M id dl e of a n
F ig . 1 .
su ch as a t ab le st a ndin g in t h e middle o f a oom The

, r .
fo ur l e gs rest on t h e fl o o r at A B C and D (Fi g

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a nd the p erpendiculars let fa l l from the c o rners of
th e table top t o me et t h e floor at E F G and H The

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“
o b l o ng E F G H represent s t h e h ori z o nt al proj ecti o n
or “
p l an o f t h e tab l e top ; t h e s mall squ ares at A
-
,
S O LI D G E O M E TRY 11
B C and D represent th e plan o f the f o ur le gs and

, , ,
th e l ines c o rrectin g them represent the plan o f th e

frame work under th e t op T h e l arge o b l o n g J K L M .
is a p l a n of the ro om .
Th e p lan or horizontal proj ect ion of a n obj e c t is

ther efore a representation o f its h o riz o ntal dimensi o ns
—in other words it is t he ,
appearanc e w h ich an o bj e ct
presents when every p oint in it is viewed fr o m a p o si
r
tion ve tic ally ab ove th at p o int
r r
.
In a similar m anner an elevati on o vertical p oj e c

tion of an o bj e ct is a representation o f its vertic al di
me n s ion s and also it s h o uld b e added o f some o f it s
h o rizontal dimensions —
, , ,
i e it is th e appe aran ce which

,
. .
,
a n obj e ct presents w h en every p o int in it is view ed

from a p ositi o n exa ctly l evel with t h at po int a l l the ,
line s of si gh t b ein g p aral l e l b ot h horizont al l y and ver

r
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tic ally Th u s t h e fr ont elevation o f t h e tab le (o th e

.
,
verti c al p roj ection of t h e S ide G H ) will b e as s h o wn at

G H C D and t h e v e t ica l proj ection o f t h e side J K
’ ’ ’ ’
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of the ro om will b e J K J K The vertic al proj e ction .
”
of the end o f E G of the t ab le will b e as shown E
G A C and of th e end K M o f th e room wil l b e
” ” ” '
K M K M ; th e dr a win g must b e turn ed until the l in e

K M is horizontal f o t h ese and proj ections to b e
,
r
p ro p erly seen .
By ap plying the scale to th e p l a n we find that th e ,
len gt h of t h e tab le t o p is six and a h a l f feet t h e

-
bre adth 4 fe et and t h e distanc e o f t h e t ab le fro m ea c h

r
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w a ll 4 % feet From th e f on t e l e v a t ion we c an le arn

.
the h ei ght of the tab le and a l so give its len gth a nd dis
r
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t anc e f om the end walls o f t h e ro o m Fro m t h e e n d .
e l e v a t ion we c a n ascertain the b readth of t h e t a b le and

12 M OD E RN C A RP E N TRY
its distan c e fr o m t h e sides o f t h e r o o m as well as its ,
heig h t .
To m ake t h e drawing clearer let u s ima gine t h at ,
t h e wal l s o f t h e roo m are of w o o d and h in ged at t h e

level o f t h e fl o o r O n t h e wall J K draw t h e fr o nt ele
.
vati o n of t h e tab le and t h en turn t h e wa l l b ack on its

hin ge s until it is h ori z onta l — i e in t h e sa m e plane
as t h e fl o o r Pr o c eed in a si m ilar m
. .
, ,
anner wit h th e end

—
.
K M and w e get t h e t h re e proj e c t i o ns o f t h e ro o m and

,
t ab l e on o n e plane as s h o wn in t h e dia gra m To avoid

,
.
c onfusi o n t h e end e l ev a ti o n will n o t b e furt h er c on

r
s id e e d at t h e present .
It wi l l b e seen t h at t h e line J K represents the an gle

formed by t h e w al l and flo o r — in ot h er w o rds it e p e , ,
rr
sents t h e interse c ti o n of t h e verti c al and h o rizo ntal
“ ” “
p l anes o f pr o j ection it is known as t h e line of in
r r
,
” “ ”
t e s e c t ion o t h e gr o und lin e I f a line is let fall
r
, .
f o m G p erpendicu l ar t o J K t h e t w o lines wi l l m eet

’
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at G and t h ey will b e in t h e sa m e strai g h t line S i mi l

r
.
,
ar ly t h e pe pendiculars H h and h H are in t h e same

,
’
strai g h t line L ine s o f t h is kind p erp endicular t o t h e

.
“ ”
p lanes of pr o j ecti ons are kn o wn a s pr oj e ctors and
r
are eit h er h orizontal o verti c al G g and H h are ver ' ’
ti c al proj e c t o rs ; G g C c D d a nd H h are h o rizontal

, , ,
pr o j e ctors .
V erti c al proj ectors are n o t always paralle l t o on e of

t h e S ides o f t h e o b j e c t represented o if paralle l t o ,
r
,
o n e side are not p aralle l to ot h er sides w h i c h must

r
,
b e r epresent ed ; t h us a verti c a l proj ect o r o

,
eleva
”
tion o f an o cta gona l obj ect if p ara ll el t o o n e of the ,
sides o f t h e o ctagon must b e o b l ique to t h e two adj a

,
c ent sides I n Fi g 2 an o cta gonal tab le is sh own T h e

. . .
S O LI D GE O M EiTRY 13
plan m u st first b e drawn an d fr o m the p rinc ip al

r
,
p o ints o f th e plan p roj e c t ors must b e drawn p e p e n

d ic u l a r
to t h e verti c al plane o f the pr o j e ction u ntil
.
they cut th e ground l in e a n d from t h is p erpendi c ulars ,

'
must b e e rected to th e hei ght o f the sever al p arts o f
t.
O l
E!
.
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I l I l l t
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se.
oL u " u
( Pla n a nd El e v a tion of a n Octa gon a l Ta ble

F ig . 2 .
th e t a b le . The elevation c an then b e c omplete d with

o u t d iffi c ul t y . T h e S id e B C o f t h e t ab l e is p arallel
t o the vertic a l plane of proj e c tion but t h e adj acent ,
sides A B and C D are

A d is t in ction mu s t b e ma d e b e t we e n p e rp e n d ic ul a r
T h e f orme r m e a n s in g e o m e t ry a l in e o r
*
a n d
v e rtic a l
r ig h t a n g l e s t o a n o t h e r li n e o r pl a n e wh e t h e r t h e s e a r
pla n e a t
.
, ,
e h or i
v e rt ic a l o r in c l in e d ; wh e r e a s a ve r tica l l in e o r
,
z on t a l
is a l wa y s a t r ig h t a n g l e s t o a h o r izo n ta l l in e o r
pl a n e
-
,
S p ir it l e v e l g iv e s t h e h or iz on ta l l in e or
pl a n e
r
Th e .
pl a n e t h e pl umb ul e
- -
g ive s t h e ve rt ica l .
14 M OD E RN CAR P E N TRY
2 . P O I N TS , L I NE S A ND , PL A N E S .
I To d e t e r
mi th e p os ition d l en gt h of a giv e n
r r r
. ne an
a igh t l in e , pa a ll l p l an e s of th e p o
'
st e to on e of th e !
j e ct ion .
L et(Fi g 3 ) b e the given straig h t line To de

GH
r
. .
t er m ine its positi o n (i e in re gard to h o iz on t a l a n d '
r
.
,
v erti cal planes ) it is o n l y necessa y t o deter mine the

,
p os ition of any two o f t h e extreme p o ints .
0 a e 9 r a in .
r V ie w No a r r
G e ome t ica l P j o e c tions
r
N o 1 Pe s pec tive
Ve r
. . . .
H o iz on ta l a nd t ic a l
F ig . 3 .
L A B C D b e a vertical plane p arallel t o t h e given

et
line and C D E F a h oriz o ntal plane T h e verti c al pro

,
.
j e c t ion or elevatio n o f t h e line is represented by t h e

line h g and t h e h orizon tal proj ection o plan by t h e
,
r
p oint g t h e vario u s proj ect ions b ei ng s h own by dotted
’
,
lines The g iven line i s p roved to b e vertic a l b ec ause

.
,
S O LI D G E O M E TR Y 15
its horizont a l proj ecti o n is a p o int ; its l engt h as me a s

r
u e d by the sc ale is 6 inc h es ; its h ei g h t (g g ) ab o ve
,
"
the line of interse ction C D is 4 inc h es ; and its hori

”
z on t a l distanc e (g g ) from t h e sam e lin e i s 8 inc h es
’
.
I f th e ill u str a tions a re turned so t h at C D E F b e

r
c ome a ve t ic al plane and A B C D th e h oriz o ntal plan e
,
then G H will b e ho ri zontal line b e c ause o n e of its

r
,
verti c al p ro j ecti o ns is a p oint O ther vert ical p o j e c .
tion s of th e line c an b e m a de a s fo r ex ample a sid e -
elev a tion —in which t h e proj e ct ion w ill app ear as a

, , ,
lin e a n d n o t a p o int b ut a line must b e horizontal if

,
a ny vertic al p roj ection of it is a p o int .
o a t. 9 m in .
M b !
I . No 2
. 0
E
r r r r
.
-
No 1 Pe s pective V ie w
. . . No 2. V e t ica l
. a nd Ho izo n ta l B oj ec tiona
F ig . 4 .
L et th e given line G H (Fi g 4 ) b e pa rallel to th e .
vertic a l p lane b u t inclined t o th e h orizontal p l ane

r
.
,
T h en g h will b e a ve t ic al p roj ecti on and g h it s ’ ’
r
,
horizont a l p ro j ection o p lan By pro d u c in g h g till it .
cuts C D a t c it will b e fo u nd th a t the given line is

,
in clined a t a n a n gle of 60 t o the horizontal p l ane ; °
it s len g th , a s me a s u r e d by th e s ca l e a l on g the vert ic al

proj ection g h is 8 inc h es ; the hei ght o f G ab ove th e

r
,
h o riz ontal plane (measu ed at g g is 3 inches a nd ,

”
t h e h ei g h t o f H (me as u red at h h ) is 9% in c h es
r r
.
II To d e t e min e t h e l e n g t h of a giv e n s t aig h t lin e

r
. . .
wh ich is obli qu e t o b oth pl an es of p oj ec tion .
9 ‘2 in .
F ig . 5 .
L a b (Fig 5 ) b e t h e horizont a l p roj ection a nd

et .
a b the given vertic al proj e c tion of t h e given lin e

’ ’
.
Draw t h e p roj ect i o n A B on a plane para l lel t o a b in

the m anne r s h o wn From t h i s proj e c tion t h e length
‘
o f the given line wi l l b e f o und (by apply in g th e s c ale )
to b e 1 0 inc h es T h e he ig h t C B is o f co u rse eq u al to
.
the h ei g h t c b and t h e h o riz o ntal me a sure m ent A C

’ ’
,
is e q u a l t o the hori z ont a l p ro j ection a b a nd the an g l e,

of A B the s o lution of th e pr ob lem i s o btained b y p ro

,
d u c in g t h ese l ines t o meet t h e c om m on interse cti o n of

t h e plane s in f and e and on these p o ints raisin g the ,
p erpendiculars f c and e d meetin g a b produced in c ,
and a b produc ed in d ; c a nd d are the p o ints

’ ’
s ou g h t *
r r
.
I V . If t wo lin e s in te s e c t e a ch oth e in s p a c e t o
r r r
,
fi n d f om t h e i g iv e n p o j e ct ion s t h e a n g l es whi ch
t h e y ma k e with e a ch oth e r .
L e t a b c d and a b c d (Fi g 7 ) b e t h e proj e ctions

’ ’ ’ ’
r
.
, ,
o f t h e line s Draw t h e pr o j ect o rs e f f e p e pe n ’ ’ ' ’
r
.
,
t o t h e line of interse cti o n a c and p roduc e ’

d ic ul a
’
,
”
it indefinitely toward s E ; from e draw indefinite l y
e E p erp endi cular to the line e f and m ake e E
’ ’
,
equal t o f e a nd draw f E
"
Fro m f a s a centre ’
r
.
,
” ”
d escrib e t h e a e E g E meeting e f produced in E ,
”
and j oin a E The angl e a E c is t h e an gle
s o ugh t T h is p rob lem is litt l e m o re t h an a develop
.
ment of prob lem I I I f we c o nsider e f e f as the .

,
’ ’
,
h o rizont al and vertic al pr o j e ctions o f an i m aginary

line lying i n t h e same plane as a e and c c we find ,
the len gth of this line by prob lem I I t o b e f E ; in ’
other words f E is t h e true a l titude o f t h e trian gle ’
a e c a e c ,
Construct a triangle on t h e b ase a e
’ ' ’
.
with an altitude f E e q u al to f E a n d t h e pr o b l em is ' ’

,
so lved The practic al application of t h is prob lem will

.
Th e p o in t s d a n d c a e k n o wn r
e s p e c t iv e l y a s th e r v rt
r
*
ica l
r
e
”
r
t a c e s o f t h e l i n e A B , t h e t a c e , o f a s t a ig h t r
r
a n d h o iz o n ta l
l in e on a p l a n e b e in g t h e p o in t in wh ic h t h e s t a ig h t l in e ,
r r r r
p o d uce d if n e c e s s a y , me e t s o in t e s e c t s th e p l a n e r
rr r
A ho i .
tr
r r
z o n t a l l i n e c a n n o t t h e e f o e h a v e a h o iz o n t a l
r
a c e , a s it c a n
n o t p os s ib l y , e v e n if p o d u c e d , me e t o r
r r r
in t e s e c t t h e h o iz on t a l
p l a n e ; f o a S i mil a e a s on , a e r v rt
ic a l l in e ca n n o t h a v e a v e
t ica l a cetr .
b e understo od if we ima gin e a e c t o b e t h e p l a n and

a e c t h e e levati on of a h ipped r o o f f E gives u s the
’ ’ ’ ’
”
r
len gth and slop e o f t h e l o ngest c omm o n r after o spar ,
an d E c is a true repre sentat i o n o f th e wh ole h ip i ,

.
e. on a plane p aralle l to the slop e o f th e to p

, . I t will
Fig . 7 .
b e observ ed th a t the two p roj e cti ons (e a nd e ) of

'
p oint o f interse cti on of th e two line s are in a ri g h t

l ine per p endic u lar t o the line of interse ction o f the
p l a nes of p r o j ection Henc e t his c o ro llary —Th e p o
. r
p oi n t of in te rtio n s of
two lin es wh ich
r
j ection s of th e
r r r
sec
a ch othe in s pa ce a e in th e s a me ig h t l i n e pe
r
out e
r
.
pe n dicul a to th e commo n in t e s e cti on of th e p l a n es

of p r oj e ction . Th is is furthe r illustr a ted by t h e next
problem .
4 ,
izon t a l Pr
tica l an d Hor
Ver oj e ctions . I I Pe
. r
p
s e c tive w
Vie ?
F ig .
r r r
V To d et e min e f om th e p o j e ction of two li n e s
r r r r
.
whi ch in te s e ct e a ch oth e in th e p oj e cti on s wh e th e

r
‘
r
,
t h e l in e s out e a c h oth e in s pa ce o n ot .
L et a b 0 d a b c d (Fi g 8 I ) b e th e pr o j ections
’ ’ "
, , .
, ,
o f the lines I t might b e s upp osed as their p roj ecti o n s

.
,
S O LI D GE O M E TRY 21
‘
interse ct each o t h er t h at the lines th e m selve s interse ct

each o t h er in sp a c e b ut o n applyin g t h e c o r o llary of
'
r
,
t h e pre cedin g pr o b l e m it is f o und t h at t h e in t e s e c,
t i o ns are n o t in t h e sa m e p erp endicular to th e line o f

intersection a c of t h e p lanes of proj e ction T h is is .
r ep resent ed in persp e c tive in Fi g 8 I I };We there .

,
.
se e th at t h e o ri gin al line s a B c D do n o t cut e ach
r
o t h er al tho u gh t h eir proj e c tions a b c d a b c d ’ ’
'
r r
, , , , ,
do s o F om the po int o f interse ction e a is e a p e p e n

j
r
.
d icu l a t o t h e ho r iz o ntal plan e and it w i ll cut t h e

r
,
ori ginal l in e c D in E an d t h is p o int t h e e f ohe b elon gs

, ,
to the li e c D b ut c b elongs e qual l y t o a B As t h e

n
-
.
,
perp endi cular r a ised on e p asses t h rough E (m the line

,
r
c D and it h ou g h E on t h e line a B t h ese pbin t s E E ,
' ’
c annot b i ’ th e intersection o f t h e t wo lines s in ce t h ey

l ,
do not t ofu c h ; and it is also th e sa m e in re ga rd to f f .
en t wo r i g h t line s do not cut ea c h ot h er in

‘
H enc e
r r
,
sp ace interse ctions of t h eir p oj e ct ion s fia e not in

r r
,
r
t h e s a me pe pe n d icul a t o t h e c ommon in
“ ” " -
r
t e s e ct ion of th e p lanes o f proj ection
'
VI TO fi n d t h e l ma d e by p l a n e with th e
r r
. ang e a
ho iz on t a l p la ne p o j e ction
r
of .
L a b and a c Fi g 9 b e t h e horizont al and ve t i

et ,
.
,
c al trac e s of the given p l ane i e t h e line s o n w h ich

'
, ,
. .
the given plan e w o uld if pro duced cut t h e h o rizontal , ,
and vertic al p lanes of pr o j e cti o n T ake any c onve m .
ie n t p o int d in a b and from it dra wd e p erp endicular

,
to a b and cuttin g the lin e of interse c ti on x y in

,
e from c draw e d p erp endicular t o x y and cuttin g

,
‘
a c in Th e a ngle m a d e b y t he g iven plane with '
,
t h e h oriz on tal p l ane of proj e c tion i s suc h t h at with
’
a b a se d c i t h as a vert ic a l h ei ght e d " D raw suc h an

, .
an gle on the vertic al plane of proj ection by settin g o fi

”
from e t h e distanc e e d equal t o e d and j o inin g d d ” '
rr
,
T h e a n gle d d e is t h e a n gle e qu i e d fi
" ’ “
F ig . 9 .
V II Th e t r pl a n e a n d th e p oj e ction s
of r of
r r
'
. a c es a
p oin t b e in g giv e n , t o d a w t h ough th e poin t

r
a a
pl a n e pa a ll e l t o t h e giv e n p l a n e .
In the perspe ctive representation (Fi gs 1 0 and 1 1 ) .
s u pp o se the prob l em solved a nd l e t B C b e th e given

,
*
T h e a n g l e ma d e b y a p l a n e wit h t h e v r
e t ica l pl a n e of p o r
j e c t io n c a n b e f o u n d in a s imil a ma n n e r I f we ima g in e t h e
r
r r
.
v r
r
p a t a b o e a : y in F ig 9 t o b e t h e h o iz o n t a l p oj e c t io n a n d
—
.
r
t h e p a t b e l ow a: y t o b e t h e v e t ic a l p oj e c t ion
r
wo d s , i f F ig 9 is t u n e d u ps id e d o wn a b b e come s t h e
r
in o t h e
—
r r
r
‘
r
.
v r r
r
e tic a l t a ce a n d a c t h e h o izo n t a l t a c e , a n d th e a n g l e d
’
”
v
e is th e a n g l e ma d e b y t h e g i e n p l a n e w it h t h e v
r
d e t ic a l
p l a n e of p oj e c t ion .
S O LI D G E O M E TRY s2 3
p l ane and A C A B its vertic al a nd h orizont a l tr a ces

, , ,
and E F a p lane p aralle l to the given plane and G F , ,
G E its tr a ces Thro u gh any p oint D , t aken at p le asure

.
1 . Ve r
tica l a nd r
Ho izo n ta l P1 e j ec t io n s
-
. Pe r ti
s pec ve V ie w
F ig . 10 .
t h e plane E F dr a w th e vert ic a l p l ane H J th e

r
on , ,
h o riz o ntal trac e o f w h i ch I H i s p a a l lel to G E

, ,
.
Th e pl an e H J c u ts t h e plan e E F in t h e line k l an d
r
’
, ,
its vert ic a l trac e G F in l The h oriz ontal p oj ectio n

’
.
24 M OD E RN C ARP E N TRY
of k l is H I a nd its vert ic al proj e ction k l
’ ~ ’
an d
' ’
r
,
as t h e p oint D is in k l its horizontal a nd verti c a l ’

“
proj e ctions will b e I and d Therefore if th ough .

’
,
d b e tr a c ed a line C 1 p a ral l el t o A B t h at line will

’
, ,
b e the h orizo nt a l p roj ection of a vertic al plane p assing

thro u gh t h e ori ginal point D and if a n 1 b e dra wn ,
”
the inde fi nite p erpendic u lar L l a n d t h ro u gh d ’ ’
,
the vertic al p roj ection of th e given p o in t b e drawn ,

3
the horizont a l line d l cuttin g th e perp endicular in ’ ’
,
r
l th en the line F G dr a wn thro ugh 1 p a rallel to A C
'
’ “ “
, ,
w ill b e the ve t ic a l tr a c e f the p l a ne requ ired ; a n d

q
the lin e G E drawn p arallel t o A B its hori z ontal

r r
,
trac e Henc e a ll pla n es pa a ll e l to e a ch ot h e h a v e

rr r rr
.
,
th e i p oj e ction s p a a ll e l , a n d e cip oc a l ly In so l vin g .
t h e pr obl em let A B A C (Figs 1 0 I ) b e the traces

, ,
.
,
o f the g iven p l a ne a nd d d the p roj e ctions of th e

,
,
given p oint Th ro u gh d dr a w d 1 p ar a llel to A B

.
,
and fr o m I dr a w I l p er p endicular to A H Join d ’
r
.
d and th o u gh d dr a w d 1 p a r a l l el t o t h e line of in
' " ’ ’
«
r
t e s e ct ion A H The n F l G dr a wn p arallel to A C
’ ‘
r rr
‘
.
,
‘
and G E p a a l l e l t o A B , a re th e tr a ces of the e qui

'
'
e
26
. M OD E RN CA RPEN TRY
r
1 Ve tica l
. a nd r r
Ho izon ta l P oj e ction s . . r
I I Pe s pective View
F ig . 12 .
p oint a nd su p pose a plane p assin g thro u gh t ha t

E,
po int cuttin g t h e t wo given p l anes p er p endic ul a r t o
the arris T h ere resu l ts fr o m the secti o n a tri a n gle
.
D E F inclined t o t h e h o r i zontal p l a ne a nd the a n gle

, ,
o f w h ich D E F ,
is t h e m e asure of t h e i n clination of
,
t h e t wo planes Th e h orizontal proj ection o f that tri

.
an gle is the trian gle D e F th e b a se of which F D i s , , ,
p erpendicular to A c (t h e horizontal proj e ction of th e

a rris A C ) and c u ts it in the p oint g and the line E
, ,
g i s p erp endic u lar to D F The line g E is ne c essary.
p erp endi c ular t o the arris A C as it is i n the p lane ,
D E F and its horizontal p roj e ct io n is g e N ow s u p

, .
,
p os e t h e tri an gle D E F t u rned on D F a s a n ax is a nd ,
laid h o riz ontally it s su mm it will then b e a t E and

,
"
,
D E F is th e an gle sou ght Th e p erp endicular g E .
is also in th e verti cal trian gle A C c of w h ich the ,
ar ms I S t h e hypot h en u se and t h e S ides A c C C are ,
t h e proj ecti o n s Thi s descri p tion introduc e s the s o

.
l u t ion o f t h e prob lem .
Th r o u gh any p o int g (Fi g 1 2 1 ) on th e line A c

r
, ,
.
the h orizontal pr o j ecti on o f the arris o line of inter

se ction of th e t wo p l an es draw F D p er p endic u lar to
r
-
A c ; on A c (w h i c h f o t h e m o ment mu st b e c on s id
“
ered as a l ine of interse ction o ” “
ground line for”
r
a se c ond vertic al proj ecti o n ) des crib e th e vert ic al p o r
j e c t ion o f the arris by d a wm g the p erpendicular r
c C and t h en j o inin g A C A C give s t h e tr u e len gth
,
’
.
and in c lination of t h e a rris From g dr aw g E per ’
r
.
p e n d icu l a t o A C a nd meetin g it in E ; fro m E let

’ ’ ’
r
,
fall a perp endi c ular E e o A c m eetin g A c in e ’

,
.
F e D is t h e horizontal proj e cti o n o f the trian gle F

E D (see N o 1 1 ) a nd from t h is t h e verti c al pr o j e ction
.
28 M OD E RN CA RPE N TRY
f ’
e D c a n b e dr a wn as S h own We h a ve now oh
’
.
t a in e d t h e vertic al and h orizontal proj ect ions of t wo

interse ctin g l ine s namely F e e D and f e e’ D a nd
, , , ,
’ ’
, ,
by p rob l em (4 ) the tr ian gle which they m a ke with e ach

r
othe c an b e f oun d I t will b e seen t h at g E is the
.
’
Hr r
j ti Ver
tica l P r
oj e ct ion Pla n e A D
r
II
Ve r
iz on ta l P on
1 o ec on .
. o . .
I II . tica l P oj e c tion on Pl a n e 0 D
F ig 13
r
. .
t u e a ltit u d et h e tri an gle f e D a s c E is e q ua l t o

of
’ ’
,
e e S e t o ff therefo re from g t owards A a distan c e g

’
.
”
E e qual t o g E and j oin F E E D ; F E D is t h e ang le
, ,
m ade h y t h e t wo inters ectin g pl an es

'
.
S O LI D GE O M ET RY 29
~
L Ve r
t ica l a n d H
o r
izon ta l P r
j o e c t ion s . II . Pe r
s pe ctiv e Vie w
F ig . 14 .
30 M OD E RN CARP E N TR Y
X . Th rugh a
o g iv en poin t t o d rw a a pe p di u l ar
ren c
to a g iv en p la n e .
L eta and a (Fi g 1 4 I I ) b e th e pr o j e cti o ns o f t h e

’
.
, .
given p oint and B C C D t h e h orizonta l and vertic al

, ,
traces o f t h e given p lane S upp ose t h e prob lem solved .

,
and that A E is t h e perp endicular drawn throug h t h e

A to the p lan e B D a n d t h at it s intersection wit h t h e
r
,
p lane i s the p oint E S uppose a lso a v e t ica l p l ane .
a F t o p a ss thr o ug h A E t h is plan e woul d cut B D in ’

,
the line g D and its h o rizontal trac e a h would b e

,
p erpendi c ul ar t o t h e trac e B C I n t h e same w ay

r
.
a e t h e vertic al proj e cti o n o f A E would b e p e p en

’ ’
r
, ,
d ic ul a to C D the vertic al trac e of t h e p l a ne B D

,
.
Thus we find t h a t if a line a h is drawn fro m a pe r

r
,
p e n d icu l a t o B C it wi l l b e t h e h o rizontal tra c e of

,
the plane in w h ich lie s t h e req u ired p erpend icular

A E and h F will b e t h e verti c al trace o f t h e sa m e
r
,
p lane From a draw up on C D an indefinite p e p e n

'
r
.
,
d icu l ar and t h at line will c ontain t h e v e t ica l p ro

‘
r
,
j e ct ion of A E as a h c ontains its h orizont a l p o

,
j e ct ion T o fi n d the p oint o f intersection of the lin e

r
.
A E’ w ith t h e given plane c onstru c t t h e verti c al p o ,
j e c t ion g D o f t h e line o f intersection of the two

planes and th e p o int of intersecti o n o f t h at line with
,
th e ri ght line drawn t h r o ugh a will b e t h e p o int '

,
.
sought I f from that p oint a p erpendicular is let

r
.
fall on a h t h e p oint e wi l l b e t h e h o r i z o ntal p oj e c

,
t ion o f t h e p o int of interse ction E

“
Fi g 1 5 1 let B C C D b e t h e tra c es of th e given

In .
, , ,
p lane and a a t h e pr o j e ctions of t h e given point

, ,
’
.
From the p o int a draw a h p erpendicu l ar to B C ; a ,
h will b e t h e h orizontal p roj e cti o n of a p l ane p assin g

S O LI D G E O M ETRY 31
vertic al l y thro u gh a a n d cuttin g t h e given p l ane

,
.
”
O n a h as gro un d line dr a w a vertic al p roj ection
a s f o ll o ws : From a dr a w a A p e rpendicular to a g
, ,
”
a nd m a ke it e q u al to a a ; from h dr a w h D per ’ ’
r
p e n d ic u l a t o h a a n d m ak e h D e qual to h D ; draw
,
'
g D which will b e th e section of the given plan e by

,
IJII o r r
j Ve r
t ic a l Pr
oj e c t ion r
l el t
r r r
izon ta l P o e ct ion . 11 . on Pl a n e pa a l o
h a
"
. 1 11 . V
e tica l P j o e c tio n o n Pl a n e pa a l l e l to h a
F ig . 15 .
a vertic al D g and t h e an gle h g D will b e t h e m

,
eas ’
ure of the in c lination of the g iv e n pl a n e with the hor

‘
iz on t a l pl an e ; ther e is n ow to b e dra wn p e p e n d ic u ,
r
lar to this line a line A E thro u gh A w h ic h w ill b e
, ,
the vertic a l p roj e ction on a h of the line required .
From the p o int o f interse ction E let fall up on a h a

32 M OD E RN CARP E N TR Y
p erpendi c ular w h ic h will give e a s t h e h o rizontal p o

,
r
j e c t io n o f E T h eref o re a e is t h e h o rizontal proj ecti o n
.
o f t h e required perp endicular and a e its vert ic al “ ’ ’

,
“ ” ”
pr o j e c ti o n o n t h e ori ginal ground l in e h a It
rr
.
f o l l ows fr om t h is pr o b l em that—Wh e e a i gh t lin e in

~
r r
s pa ce is p e p e n d i c u l a r
t o a p l a n e t h e p oj e ction s of
rr r r r
,
th a t lin e a e es p e ct iv e ly pe p e n di cul a t o t h e t a ce s
of t h e p l a n e
hr a iv dr r
.
XI T aw p l a o ug h i t to
ra rh
.
p g en p o n a ne pe en
d icul a to g iv e n ig t lin e .
L a a (Fi g 1 6 1 ) b e t h e proj e cti o ns o f t h e given

et ,
'
.
,
p o int A and b c , b c t h e pr o j ections o f t h e given

,
’ '
line B C .
T h e f o re go in g p r o blem has S h own th at t h e traces of

t h e plane s o u g h t must b e p erpendicular t o t h e p oj e c
-
r
tions o f t h e line and t h e soluti o n of t h e pr o b lem ,
c onsi sts in m ak in g t o p ass t h roug h A a vertic al plane

r
,
A f (Fi g 1 6 t h e h o iz o ntal pr o j ecti o n o f which

.
,
wi l l b e p erpendicu l ar t o b c .
T h rou g h a (Fi g 1 6 1 ) dra w th e p roj e cti o n a f

r r
,
.
p e pendicula to b c Fro m f raise up o n K L t h e in .
definite p erp endicular f f w h i c h will b e the verti c al

r
,
trac e of t h e plane a f f perpendicul a t o t h e h orizontal

plane and p assin g t h r o ug h t h e o ri ginal p o int A (in
r r
,
No T h en draw t h roug h a in t h e ve t ic al p o
r
.
j e c t ion a h o iz o ntal l ine cuttin g f f in f which p o int , ,
S h o uld b e in t h e trace o f t h e plane s o ug h t ; and as

t h at p l ane must b e perp endicular t o t h e vert ic al p o r
j e c t ion o f t h e given ri g h t line draw thr o ug h f a per
p e n d ic u l a r
t o b e and p rodu c e it t o cut K L in G , .
T h is po int G is in t h e h o riz ontal trac e o f the plane

so u g h t All that re ma ins t h erefore i s fro m G t o dra w
.
,
G D p erpend i c u l ar t o b c I f t h e pr o j e c ti ons o f t h e .
strai g h t line are re quired pr o ce ed as in t h e pr e vi o us ,
p r o b l e m and as S h o wn by t h e d o tted lines ; t h e p l an e

r
,
wi l l c ut t h e given line at k in t h e h o riz onta l p oj e c

ti o n and at k in t h e verti c al pr o j e c ti on "
i
r r
.
,
XI I A i g ht lin b ein g giv e n in p oj e ction a n d

r
. e ,
a ls o th e t a c es f a g i o v en p l a n e t o fi n d t h e a n g le whi ch
,
th e lin e m a k es with th e p lane .
L etA B (Fi g 1 7 1 1 ) b e the original rig h t l ine inter

.
,
s e c t in g t h e p lan e C E in t h e p o int B I f a verti c al .
p lane a B pass t h r o ug h t h e ri g h t lin e it wil l cut t h e ,\

'
p l an e C E in t h e l ine f B and t h e h orizonta l p l ane in ,
t h e line a b As t h e plane a B is in t h is c ase p aral l el

.
t o t h e verti c al p lane o f pr o j e ction its pr o j e c tion on ,
t h at pl a ne wi l l b e a quadrilat era l fi gure a b o f the

sa m e di mensi o ns and f B c o ntaine d in t h e rectan gle
r r
,
wi ll h ave f o its ve ti c a l pr o j e c tion a ri g h t l ine D b -
w h i c h wi ll b e equal and S i m ilar t o f B H en c e t h e .
t w o an gles a b D A B f b ein g e qua l w i l l eq ua ll y b e

, , ,
t h e m ea s ure o f t h e angle o f inc l ination o f t h e rig h t
r
Th e d l a g a m will b e l e s s c on f u s i n g if t h e p oj e c t io n o n r
r r r r
*
h i s d a wn s e pa a t e l y a s i n F ig 1 6, wh e e I is t h e h o i
r r r r r
a , .
r
p l a n , I I t h e v e tic a l p oj e c t ion o
r r
z o n t a l p oj e c t ion o e le v a
r r r
t io n on a p l a n e p a a l l e l t o h a a n d I I I t h e v e t ic a l p oj e c t io n
e l e v a t i on o n a p l a n e p a a l l e l t o h a To d a w N o III d a w r
r r r
o . .
fi s t t h e g o un d l in e h a e qu a l t o h a o n N o I , a n d ma k o n i t
r r r
-
t h e p o i n t 9 ; f o m h d a w t h e v e ti ca l 71 D e qua l t o 71 D , a n d
r r r
'
f o m a d a w t h e v e ti c a l a A e qu a l t o a
”
r
'
r
’
a ; j o in D g a n d A h ,
r r
'
a n d f om t h e p o in t o f in t e s e c t i on E l e t f a l l a p e p e n d ic u l a on
r r r
A E i s t h e a c t ua l l e n g t h a n d i n c l in a t io n
r r
It a , c u t t in g it i n e .
e qu i e d l in e , a n d a 6 it s h o iz o n t a l l e n g t h
r r r r
of t h e T a n s fe .
t h e l e n g t h a e t o N o I a n d f o m c d a w 6 e p e p e n d i c ul a
r r
r
to
’
. ,
I f t h e d a win g h a s b e e n co e c t l y
r
’
a n d c ut t in g a h in e
’
h a .
ma d e , a l in e f o m E pa a l l e l to th e g oun d l in e h a ” will a l s o
r r -
in t e rs e ct h in
’ ’
a e .
'
l in eA B to t h e p lan e C E Th u s t h e an gle a b D (Fi g

. .
17 ,
is t h e an gle sou ght .
T h is c ase presents n o di fficulty ; b u t when th e line

is in a p lane whic h i s n o t p arallel to the p lane of
F ig . 17 .
proj e ction the prob lem i s more di fficult ; a s h owever

, , ,
t h e se c ond case i s n ot of m u ch p r a ct ica l v a l u e , it wi ll

not be con s idered .
3 . S TR A I GHT S I D ED S O L ID S
-
.
X II I G i v e n the hor i z on t a l p r oj e cti on of a ru l r

rr r
. eg a
t e t a h e d on to fi n d its ve t ic al p ro j e cti on
, .
L A B C d (Fi g 1 8 ) b e t h e given p r o j e c tion o f

et .
the tetra h edr o n w h i c h h as o n e o f its fa ce s c o in c ident

r
,
with t h e g oun d l in e From d dr a w an indefinite lin e

o
.
F ig . 18 .
Gal) p erp endi cular d C and m ake C D equal to C B

to
r
, ,
C A o A B ; d D wi l l b e t h e h e igh t S o ug h t w h i c h is
, ,
c arried to t h e verti c al pr o e c ti o n fr o m c t o d
j J o in .
A d and B d and t h e verti c al p r o j ecti o n is c omplete

, .
Th is p rob lem mig h t b e solved in othe r w ays .

S O L I D GE O M E TRY 37
XI V A p oi n t b ei n g g iv e n in on e of th e r
p o j e cti on s
r r th rpr
.
of a t e t a h ed o n ,
to fi n d t h e po in t on th e o e o
j e ct ion .
L ete b e the p oint given in the h oriz ont al pro j e c -
ti o n (Fi g I t m ay b e c onsidere d as situate d

r
.
in t h e plane C B d wh i c h is inc l ine d t o the h o l z on t a l

,
plane and o f w h ich t h e verti c al proj e cti o n is t h e tri

,
an gle c A c c ordin g t o t h e gen er al m et h od t h e

.
,
vertic a l pr o j e cti o n of t h e given p oint i s t o b e f o u n d

s o m ew h ere in a p erp endicular r aise d on it s h orizontal
proj e c ti on e I f t h r o ug h d and t h e p o int e b e drawn
.
a lin e p r o du c ed t o t h e b ase of t h e tri an gle in f th e ,
p o int e will b e on t h at line and its vertic al proj e cti on

,
wi l l b e on the verti c al pr o j ect ion o f t h at line f e d ,
at the interse cti o n o f it with t h e p e rp endi c ular raise d

on e .I f t h rou g h e b e drawn a strai g h t line g h p ar ,
allel t o C B t h is wi l l b e a h o riz ont al line who se ex

r
, ,
t e mity h will b e on B d T h e vertic al proj ecti o n o f

.
d B i s d B ; t h erefore by r aisin g on h a p erp endicular

,
t o A B t h ere wi l l b e obtained h t h e extre m ity o f a

, ,
h o riz ontal line represent ed by h g in t h e h o riz o ntal

plane I f t h r o ugh h is drawn a ho rizontal line h g
. .
this line wi l l cut t h e vertic al line r aise d on e in e ,
t h e p o int sou g h t I f t h e p oint h ad b e en given in g

.
on t h e arris c d t h e pr o j e cti on c ould n o t b e found in

,
t h e first m anner ; b ut it could b e found in t h e sec ond

m anner b y drawin g t h r o u gh g a line p ar al l el t o C B
, , ,
and pr o l on gin g t h e h o ri z ontal line drawn t h r o u gh h ,
t o t h e a rris c d w h i c h it w o uld c u t in g the p oint

, ,
s o u g h t T h e p o int c an a l s o b e foun d by layin g down

.
t h e rig h t an gle d triangle C d D (w h i c h is t h e deve l

r r
-
O p m e n t of t h e trian g l e formed by t h e h o izo n tal p o

j e ct ion of the arris C d the he igh t o f t h e solid and

‘
, ,
t h e lengt h o f the arris as a h yp o tenuse ) and by dr a w ,
in g t h rou gh g t h e line g G p erpendi c u l ar to C d to in

r
,
t e s e c t t h e h ypot e nuse in G and c arryin g t h e hei ght

r
,
g G fr o m c t o g in t h e verti c al pr o j e cti o n On e o .
o t h er of these means c an b e e m p l o yed acc o rdin g to
circu mst ances I f t h e po int h ad b een given in the

.
vertic al instead of t h e h o rizon t al pr o j e cti o n t h e same ,
o p erations inverted would re quire to b e used .
F ig . 19 .
XV rh dr d
Giv e n a tet th e t r f a pla
p d i u l ar f pr
an ne
(p r
. a e on , a ce o
f h p la to t j ti ) cut
by whi h i i r a d fi d h pr
e en c on e o e n es o o ec on
ting it , c t s t un c t e , to n tj ti
e o ec on
of th e s e ct ion .
First w h en t h e intersectin g p l ane is p erpendicul a r

t o t h e h o ri z ontal plane (Fi g t h e p l ane c u ts the .
b ase in two p oints e f of whi ch the vertic al p oj e c

,
r
ti o ns are e and f ; and t h e a rris B d i s cut in g t h e
‘
vertic al proj e c tion of w h ich c an re ad ily b e f o und in

any o f t h e ways detailed in t h e last pr ob lem H avin g .
f o und g j o i n e g f g and t h e tri an g l e e g f is th e pro

j e c t ion o f t h e inte rsecti o n s o u g h t .
F ig . 20 .
When t h e interse c tin g plane is p er p endic u lar t o the

vertic al plane as e f in Fig 2 0 t h e h orizont al p oj e c
,
.
,
r
ti o ns o f t h e three po ints e g f h a ve t o b e f ound The
r
.
point g in this c ase m a y b e obtaine d in several ways .
First b y d awin g G g h thro u gh g th en t h rough h ,
drawin g a p erpendi c ular t o t h e b ase p r o du c ed to t h e ,
arris a t h in t h e h orizont a l pr o j e cti o n and t h en draw

,
in g h g p aral l e l t o C B c uttin g t h e arris B d in g

r
, ,
whi ch i s t h e p o int required S ec o nd o n d B th e h o

.
, ,
iz on t a l p roj e cti o n o f t h e arris c onstr u ct a triangle ,
d D B d B b e in g t h e a l titud e o f the tetr a h edron and

r
, ,
B D t h e ar is and transfer t his tri an gle to the ver

,
t ic al pr o j e ction at d d B From g draw t h e h ori z ontal

.
lin e cuttin g B d in G ; g G i s t h e h orizont al distanc e

o f t h e required p o int in t h e arris fr o m the verti c al ,
axis of t h e t etrahedron as d is h orizont al pr o j e cti o n

o f th e vertic al axis an d d B t h e horizontal proj ecti o n
,
of t h e arris it fol l ows that t h e lengt h g G trans

, ,
ferred t o d g wi l l give t h e require d p o int g T h e

r
.
,
p oints e a n d f a e found by drawin g lines fro m e and

f p erpendi c u l ar to t h e gr o und line and pro du c in g -
t h em ti l l t h ey meet t h e h o rizontal pr o j ecti o ns o f t h e

arrise s in e and f T h e trian g l e e f g is t h e h o rizont a l
.
proj e c tion of t h e secti o n m ade by t h e plane e f

pr rh dr
.
X VI Th e oj ec ti o n s of a te t on b in g giv e n ,
r r
. a e e
to fi n d it s p oj e ction s wh e n in c lin e d to t h e h o iz on t a l
p la n e in a ny d eg r ee .
L et (Fi g 21 ) b e t h e horiz o ntal pr o j ecti o n

A B Cd .
o f a tetr ahedron wit h o n e o f its side s coinc ident w ith

,
t h e h oriz ontal pl a n e a n d e d B its vertic al pr oj e ction ;

,
it is re quire d to find its proj e c tions w h en turne d round

the arris A B as an axis Th e b ase o f t h e pyramid .
b ein g a horizontal pl a n e its vertic al pr oj e ction i s t h e

,
ri g h t line c B I f t h is line is raised t o c by turnin g

.
o n B t h e h orizontal proj e ction wi l l b e A c 2 B

,
Wh en .
t h e point c by t h e r aisin g o f B e describ es t h e arc

, ,
c c t h e p o int d will have m o ve d t o d and t h e p er

r
, ,
p e n d icu l a let fall fro m t h at p o int on t h e h oriz o ntal

plane wi l l give d 3 t h e horizontal proj e c tion of t h e
,
extre m ity o f t h e arris C d ; for as the summit d m o ve s

‘
in t h e sam e p lane a s C p a r a lle l to t h e verti cal p l an e

,
42 M O D E RN CARP E N TRY
plane any require d an gle as Conc eive t h e righ t
r
,
line C e tu nin g r o und e an d still c o ntinuin g to b e

,
p erpendicu l ar t o A B until it is raise d t o t h e required

,
an gle as at e C I f a perpendicular b e now let fa l l

r
.
,
fro m C it wil l give t h e p o int C as t h e h o r iz ontal p o

,
j e c t io n o f th e a n gle C in its n ew p o siti o n

. C o nceive
F ig . 22 .
a vertic al plane to pass t h rou gh the line C e T h is

.
p l ane wi ll ne c essari l y c o ntai n t h e required an gle S up

.
p o se n ow we l a y t h is plane d o wn in t h e h o riz o nta l

,
pr o j e cti o n thus : Draw fr o m e t h e line e C m aking

,
S O LI D GE O M E TRY 43
'
with e C a n an gle of a nd f om c with th e radius r

c c describ e an a e cuttin g it in C r Fro m C let fall
r
.
on C e a p e p endicul a r on the p oint C which will

, ,
t h en b e the horizontal p roj ection o f C in its r aised

p osition O n C e draw t h e pr o file o f the tetrahedr o n
.
C D e inclined to the h orizontal p lan e From D let

r
.
fal l a p e p endicular on C e pro duce d and it wi l l give ,
(1 a s the h orizontal p roj ection o f t h e summit of the
pyra m id in its inc l ine d p osition Jo in A d B d A c .

, , ,
B c t o c omplete t h e fi g u re Th e vertic a l p roj e ction of

.
the tetrahedron i n its ori ginal p osition is s h own by a d

b a nd in its raise d p osition by a c2 d 2 b th e p o int s
, , , , ,
c 2 and d 2 b ein g f oun d by m akin g t h e p erp endiculars

,
c 3 c 2 a n d d 3 d 2 e qual to C C a nd d D r e s p ectively .
F ig . 23 .
XVII To rt r
con s t uc i a l d h o iz on t a l p o r r
rr
. ve t c an
j e ct ion s of a cub e , ax is
th e 1 of wh ich a e pe pe n di c
ul a r t o th e r
h o iz on t a l p l an e .
an a rris of th e cub e is given i t is easy to fi n d it s

If ,
axis as t h is is t h e hyp o tenuse o f a ri g h t angled tri

,
-
an gle the shortest side o f which is the len gth of an

,
arris and t h e l on gest t h e dia gon al of a S ide C o nce ive
, .
t h e cub e cut by a vertic al plane pass in g throu gh its

dia gonals E G A C (Fi g
,
the section wi ll b e t h e
.
rectan gle A E G C D ivide t h is int o t w o e qual ri g h t

.
angle d trian gles by t h e diagonal E C I f in t h e upp er

,
.
a n d l o wer faces of t h e cub e we draw t h e dia gonals

,
F H B D t h ey wi l l c u t t h e f o r m er dia gonals in t h e
r
, ,
p o ints f and b Now as t h e lines b B b D f F f H

.
, , , , ,
are p erpendi cula t o th e re c t an gular p l ane A E G C ,
f b may b e considered as t h e vertic al pr o j e ction o f

B F and D H and from thi s c onside rati o n we may
,
so lve the prob lem .
"
6 b9
.
F ig . 24 .
L et (Fi g 24 ) b e t h e arr is of a ny c ub e The

A E . .
letters h ere refer t o t h e s a m e p art s as th o se of t h e

r
p ecedin g dia gra m (Fi g T h r o ugh A draw an
.
indefinite line A C p erp endi cular to A E

, ,
S e t o ff on .
S O LI D G E O M E TR Y 45
this line fr o m A t o C t h e diagon al o f th e squar e o f

, ,
A E and j oin E C w h i c h i s t h en t h e axis o f t h e c u b e

, ,
.
Dr a w t h e lines E G G G p ara l l el respe ctively to A C , ,
and A E and t h e resultin g r e c t a n g l e A E G C is t h e

, , ,
secti o n o f a cub e on t h e l ine of t h e dia gon a l o f on e o f

its fa c e s D ivid e th e r e c t an gle into two e qual p art s
.
by t h e line b f w h ic h is t h e vertic al pr o j e ction of

.
,
'
the lines B F D R (Fi g ,

and we obtain in t h e .
,
fi gure t h us c o m pleted t h e vertic al pr oj e ction of th e ,
c u b e as a c b d (Fi g
,
‘
.
Throu gh C (Fi g t h e extremity of the di a gon a l

.
E C draw y z p erpendicular t o it and let this line

r
,
re p resent t h e c ommon sect ion o gro un d line of th e

r
-
two p lanes of p roj ection Th en let us find the h o .
iz on t a l p roj ec tion of a cub e o f w h ich A E G C is th e

vert ica l proj e ction I n th e vertic al p r o j e ction t h e
.
,
ax is E C is p erp endicular t o y z a nd c onsequently , ,
to the horizont al plan e of proj ection and we have ,
the h eight ab ove t h is plan e o f e a c h of t h e p o ints whi ch

t erminate the an gles
r L e t f a ll from e a ch of t h e se
p oints pe p endiculars t o the horizontal pl a n e th e
p roj ecti ons of th e p o ints will b e found on these p er
”
.
p e n d ic u l a s T h e r
horizontal
. proj e ction o f the axis E C
will b e a p oint on its prolon g a tion as c Th is p o int , .
mi ght h ave b e en n ame d e wit h e q u al c orrectness as it

.
,
is the h orizont al proj e ction of b ot h the e xtremities of

th e a x is C and E Thr o ugh c draw a line p a rallel
,
.
to y z and find on it the proj e c tions of the p oints A

,
and G by continuin g the p erp endiculars A a G g to

, , ,
a and g We h ave n ow t o find t h e p r o j ections o f th e

.
p o ints b f (representin g D B F H Fi g which w ill , .
b e som e wher e on the p e r p endi c u l a rs b b, f f, l et f a ll

fr o m the m We h ave seen in Fig 2 3 that B F D H
. .
,
are distant fr o m b f by a n extent e q u al ha l f the dia g

o n a l of the square fac e o f t h e cub e S e t off t h eref o re .
, ,
on t h e p erpen di c ulars b b and f f fr o m o and m t h e , ,
distanc e A b in d b and f f and j o in d a a b b f

.
, , , , , ,
f g g f to co mplete t h e hex a gon wh ich is the h o ri

, ,
z on t a l proj e c tion o f t h e c u b e J o in f e f e a n d a c to
'
,
.
,
give t h e arrise s o f t h e upper h alf of t h e cub e T h e .
d o tted line s d c b c g c s h ow the arrises of t h e l ower

, , ,
side Knowin g t h e h eig h ts o f t h e points in t h ese ver

r
.
ti c al pr o j ections it i s e asy t o c o nstru c t a vertic al p o

,
j e c t ion o n any line w h atever as t h at on R S b el o w , .
F ig . 25 . F ig . 26 .
X VIII r h prj ti f a rg l ar
To o n s t u ct t
ah dr wh p d i u l ar
xi i p r
. c e o ec on s o e u
oct f i ts to
i h r f pr
e on , en on e o a s s e en c
e t plae j ti ne o o ec on .
D escrib e a circle (Fi g and divide it into four .
equ a l p a rts by t h e dia m eters and draw t h e l ines a d

r
, ,
d b b c c a ; a fi gure is produc ed w h ich serves f o

r r
, ,
either the vertical o the h o iz ontal proj e c t i on of t h e

o ctahe dron wh en on e of its ax is i s p er p endic u l a r t o
,
e ither p l a ne .
S O L I D G E O M E T RY 47
‘
’
XI X On e of t h e f ac e s of a n oc ta h e d on rb giv en ,
e in g
r r
.
c oin cid e n t wit h t h e h o izon t a l pl an e of p oj ec t ion , t o
r
con s t uct th e r
p oj e ction s of th e s olid .
L e t th e tri an gle A B C (Fi g 2 7 ) b e t h e given face . .
I f A b e c onsidere d t o b e t h e su mm it o f on e of the t wo ~
pyrami d s w h ich c o m p o se th e s o li d B C will b e one of ,
the sides of t h e sq u are b ase k C B i T h e b ase m akes ,

.
with t h e h o riz o ntal plane an an gle which i s e asily

'
f o und L e t f a ll fro m A a a p erpend icular on B c c u t

.
,
tin g it in d with t h e length B c as a r adi u s and from

, ,
F ig . 27 .
d as a c entre describ e t h e indefinite a e e f T h e p er r

r
,
.
p e n d icu l a A d will b e t h e h ei g h t of e ac h o f the fac es ,
and c o nse q u ently of that w h i ch turnin g o n A sh o uld

, , , ,
meet the si de of the b ase whi ch h as a lre a dy t u rne d on d .
M ake t h is hei ght turn on A describ in g fro m that po int

r
,
a s a c entre with the r a diu s A d an indefinite a e c u t

, , ,
tin g the first arc in G th e po int of me etin g of on e of

,
t h e face s with th e sq u are b ase ; dr aw t h e line G A G d

r
,
the first is the profile o inclin a t ion of on e of the face s

o n the given fac e A B C acc ordin g to the a n gle d A G ;
t h e se cond (1 G, is th e in cl in a tio n of t h e s qua e b a se

,
r ,
which separ a tes t h e two pyra mids in t h e an gle A d G '

.
Th e fac e adj acent to t h e side B C is f oun d in t h e sa m e

m anner T h rou g h G draw t h e h o rizontal line G H
r
.
,
r
e qu al to the p e pendi cular A d T h is l ine wi l l b e t h e .
p o file of t h e sup erior fac e Draw d H whic h i s t h e

'
.
,
pr o file o f t h e fac e adj ac ent t o B C From H let fall a .
p erpendicular on A d pr o duc ed which gives t h e point

r
,
h for t h e h orizontal p roj e cti o n o f H o t h e summit o f ,
the superior trian gle p arallel t o t h e first dr a w h i p ar ,
al l e l t o C A h k p a rallel t o A B A h and E h p er
r
, ,
p e n d icul a to A B and j oin k C C h B i and A i and

, , , ,
the horizontal p roj e ction is comp lete From t h e hei ghts .
we h a ve thus obtaine d w e c an n ow draw the verti ca l

p roj ection shown in No II in w h ic h t h e parts h a ve the
.
,
s a me l etters o f referenc e .
T h e findin g of t h e horiz o ntal pr o j e cti o n may b e

ab r id ge d by c onstru c tin g a hex ag o n and inscrib ing in
it the two tri an gles A C B h i k
r
.
,
XX G iven in the h o i z ont a l p l a ne the p ro j e ction of

r
.
of t h e f a c es of a dodec a he dr on t o c ons t u ct it s
r
on e ,
p oj e ction s .
The dodec ahedron is a twelve sided solid all the -
side s b ein g re gu l ar a n d equal penta g o ns I t is n e c e s .
s a ry in o rder t o c onstruct t h e pr o j ecti o n t o disc o ver

, ,
the inclination of t h e fac es a m on g t h e m selves L e t .
t h e penta gon A B C D E (Fi g 28 ) b e t h e side on w h i ch

.
the b ody is supposed t o b e seated on t h e plane Con .
c e l v e two ot h er faces E F G H D and D I K L

,
C als o ,
in th e horiz o ntal plane and then raised by b ein g

,
‘
turned on t h eir b ases E D D C By t h eir m o vement

, ,
.
t h ey will describ e in sp a ce arcs o f c ircles which will ‘
termin a te by th e meetin g o f the sides D H D I , .

t h e a rc II c u ttin g t h e perpendicular h I in I ; j o n z I ; -
t h en from z as c entre wit h t h e radius z k descr ib e an

r
, ,
a e c uttin g z I pr o duced in the p o int K fro m w h i c h ,
let fall on z k a perpendicul ar K k and prod u ce it t o

‘
k in x K I f no w t h e ri g h t ang l ed triangle z k K were

.
, ,
-
raise d on its b ase k would b e t h e proj e c ti o n of K

,
.
C o nc eive n ow t h e p enta gon C D I K L turned ro u nd on

C D un ti l it m akes an an gle e qual t o s
,
wit h th e
h o rizontal plane th e s u m m it K will t h en b e raise d
,
ab ove k by t h e h ei g h t k K and will h ave for its h o ri ,
z o n t a l proj ecti on t h e p o int k I n c o mpletin g the fi gure .
p rac tic a l ly —fr o m the centre 0 d escrib e two c o neen ,
tric c irc l es p assin g t h r o ug h p o ints 11 D Dr a w t h e .
lines h D h k a nd c arry t h e last r o und the c ircum

r
, ,
ferenc e in m n o p s t u : t h rough e ach o f t h ese line s

draw r adial l y t h e l ines m C o B r A t E and t h ese , , , ,
li n es wil l b e t h e arrise s anal o g o us t o h D T h is b ein g .
done the inferio r h alf o f t h e s o l id is p r o j e c ted By

r
.
,
r
e as o n o f t h e re gularity o f t h e fi gure it is e asy t o se e ,
that t h e six ot h e r fac es wi l l b e si mi l ar in t h ose a l e ady

drawn only t h at alth ou gh t h e su p eri o r penta gon will
,
have its an gles o n the sa m e c ircumferenc e as th e in

rr
f e io p enta gon t h e an gles of the on e will b e in the
midd l e o f the fa c es o f t h e other Theref o re t o de
r
.
,
s c ib e t h e superi o r half — t h rou gh the an gles 11 p s v k ,
draw t h e radial lines u l p 2 s 3 v 4 k 5 and j oin , , , , ,
them by t h e strai gh t lines 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 and 5 1 , , , , .
To obtain the l en gth of t h e axi s of t h e solid o bserve ,
t h at t h e point k i s e l evated ab ove t h e h orizontal plane

by t h e h ei gh t k K : c arry t h at hei g h t to k K : t h e point
r analo g ous t o h is raise d t h e same h ei g h t as t h at
, ,
p oi nt t h at i s t o say h i which i s t o b e c arried fro m r

, ,
SOL ID G E O M E TR Y 51
to R ; a nd the lin e R K is t h e len gth so u ght As this .
ax is sh o u l d p ass throu gh th e centre of t h e b ody if a ,
Vertic al proj e ction of the a xi s in O an d t h erefore O o ,
is th e h alf of the hei g h t o f t h e solid vertic a l ly By .
doubtin g this hei ght and drawin g a h orizonta l lin e t o

,
c u t the vertic al line s of the an gles of t h e superior fac e

'
is obtained as in the upper p orti o n of (Fi g in

r
.
,
wh ich the same letters refer t o th e same p a ts

rb
.
XX I On e of th e f a ce s of d od e ca h ed e in g
r r
. a on
giv e n , t o con s t uct t h e p oj e ct ion s of t h e s o lid , s o t h a t

r r
its a xis ma y b e p e pen dicul a t o th e h o iz on t a l pl an e r .
L et A B E D C (Fi g 2 9 1 ) b e the given fac e Th e

r
. .
,
solid an gles of t h e d o dec a h edr o n a e e ach formed by

the meet in g of t h re e p enta gonal p l an es I f ther e b e
,
.
conceived a plane B C p assin g t h ro u gh t h e extremitie s

o f the a rr i se s of th e so l id angle A t h e re sult o f the ,
sectio n w o uld b e a trian gul a r pyra m id t h e side s of ,
whose b a se wo u ld b e e qual t o on e o f th e diagonals o f

the fac e such a s B C An e qui l ater a l tri an gle b c f
, .
(Fi g 2 9 1 1 ) will represent the b ase of t h at p yramid

.
,
inverte d th a t is with its su m mit restin g on the h ori

, ,
z on t a l pro j e ction it it re q ui re d to find t h e h ei ght o f that

‘
r
,
p yr amid o wh ic h is t h e same th in g t h at on e o f the

r
, ,
three p oints o f its b ase b c f f o as they a re all e qu a lly ,
elevated the h ei ght of one of them give s the ot h ers

, .
There is ne c essarily a prop ortio n b etween the tri an gle

A b c (N o 1 1 ) an d A B C (No
. sin c e t h e first is the
.
horizont a l proj ection o f the sec ond A g i s t h e hori .
z on t a l pro j e c t ion o f A G ; b u t A G i s a p art o f A H and ,
the proj ection o f that line i s re quire d for on e of the

faces of the solid ; therefore as A G zA g z zA H zx In .
other words the len gth ,

the len g th of x m ay b e oh
,
t a in e dby dr a win g a fourth p rop ortion of the thre e

lines it will b e f ound t o b e e qual t o A h : o it m ay b e r
ob tained graphic al l y t hu s z—Raise on A g at g an
r
definite pe p endicular t ak e t h e length A G (No 1 )
, .
a nd c a rry it from A to G (N o 1 1 ) g is a p oint in t h e

.
F ig . 29 .
ass u med pyramidal b ase b c f S inc e A G is a p ortion

.
of A H A G w il l b e so als o Prod u c e A G therefore

,
.
, ,
t o H m a king A H e qu al t o A H (No 1 ) and from H

,
.
let fall a p er p endicular on A g prod u ced which give s ,
h the p oint so u gh t Prod u ce H h and c arry on it t h e

.
,
S OL ID G E O M E TRY 53
length H D or H E from h to d a nd h to e ; d a w the r

line s c d b e and t h e horizont al proj e ction of on e of
, ,
the fac es is obtaine d inc lined to the horizont a l plane in ,
the an gle H A h A s the other two inferior f a ces are

.
similar t o the on e fo u nd the thre e f a ce s sho u ld b e ,
found on t h e c ircumference of a c ircle trac ed from A

a s c entre a nd with A d o A e a s a r a di u s Jo in f A
, r I
.
,
p rol on g A n A O p er p endicular to th e sides of the

, ,
triangle f c b a nd m ake t h em e q u al t o A h a n d thro u gh

, ,
t h eir extremities draw p er p endic u lar s c u tt in g th e c ir

r
-
c umf e e n c e i n t h e p oints i k 1 m D r a w the lines i b ,

.
,
k f I f m c and the h or izontal p roj ections of the three

, , ,
inferi o r face s ob tained The su p eri or p yr a m id i s sim

r
.
il a and e qual to th e inferi or a nd solely O pp osed by its ,
an gles D e scrib e a circle p assin g thro u gh the thre e

.
'
p o ints of the fi rst trian gle a n d draw wit h in it a second

,
e quilater a l trian gle n o p of which the s u mm its c orres

pond t o the m iddle of the face s of the forme one
,
E ach of these p o int s will b e th e summi t of a p ent a gon

r .
as the p oints b c f These p enta gon s h a ve a ll th eir

‘
sides common a nd it is only ne cess a ry th erefor e to

,
determine on e of th ese s up erior pent a gons to h a ve all

the others S ix of the f a c es of the dode c ahe dron h a ve
.
now b e en p roj ecte d ; the remain in g si x a r e ob t a ined by

j oinin g t h e a ng u lar p o int s alre a dy fo un d a s q d e , , ,
r
t i k s &c
, , .
T o ob tain th e vert ic a l p ro j e ction (N o 1 1 1 ) b e gin .
with the three inferior faces The p oint A in the

r
.
h orizont a l p roj ecti o n b ein g th e s u mmit of the i nferio

s olid a n gle will h a ve its vertic a l in a ; th e p oints b c f
r
, ,
when raise d t o the hei ght g G will b e i n b c f o simp l y

r r
, ,
b f The p o ints b g 0 b ein g in a p l a ne p e pe n dicul a t o

.
54 M OD E RN CARP E NTRY
the verti c al plane will nec essari ly have t h e same v er

,
tic al proj ecti o n b The line a f will b e t h e proj e c tion

,
.
o f the arris A f a nd a b will b e t h at of t h e arrises A b
r
, ,
A c a nd of t h e line A g o rather that o f t h e trian gle

, ,
A b c , which is in a p l an e perp endi cular to th e verti c al

p l a ne But t h i s trian gle is only a p ortion of t h e given
r
.
pent a gonal fac e (N o of which A H is t h e p e p e n

r r
.
d ic ul a let f all f om A on the side E D Produc e a b

'
r
.
to e makin g a e e qual to A H ; e is t h e vertic al p oj e c

,
tion of th e arris e d Thi s arris is c omm o n to t h e in

rr
.
f e io pentagon a nd t o the s u peri o r p enta gon e d q p r

, ,
whic h is als o p erpendicular t o the vertic al pl ane and , ,
c o nsequently its vertic al p roj e ction will b e e p e qual

, ,
to a e .
T h is p roj ection c an now b e obtained by raisin g a

vertic a l line thr o ug h p t h e su mmit of t h e sup erior ,
pent agon and fr o m e as a centre and with t h e rad i u s

r r
, ,
A H o A H describ in g an a e cuttin g t h i s line in p

, ,
t h e p o int soug h t But p n o b elon g t o t h e b ase o f t h e

.
sup erior pyramid ; t h eref o re if a perpendicular is ,
drawn fr o m n t h rou gh y z t o n and t h e hei g h t p i s ,
transferred t o n by drawin g t h r o ug h p a l ine p ara l lel ’
t o y z n wil l b e the proj ection o f t h e p oints 11 an d 0

r
.
,
Throu gh n draw s n a p ara l lel to a e cutt in g p e pe n

r
d ic u l a s drawn t h r o u g h s and A in t h e h orizonta l p ro
j e c t ion Throu gh s draw s f p aralle l to p e and j o in
.
,
a f a p ; set o ff on t h e perpendicul a r fr o m r t h e h ei g h t
,
o f s ab ove y z at r and draw r t p arallel to y z cuttin g
r
, ,
the p erp en d i c ular fr o m t and j oint n t Dr aw p e pe n

r
.
,
d icu l a s fro m k and i t h ro ugh y z to k and i m ak e k , ,
and i the same hei g h t as e and draw k i an d j o in i b , , ,
i t The vertic al proj ection i s n ow complete

. .
S OL ID G E O M ET RY 55
X XII In a g iv e n p he r ra r a h dr a
to in s c ibe tet
rr ah dr d d d h d
. S e e on ,
h e xa h e d cu b e , oct
r
on o an e on an a o eca e
on .
L et (Fi g 30) be the dia m eter of the given

A B
r
.
sp h ere D ivide it into t h ree e qual p a ts D B b e in g o n e

.
,
o f t h e se p arts Draw D E perpendic ular t o A B and

.
,
dr a w the c h ords A E E B A E is th e a rri s o f t h e tetra

,
.
F ig . 30 .
hed r and E B t h e arris of the hexa h edr o n o cub e

on , r .
Fro m t h e centre C draw the p erpendi c ular rad ius C F ,
and t h e ch o rd F B is the arris of th e o cta h e dron D ivide .
B E in extreme and m e an proportion in G and B G ,
is t h e arris o f the dodec ahedron T h e arri ses b ein g .
known the solids c an b e drawn by t h e help of the prob

,
l e m s already solved D raw the t a n gen t A H eq u al t o

.
A B ; j oin H C a n d A I ; A I is the arris of a n ic o s a h e .

dron which c a n b e inscrib e d in the sphere an ic os a

r
,
h e d on b ein g a solid with twenty e q u al side s a ll of

,
whi ch a re e q u ilateral trian gles S ee Fi g

. .
Fig .
L et v t a nd h t (Fi g . 32 )
b e th e trace s of th e given
plane Draw the pr o j ections of a sem i c one h avin g it s
.
-
axis a b in the vertic al plane t h e apex a in th e given

-
’ ’
,
’
v t and its b ase (a se m i c ircle ) c c d in t h e h p and-
lyin g tan gential l y t o the given h t T h en t h e b ase an gle .
(0) o f th e c one gives th e inc l in ation o f t h e p lane t o t h e

h p To determine the inc l ination o f t h e plane to t h e
.
v p draw t h e proj ections o f a se c ond semi c o ne h av

. .
,
-
in g the ax is m n in the h p and the ap ex m in th e ,
F ig . 32 .
given h t while th e b ase i s in t h e v p and t an gential

to t h e v t The b ase an gle (0) of t h is cone give s t h e
.
inclination to th e v p
r
.
XXV Th e b a s e of a cylin d e b e i n g giv e n a n d a l s o

.
,
t h e a n g l es wh i ch t h e b as e mak e s wit h t h e p l an e s
r
of p oj e cti on r
t o con s t u c t th e p oj e c ti on s of t h e c yl r
i d r
,
n e .
L the circle A G B H (Fi g 3 3 ) b e th e given b a s e an d

et .
,
let each of th e given an g l es b e Draw t h e diameter

A B ma k in g a n an gle o f 45 with th e gro und l ine o ver
,
°
r
SO L ID G E O M E TRY 59
tic al p lane and draw the line A B m a king with A B the

, ,
given an gle ; and from A as a c entre with A B and ,
A C as r ad i i describ e arc s cutt in g A B in B and C

,
.
Then dr a w A D B E p erpendicul a r t o A B a n d e q ua l
,
F ig . 33 .
to th e len gt h of the cylinder ; t h e re c tan gl e A E is

t h e ve rt ic al p r o j e ction o f t h e cylinde r p ar allel to th e
vertic al plane a n d inclin ed to th e h orizontal plane ,
A B in a n an gl e of N ow pr olon g indefinit ely

th e d iam ete r B A and t his line will represent th e
,
proj e ction on t h e h orizontal plan e o f t h e l ine in which

the gener a tin g circle moves to pro duc e t h e cylinder .
If fr o m B and C perpendiculars b e let fall on A B ,
k wi l l b e t h e horiz o ntal proj e cti o n of B A k that of ,
t h e di ameter A B an d c t h a t of t h e c entre C T h ro u gh
'
, .
c draw h g p erp endic u lar to A B and make c h , c g ,
e qual to C H G G ; and t h e two diameters of the

,
e l lipse w h ich is t h e p roj e ction o f t h e b a se of th e cyl

,
inder wi l l b e obtained ; na m ely A k a nd h g

, , .
I n like m a nn er draw D F E t h e lines D d F f E c

, , , ,
p erpendicular to t he diam eter A B produc ed an d ,
t h e ir intersecti o ns with t h e dia m eter and t h e sides of

t h e cylinde r will g i ve t h e me an s o f drawin g th e
el l ipse w h ic h f orms t h e proj ection o f t h e fart h e r
end o f t h e cy l inder T h e ellipses m a y als o b e f o und
.
by t akin g a n y nu mb er o f p oints in t h e gen erating

c ircle a s I J and o btainin g their proj e c ti o ns i j
,
The .
met h o d o f d o i n g t h is and als o of dra win g th e verti

r
,
c al proj ec tion c f, will b e u ndersto o d w ith o ut f u

t h er explan ati o n .
X X V I A p oint in one of th e p roj ections of a

. c on e
b ein g gi v en to find it in th e other p ro j ec ti on

, .
L a (Fi g 3 4 ) b e t h e given p oint T h is p oint b e

et . .
lon gs e qually t o t h e c ircle w h i c h i s a section o f the

c on e by a p l ane passing t h rou g h t h e p o int p arallel to
t h e b ase and t o a strai g h t line f o rmin g on e of t h e
,
side s of a trian gl e wh ich i s t h e se cti o n o f th e cone by a

plane pe rp endicul a r t o its b ase and p assin g t h r o ugh
its vertex and thr o u gh t h e given point and o f wh i c h
r
,
f a g i s t h e h orizontal and f a g t h e vertic al p oj e c

,
tion To find t h e vertic al pr o j e ction o f a t h rou g h a

.
,
dr a w a a p erpendi c ular t o b c and its intersect ion wit h

,
f g i s t h e p oint re quired ; and re c ipro c ally a in t h e ,

S O L ID G E O M E TRY 61
hori zontal proj e cti o n m ay b e foun d from a in th e

verti c al pr o j e c t i o n in t h e same manner
,
O th erwise thro u gh a in t h e h ori z ontal p roj e ction

r
-
, , ,
describ e th e circle a d c a nd draw e e o c c c u ttin g

, ,
F ig . 34 .
the side s of th e c on e in e a nd c ; dr a w c e p ar a llel

t o the b ase and dr a w a a c u ttin g it in a th e p o i n t
, , ,
re q uire d
.
X X VI I O n a giv e n cy lin d e to d e s c ib e a h elix r r

r
. .
L e t a b c d & c (Fi g b e the h o rizontal p o j e c

r
. .
,
t ion of t h e given cylinde T a ke on this curve a serie s

.
of e q u al distanc es a b b c c d & c a nd thro u gh e ach

‘
,
.
, , ,
F ig . 35 .
of the p oints a b c & c draw a vertical line a nd pro

, , , .
,
d uc e it alon g the verti c al proj ection of th e cylinder .
Then c onc eive a c u rve cuttin g all th ese vertic als in t h e

p oints a b c d in such a m a nn er th at the h ei ght o f th e
,
p o int above the gro u nd line may b e in c onstant rela

r
-
ti o n to the a rc s a b b c c d ; f o ex am p le th a t a may
, , ,
SO L I D G E O M E T RY 63
b e the zero of hei ght that b b m ay b e 1 c c 2 d d 3

,
-
.
, , ,
& c ; then this curve is n ame d a heli x T o c onstru c t

r
. .
this c u ve c a rry on t h e vertic a l proj e cti o n on eac h

,
vertic a l line s u ch a hei ght as h as b een deter m ined as ,
1 on b 2 on c 3 on d ; and through t h ese p o ints wi l l

, ,
;
p as s the c u rve so u ght I t is e asy t o se e that th e c u rve

.
F ig . 36 .
so trace d is inde p endent of the cylinder on which ,
it h as b e en supp o sed t o b e trac e d ; an d that if it b e

isol a ted its h oriz o ntal pr oj ection wil l b e a c irc l e The
,
.
helix is n ame d after the curve which is its h orizontal

p ro j e ction Th u s the h elix in t h e ex ample i s a h elix
.
with a c irc u lar b a se The verti c al line f n is the a xis

.
of t h e h elix and t h e heig h t b b c o mprised b etween

, ,
t w o c onse cutive interse c ti o ns o f t h e curve wit h a verti

c a l i s t h e pitc h o f th e h e l ix
, .
X X VIII . On a gi v en c one to describ e a h elix .
L t h e pr o j ecti o ns o f t h e given c o ne b e as s h o wn in
et
Fig 3 6 D ivi d e t h e b ase o f t h e c o ne in t h e hori z o n

. .
t a l pr o j ecti on into any nu mb er o f e qual parts as a b , ,
b c c d & c and draw lines fr o m t h e vertex t o t h e

, ,
.
,
’
p o ints t h us ob tained S e t o ff al o n g t h ese lines a series .
o f distan c e s in c re asin g in c o nstant rati o as 1 at b 2 , ,
at c 3 at d & c T h e c urve t h en drawn t h r o u gh t h ese

, ,
.
p o ints w h en supp o sed t o b e in t h e sa m e p l ane is c a l l ed ,
a spira l I f t h e se p o ints in additi o n t o approa c h in g

.
,
t h e c entre in a c o nstant rati o are supp o sed a l s o t o ,
rise ab o ve ea c h o t h e r by a c o nstant incre ase o f h e ig h t

r
,
a h e l i c al c urve wi l l b e obtained on t h e vertic al p o

j e c t ion o f t h e c o ne
*
.
X XI X . A po i n t in on e of th e p roj ecti on s of th e
Sp her e b ein g g i v en to fi n d it , in the other p r oj ection .
L e t a b e t h e given p o int in t h e h o riz o ntal pr o j e c ti o n

o f t h e sp h ere h b c i (Fig Any p o int o n t h e sur .
face o f a sp h ere b el on gs t o a c irc l e o f t h at sp h ere .
T h erefore if a is a p o i n t and a vertic al plane b c is

, ,
m ade t o p ass t h r ou g h t h at p o int t o A B t h e se ction o f ,
ri f r m d b th il t r
tr rm r r rt l b t h i f t w rmid
*
Th e octa i f i ht
h ed on l s o e y e un o n o e g e qu a e a
rb
i a n gles ; o , o e co ec y, y e u n on o o py a s
wi t h d b t b d f wh i h
r
l l th
h ri wh i h t h
s qu a e a s es , o p p os e a se o a se, a n o c a e
m
rm h l d b l r
sol id l t h
a n g es b i
o uc ib d a s p e e n c ey a y e n sc e .
m r t f li
It i t i l th t th
s d
essen l a a e ia g a s ou e c ea y s een a s a
Im
rmid th b
sol d i d t , a n i n o l i
a s a e e se o n es n on e p a n e . a g ne h
th r r
a s th f e a pe x o i d on eth py a on e a se k c B , a n A a s e
mid it m
t h dr i
a f
pe x h o th
t e o id f th e py a on e o pp os e s e o e sa e
b Th
a se . h w t b l i g
e oc a it id e on s s o n o e y n on s s e A B c .
66
'
M O D E RN CARP E NTR Y
a p er p endic u lar t o A B vertic a l p roj ection will

I ts
r
.
,
therefore b e either a o a , acc ording as th e p oint a is

on the su p erior or inferio r se m i surfac e o f the sp h ere
-
.
The p roj ection o f th e p o int may a l s o b e found thus

C on ce ive the sphere c u t by a plane p aralle l to th e hori
z o n t a l p lane o f p roj ection pa ssin g thro u gh the given
p oint a The resultin g se cti o n will b e t h e horizontal

.
c irc le d escribed from k with th e r a di u s k a ; a nd the

,
vertical p roj e ction o f this se cti o n wi l l b e the str a i ght

r
line g e o g e ; and the intersections o f these lines
,
with the p er p endicu l ar drawn thro u gh a w ill b e the ,
p roj ection o f a as b efore, .
5 . S E CTI ON S O F S OL ID S .
To dr a w sections of a ny solid req u ires little more

th a n th e a p plic ati on o f th e method describ e d in t h e
fore go ing p rob lems Inn u mer a b le e xa m p les m ight b e
.
given b u t a few selected ones will s ufii ce '
r r rr r
.
,
XXX Th e p oj e ct i on s of a e gul a t e t ah ed on b e
r r
.
in g giv e n , t o d a w th e s e ct ion ma d e by a pl an e pe pe n
r r r
dicul a t o t h e v e t ica l pl a n e a n d in cl in e d t o th e h o i
z on ta l pl a n e .
L e t A B C D a nd a b c d (Fi g 3 9 ) b e the given p ro .
j e c t ion s a nd E F G th e given p l a ne p er p endic u lar to

r
,
the ve tic a l p l a ne and inc l ined to th e horiz o nt a l pl a n e

a t a n a n gl e of The h orizont a l p roj ection e f g of
the section i s e a sily fo u nd a s shown T o fin d the co r
r r
.
e c t s ectio n dr a w th o u gh e, f, a n d g li n es pa r a llel t o
,
t h e gr o u nd line A C and a c o n e o f the m as E e set

-
o ff th e d istan ce s E F E G at E f and E g and t h r o u gh

, ,
f and g dr aw perpen di c ulars cuttin g t h e o t h er line s in

F and G J o in E G G F an d F E E F G is t h e c o
’
.
, ,
. r
rect secti o n m ad e by t h e plane .
F ig . 39 .
XXXI Th e r
p oj e ct ion s of a r
h e x a gon al py a mid be
dr r
.
in g g iv e n , t o w h ma d e by a p l a n e pe pen
ral
t t ion
r r
a e sec
d icul a t o th e ve t ic pl an e an d in cl in e d t o t h e h o i
zon t a l p l an e .
L etA B C D a nd a b c d e f g (Fi g 40) b e th e g i ven

r
.
p ro j ecti on s , a nd H I J K the giv en pl a n e The ho i .

zen proj ection h i j k l m of t h e section i s e asily

ta l
fo u nd as sh o wn Throu gh m l h j and i draw lines
.
, , , ,
p aralle l t o the gr o und line A D and on one of t h em

-
a s h m set ofi th e distance s H I H J, H K at h M
, , , ,
Fig . 40 .
Lb l h k From h M 1 and k dr a w p e p endic u lars

, .
, , ,
r
m eetin g the other lin es in H I L J a n d K a n d j oin
, , , , ,
the p oints of interse cti on H I J K L M is th e tr u e

.
s e ctio n m a d e by th e p l a n e .
S OL I D G EO M ET RY 69
XX X I I Th e r
p oj e ct ion s of a n oct ag on a l r
am d i
r r
.
py
be in g giv e n , t o d aw th e s e ct ion ma d e by a ve ti
ca l p l a n e .
L etA B C D F a nd a b c d e f (Fi g 4 1 ) b e the given .
pr o j ecti o ns and g h i j k o f t h e section m ad e by t h e

r
,
p lan e is e a s ily f oun d by dr awin g g g h h i i &c p e p e n , , ,

.
,
F ig . 41 .
d ic ul a r
t th e gro u nd lin e A D
o -
p rod u c ed set
. On A D
o ff t h e distanc es g h h i i j and j k at G h h i & c
, , , , ,
.
,
and from t h e p oints th u s found dr a w p er p endic u l ars t o

G K me etin g line s drawn from h i and j p arallel to
' , ,
A D in H I and J Join G H H I I J; and J K

, , ,
.
, ,
.
G H I J K i s th e true section m ade by the p lan e .

70 M O D E RN CARP E NTRY
A c r
yli nde m ay b e cut b y a plan e in t h re e di fferent
ways—1 s t the p l a ne m a y b e p arallel to the a x i s ; 2n d
r
, ,
it may b e p aral l el t o th e b a se ; 3 d it may b e ob lique

r
,
t o t h e axis o the b ase .
In the first c ase the section i s a pa r a llelo gram wh ose ,
l en gth will b e e qual to th e len gth of t h e c ylinder a n d ,
w h o se width will b e e qu a l to t h e chord of th e circle o f

the b ase in th e line o f se ction Wh enc e i t follows that
.
,
the large s t se ction of this kind will b e that m a de by a

p l a ne p ass in g throu gh the ax is ; and th e sm al l est will
—
b e w h en the sect i o n pl a ne is a t a ngen t the se ction in
th at c ase will b e a str a i gh t line .
When th e section p lane i s pa r a lle l to th e b a se the ,
section will b e a circle e qua l t o th e b as e Wh en th e

r
.
section p l a ne is ob lique t o the ax is o the b a se the ,
se ction will b e an ellip se .
F ig . 42 .
X X XIII To dr aw the s e ct ion of a cyl in d e by a

. r
p l a n e ob l iqu e to th e ax i s.
L e t A B C D (Fi g 4 2 ) b e th e p r o j ection of a c y l in
.
der of wh i ch the c ircle E H F K repre sents the b ase

,
divided into twenty eq u al p arts at b c d e & c and let ,

.
,
it b e re quire d t o draw the se cti o n m ade by t h e p l a ne

S OL ID G E O M E T RY 71
A C Th e c irc u lar b as e m u st b e drawn in s u ch a p osi

'
tion th a t th e a x is of the cylinder when p ro d u ce d

m eets th e Centre of the circle Thro u gh the c entre of .
the c irc le draw t h e di ameter H K p erp endic u lar t o the

ax is prod u ce d Then thro u gh the divisions of th e
.
b a se b c d & c dr a w line s p arallel to the a x i s a nd

meet in g the se ction p lane in 1 2 3 & c a nd thro u gh
,
.
, , ,
.
, , , ,
th ese p o int s draw p erp endic u l a rs t o A C m a kin g them

e q ua l to the corresp ondin g p erp endi c u lars fr om H K ,
i e 1 b 2 c 3 d & c A c u rve dr a wn thr ou gh the p oint s

, , , ,
.
th u s fo u nd will b e a n elli p se the tr u e se cti on of ,
A B C D on th e p lane A C f
"
Th e Con e A c on e may b e c u t by a p lane in fi v e d if

r
.
fe e n t w ays p ro duc in g what are c a lle d the c oni c sec

,
tions : l s t If it is c u t by a p l a n e pa ssin g thro u gh t h e

.
a x is the sectio n is a trian gle h a vin g th e ax is of a

r
, ,
c on e a s its h ei gh t the di ameter of the b a se f o its b a se

, ,
a n d th e sid es fo r its side s If the p l a ne pa sse s thro u gh .
'
t h e verte x with out p a s s in g thr ou gh the ax i s a s c c
, ,
(Fi g th e section will still b e a tri a n gle h avin g

.
,
for its b ase the chord c e for its a ltit u d e t h e line 0 e

r
, ,
a nd f o its side s the side s o f the c on e of which t h e ,
lines c e o e a re the h orizontal a nd t h e line 0 e t h e

,
verti c a l p roj e ctions 2 n d I f th e c one i s cu t p a r a llel to

. .
b ase as in g h the section will b e a c irc le of wh ich

r
, , ,
g h wi l l b e th e diameter 3 d When the s ection p l a n e . .
is o b l iqu e to the a xis and p a sse s thro u gh the O pp o

’
site sides o f the c on e a s m p h the section wi l l b e , ,
an ellip s e m n 11 4 th Wh en th e p lane is p arallel t o

, . .
on e o f the side s o f th e con e a s r h th e resultin g sec , ,
*
Th e
c yl i n d e r
p oin t
.
is a ssu me d to be izi t h e r
in f e ior h a lf of th e
72 M O D E RN CARP EN TRY
Fig . 43 .
tion is a p a r a b ol a r s h t 11 5 th When t h e section

. .
plane is suc h a s to p ass thr o ug h th e sides of another

c o ne formed by p rod u cin g th e sides o f the first b e
74 M OD ERN CARP E N TR Y
of proc ed u re is the sam e as for t h e ellip se T h e ver .
t i c al proj e cti on of th e p a r a b ol a u s h t u is sh o wn a t
ushta
The proj ec tions of the se ction plane which p ro du c es
r
the hyp erb ola a re in th is c a s e s t a ig h t lines q h z h
r
'
, , .
X XX I V To d aw th e s e ction of a c o n e ma d e by a
.
p l an e cuttin g b oth it s s id e s i e a n e lli p s e

, . .
, .
F ig . 44 .
L A D B (Fi g 4 4 ) b e t h e verti c al p r o j ection of

et .
t h e c on e A C E t h e h o riz o nt al pr o j e ction of half its

b ase and E F th e line o f section Fr o m t h e p oints E
,
.
a nd F let fa l l on A B t h e p erp endicul a rs E G F H , .

SO L I D G E O M ET RY 75
T a ke a ny p oints in E F as k l m n & c and fr o m

r
, , , , ,
.
,
t h em draw lines p arallel to A B a s k p l q m &c , , , ,

.
,
and also line s p erp endicular to A B a s k l 1 2 m 3 & c , , , .
Also from p q r & c let f a ll p erp endicul a rs on A B

r
, , ,
.
, ,
namely p a q z y & c From th e c entre of t h e b ase

, , , , .
of t h e cone 1 with radius la l z l y & c de scrib e ares

, , , , ,
.
,
c u ttin g th e p erpendicul ars let fall from k l m & c in , , ,

.
,
1 2 3 &c
, ,
A curve trac ed thro u gh t h ese p o ints will
, .
b e th e ho rizont a l proj e ction of t h e se cti o n m ade by t h e

p lane E F To find the tr u e secti o n —T h ro u gh k l
.
, , ,
m & c draw kt l u m v n w p erp endicular thro u gh

,
.
, , , , ,
E F and m ake them r es p ective ly equal to t h e c orre

,
s p on d in g ordinate s 5 1 6 2 7 3 & c of t h e h o r i zont a l , , , ,

.
,
proj e c tion G 4 H and p oints wi l l b e obtained t h rou gh ,
wh ich t h e h alf E w F of the r e quire d ellipse c an b e

trac ed I t is ob vi o us th at p ra cti c ally it i s n e c essary
.
,
only t o fi n d th e minor a x i s o f th e el l i p se t h e m aj or ,
.
ax is E F b ein g given
rw
.
XXXV To dma d e by a th e s ec t ion of a
r r
. a con e
p l a n e p a a ll e l t o on e of it s s id e s i e a pa ab o l a , . .
, .
L e t A D B (Fi g 45 ) b e the verti c al pr o j e cti o n o f a .
ri ght c one and A C E half the p lan of its b ase ; and

,
let E F b e t h e line o f section I n E F t ak e any nu mb er .
o f p o ints E a b c e F an d t h r o u gh t h em draw l ine s

, , , , , , ,
E H a 61 b 7 2 &c perp end ic u lar to A B and a l so

line s p arallel t o A B m
,
.
, , , ,
eetin g the side o f t h e c one in ,
f g h k 1 : from these let fa l l p erpendic u lars o n A B

, , , , ,
m eetin g it in m n o p q From t h e c entre o f the b ase , , ,

.
1 wit h t h e radii 1m In 10 & c describ e arc s c uttin g

, , , ,
.
,
the p erp endi culars let fall from th e se ction line in the
p oints 1 2 3 4 5 ; and throu gh t h e p o ints o f in t e s e c
, , , ,
r
tion trac e th e li e H 1 23 45 G which i s t h e h orizont al n .
,
76 M O D E RN CARP E N TRY
pr o j ection o f t h e se ct ion T o fi n d t h e tr u e section
.
,
fr o m E a b c d e raise p erp endi c ul ars to E F and

, , , , , , ,
m ake th em r esp ectively e qual to the ordin a tes in th e

h orizontal p roj ection a s E r e qual t o E H a s equal to
, ,
F ig . 45 .
6 1, &c . and the points r s t u v w in th e c urve will b e

,
o btaine d T h e ot h er h alf o f th e p arab o la c a n b e draw n

.
by pr o duc in g t h e ord inates w e v d & c and settin g , ,
t h e sa m e distanc es t o t h e ri gh t o f E F .
S OL ID G E O M E TRY 77
XXXV I To d rw th e t ion of a c on e ma d e by a
r r
. a s ec
l a n e p a a l l e l t o t h e a x is i e a n h y p e b ol a
p , . .
, .
L e t d c d (Fi g 4 6 ) b e th e ve rt i c al p roj e ction o f t h e

r
.
c on e d q d on e h a lf of t h e h orizontal proj e ction of

,
th e b ase and q r t h e se ction plane D ivide the line r q

,
.
into any numb er of e qual p arts in 1 2 3 h & c an d , , , ,

.
,
F ig . 46 .
r
th o u gh them dr a w line s p er p e n di c u l a r to d d From .
c as c entre with the radii c l c 2 & c describ e the arc s

, , ,
.
,
cuttin g d d ; a nd from the p oint s o f interse ction dr a w

p erpendic u l a rs c u ttin g the side s o f the c one in 1 2 3 , , ,
and these hei ghts tr a nsferre d to the c orrespondin g p er

r
p e n d icul a s dr a wn directly from th e p oints 1 , 2 , 3 , & c ,
r
.
in q, will g iv e p oints in the c u rv e .

X XX VI I To d a w th e s e ct ion . r of a cun eoid ma d e
by a pl an e cut t i n g b oth it s s i d e s .
L et A C B (N o b e t h e vertic al proj e c ti o n
. 1, Fi g . 47 )
o f t h e c un e o id and A 5 B t h e plan of its b ase and
r
, ,
A B (N o 4 ) t h e len gt h o f the ar i s at C and let D E

.
,
b e the line o f section D ivide the semi c irc l e o f t h e .

-
b ase into any numb er o f p arts 1 2 3 4 5 & c and , , , , , ,

.
,
thro u gh th em draw p erp endic ulars t o A B cuttin g it ,
in l m n o p & c and j oin Cl C m Cn & c by line s

, , , , ,
.
, , , , .
,
cuttin g the sect ion line in 6 7 8 9 & c Fr o m t h ese , , ,

.
p oints draw lines p erpendic u l a r t o D E and m ak e

them e q u al to t h e c orrespondin g ordinates of the semi
circle either by transferrin g th e len gt h s by the c om
r
,
p asse s o by p ro ce edin g as s h own in t h e fi gure T h e

,
.
c u rve drawn t h ro u g h t h e p o ints t hu s obt ained will give

the required s ec tion .
The se cti o n o n the line D K i s s h own in No 2 i n .

,
w h ic h A B e qu als D K ; and t h e divisi o ns e f g h k in

D K & c are transferred t o th e c orrespond in g p o ints
,
.
,
on A B ; a nd the ordinates e 1 f m g n & c are made , , ,

.
,
e qu al t o t h e c o rrespondin g o rdinates l l m2 n 3 of t h e , , ,
semi c ircle of the b ase I n like m anner t h e section of

r
-
.
,
the line G H sho wn in No 3 i s d a wn fi “

r r
.
, ,
XXXVIII To d e s c ib e t h e s e cti on of a cyl in d e

r r
.
ma d e by a cu v e cutt in g th e cylind e .
L e t A B D E (Fi g 4 8 ) be t h e p r o j e cti o n of the c y l in .
de r a n d C D the line of t h e se ction req uired O n A B

, , .
A cu n e o id is a s ol id e n d in g in a s t a ig h t l in e , in whi c , if r h
r r
*
f o m t h a t p o in t m a y b e r
r
a n y po in t b e t a k e n , a p e p e n d ic ul a
ma d e t o c o in c i d e wit h t h e s u f a ce
r
T h e b a s e o f th e c un e o id
r
.
ma y b e o f a n y f o m ; b ut in a c h ite c t u e it is us ua l l y s e mi r
r
c i c ul a o r r
s e mi e l l ip tic a l , a n d p a a l l e l t o t h e s t a ig h t l in e
-
r r
f o min g t h e oth e e n d
r r .
S O L ID G E O M ET RY 79
describ e a semi c ircle and divide it int o a ny numb er o f

-
p arts From the p o ints of d ivisio n draw ordinate s 1 h

.
,
2 k 31 4 m & c and p r o du c e t h em t o me et the line o f

r
, ,
.
, ,
secti o n in O p q r s t u v w Bend a rule o slip

, , , , , , , ,
.
Of p ap er t o the lin e C D and pri c k o ff on its p o ints C , ,
F ig . 47 .
o p q & c ; t h en draw any strai g h t line F G a nd un

, , , .
, ,
b endin g th e rule t r a nsfe r th e p oints C o p q & c t o, , , , ,
F a b c d & c Draw th e o rdinat es a 1 b 2 c 3 & c

, , , , ,
]
.
, , ,
.
,
and m ak e them respectively e q u al to the ordinates h 1

r
,
k 2 1 3 & c , a n d t h o u gh th e p o int s fo und tr a c e th e

‘
.
, ,
c u rve .
M O D E RN CARP E NTRY
XX X I X . To d es c ib e th e r s e ct ion of a s ph e r e .
L A B D C (Fi g 4 9 ) b e the great c ircle of a sphere

et .
,
and F G t h e line of t h e se ction requi red Th en sinc e a l l

r
.
t h e se ctions of a gl ob e o sp h ere are c ircles o n F G de

r
,
scrib e a semi circle F 4 G which will b e th e secti o n e

-
quired .
F ig . 48 .
O rin F G tak
, e a ny n u mb er of p oints a s m l k , , , ,
H,
a nd from t h e c entre of th e gre at circle E describ e the ,
a rcs H n k 0 1 p m q and dr aw the ordinates H 4 k 3

, , , , , ,
1 2 ml and n 4 0 3 p 2 q l ; then make the ordin a te s

, , , , ,
o n F G equal t o those on B C and t h e points so oh ,
*
t a in ed wil l
give the section required
Th e p ro j e ct io n s o f s e ct io n s o f s p h e re s a r
.
if t h e s e ction
pa n e s a r e it h e r s t r r r
*
e ,
e o b l iq u e a ig h t l in e s o
, e l l ips e s a nd a e ,
f ou n d a s f ol l o ws :
L e t a b (F ig 5 0 ) b e t h e h o iz on t a l p o e c t io n o f t h e s e c
. r rj
r
t i on p l a n e O n t h e l in e o f s e c t io n t a k e a n y n u mb e o f p oin t s ,
. r
a s a , c , b , a n d t h oug h e a ch of th e m d a w a l in e pa pe n a lcul a
r r r -
to y w .
O rthe
secti o n m ay b e foun d by t h e m et h od of o
,
r
d in a t e s th u s : As t h e section of the el l ipsoid on t h e
,
l in e A C is a c ircle fro m t h e point o f interse c ti on o f ,
B D and A C describ e a semicircle A E C T h en on .
H G t h e line of secti o n take any nu mb er o f p o ints 1

m p a nd fr omt h em ra ise perpendi c ulars cutting t h e
, , , ,
, ,
e l lipse in q r s F ro m q r s draw lines perpendicu l ar

, , .
, ,
t o A C c uttin g it in t h e po ints 4 5 6 ; and a gain fro m

, , , ,
th e interse ction of B D and A C as c entre draw t h e

arcs 4 1 5 m 6n C o cuttin g H G in l m n 0 ; t h en
, , , , ,
.
, ,
H o set o ff on t h e perpendi c ular from H t o K is t h e

, ,
hei g h t o f t h e se c tion ; and t h e h ei gh ts H n M m H1 .

, , ,
set O ff on t h e p erp endi c u l a rs fr o m 1 t o 3 n t o 2 and ,

.
p to 1 give t h e h ei g h ts o f t h e ordinates
,
.
XL I the s ecti on O f a cy lin d r ic a l rin g p er

TO fi n d
r r
.
p endic u l a t o th e p l a ne pa ssin g th o ug h the a x is of the

ri n g th e line of sec t ion b eing g iven
, .
L A B E D (Fi g 5 2 ) b e t h e se cti o n t h r o ug h t h e
et .
axis o f t h e rin g A B a strai g h t l ine p as sin g t h rou g h ,
t h e c onc entri c c i r c les t o t h e c e n tre C and D E b e t h e ,
lin e of secti on O n A B des c rib e a se m i c irc l e ; take in

.
its c ircu mferen c e any p o ints a s 1 2 3 4 5 & c and , , , , , ,

.
,
draw t h e ordinates 1 f 2 g 3 11 4 k & c T h r o u gh t h e , , , ,

.
p oints f g h k l & c w h ere t h e o rdinates me et t h e

, , , , ,
.
,
line A B a n d from t h e c entre C draw c o ncentri c c ir

, ,
c l es cut tin g t h e secti o n line in m n o p q & c

, , , , , ,
.
T h rou g h t h ese p oints draw t h e lines m 1 n 2 o 3 & c , , ,

.
,
perp endicular t o t h e secti on l ine a n d transfer t o t h e m ,
t h e h ei g h ts of t h e o rdinat es of t h e se m i c ir c l e f 1 g 2 , ,
& c ; t h en t h rou g h t h e p o ints 1 2 3 4 & c draw t h e

.
, , , ,
.
,
curve D 5 E w h ic h i s t h e se c tion re quired,

.
Again let R S b e t h e line o f t h e require d secti o n ;

,
t h en fro m t h e p o ints t u v w c x d & c whe re t h e , , , , , , ,

.
,
c o n c entri c c ircles cut t h is l ine draw t h e lines t 1 u 2 , , ,
v 3 & c p erpendi c ular t o R S and transfer to t h e m t h e

,
.
, ,
c o rre sp o ndin g ordinates o f t h e se m i c ir c l e ; and t h rou gh
t h e p o ints 1 2 3 4 e 5 f & c dra w the curve R e f S

, , , , , , ,
.
, ,
w h ich i s t h e section re quired .
F ig . 52 .
XL II To r
desc ib e t h e s e ction of a s olid e s ol u r
r r
.
tio n the g e ne a tin g c u v e of whi ch is a n og e e

r
.
L e t A D B (Fi g 5 3 ) b e h alf t h e pla n o b ase o f t h e

r
.
s o l id A a b B t h e v e t ic a l se cti o n t h roug h its axis and

’
. ,
E F t h e line o f se c ti o n require d From G draw C 5

'
perpendi cul a r to E F and b ise ctin g it in m In E m

'
,
.
84 M O D E RN CARPE NTRY
take any nu mb er o f p o ints g h k & c and t h rou gh , , .
,
t h em draw t h e lines g 1 h 2 k 3 & c p erp endi c ular t o , , ,

.
,
E F T h en from C as a c entre t h r o ugh t h e p o ints g

.
, ,
h k & c draw c oncentric arc s c uttin g A B in r s t u ,

, , .
, , , ,
v and thr o u g h t h e se p oints draw t h e o rdinates r 5 s 4

r r
, , ,
t 3 & c pe pe n d icul a t o A B Transfer t h e h ei g h ts

,
.
,
.
o f t h e ordina t es on A B to t h e c o rresp o ndin g ordinate s
on each side o f t h e c entre o f E F ; and t h r o u gh t h e

p o ints 1 2 3 4 5 & c draw the c urve E 5 F w h ich
, , , , ,
.
, ,
is th e secti o n required .
F ig . 53 . F ig . 54 .
X L II I tio n of a s olid of e s ol u t ion ,

To fi n d t h e r
r r r
. s ec
t h e g e n e a t in g cu v e of whi c h is of a l a n c e t f o m .
L e t A D B (Fi g 54 ) b e the plan of h alf the b ase A

r
.
,
E B the verti c al section and F G t h e line of the e ,
q u ire d section The m a nner of findin g the ordin a tes

.
SO L I D G E O M ETRY 85
a nd transferrin g th e hei g h ts is pre c isely th e same as in

t h e last pr o b lem
r
.
XL IV TO fi n d th e s e cti on of a n og ee py a mid with

.
a h e x a g on a l b as e .
L A D E F B (Fi g 5 5 ) b e th e plan of the b ase of

et .
th e pyra m id A a b B a verti cal se ction t h rou g h its

,
axis and G H t h e line of t h e re quired se ction D raw

, .
t h e arrises C D C E C E O n the line of se cti o n G H

, , .
,
a t t h e points o f intersection of t h e arrises with it a nd ,
F ig . 55 .
at some intermediate p oints k m 0 q (th e c orresp ond , , ,
in g points k and q an d m and 0 b ein g equidist a nt , ,
from n ) ra ise indefinit e p erpendic u lar s

,
Thro u gh .
these po ints k l m n o p q dr a w line s pa r a lle l to

, , , , , ,
.
,
the sides of the b ase as sh own by dotted lines ; a nd

‘
fr o m t h e p o ints wher e these p a rallels meet the line

A B draw r 4 s 3 t 2 u 1 p er p endicular to A B These
, , , , , .
perp endi c ulars transferred t o th e ordin a tes n 4 m 3 , ,
o 5 12 p 6 k 1
, ,
q 7 will give the p oints 1 2 3 4 5 6
, , , , , , , , ,
7 throug h w h ic h the section c a n b e drawn

,
.
M OD E RN CARP E NTRY
6 . INTER S E C T IO N S O F CURV E D S UR FA CE S .
Wh en s o l ids h avin g c urved surfa c e s penetr at e

tw o
'
or r
intersect e a c h o t h e t h e interse c ti o ns Of t h eir sur
,
fac es f o rm curved l ines o f vari o us kin d s S om e o f .
t h ese a s t h e c ir c le t h e e ll ipse & c c a n b e obtained in

, , ,
.
,
t h e p l ane ; but t h e ot h ers c ann o t and are n a m ed c urves

,
of doub l e curvature T h e so l uti o n o f t h e f o ll o w in g

.
prob l e m s dep ends c h iefly on t h e kn o wl edge o f h ow t o

o btain in t h e m ost advantage o us m anne r t h e p o r
r
, ,
j e c t ion s O f a point on a cu ved surfa c e ; and is in fa c t

t h e app l i c a t ion o f t h e p rin c iples e l u c i d ated in t h e sev
eral previ o us pr o b l e m s T h e manner o f c o nstru c tin g
.
t h e interse c ti ons o f t h ese curve d surfac es w h i c h is t h e

si mple st and mo st general in its app l i c ati on c onsi sts in ,
c o nce ivin g t h e solids to w h i c h t h ey b e l o n g as c u t by
plane s acc o rdin g t o c ertain c o nditi ons m o re o l ess ,

r
dependent o n t h e n ature of t h e surfa c es T h ese sec .
tion p lanes m a y b e drawn p ara l l e l t o o n e o f t h e p l anes

o f the pr o j ecti o n ; and as a l l t h e p o ints of interse c ti o n
o f t h e surfac e s ar e f o un d in t h e se cti o n p l ane s o on ,

r
on e of t h eir pr o j e c ti o ns it i s a l w ays easy t o c o nstru c t
,
t h e c urves by transferrin g t h ese p o ints t o t h e o t h er

proj e ction of t h e p l anes .
XL V .p roj ec tion of two equa l cylind e rs which

Th e
interse ct a t r ight a ngles b eing given to fi n d t h e p ro ,
j e ct ion s of t h eir intersections .
C o nce ive in th e h o ri z ontal pr o j e cti o n (Fig

,
a .
s eri es o f vertic al p lanes cuttin g t h e c ylinders par a l l el
t o their axis T h e verti c a l pr o j e c ti ons o f a ll t h e s e c

.
‘
ti o ns wi l l b e s o m any ri g h t an gl e d p aral l elo gra ms s im

-
,
il a rt
o e f e f w h ic h is t h e r esu l t of t h e se ction o f the
,
cy l inde r fr o m surfa c e t o surfac e Th e cir cu mferen c e .
of t h e se cond c ylinde r w h ose axis is vertic a l is c u t by

, ,
t h e sa m e plane w h i c h meets its u pp er surfa c e at t h e

,
two points g h and its un der surfa ce at t w o c orre

, ,
s p on d in g p o ints T h e vertic al pr o j e c tion s of t h ese

r
.
p o in t s a e o n t h e lines p erp endicu l ar t o a b raised o n

~
.
,
F ig . 56 .
ea c h o f th e m s o t h at up on t h e lines e f e f w1 ll b e
, , ,
situated t h e interse c ti o ns of t h ese l ines at t h e po m t s g ,
h and g h and t h e sa m e with Ot h er p o ints i k l m

r
, , , , ,
.
I t is not ne c ess a ry to draw a plan to find t h ese p o

j e c t ion s All t h at is actually re q uire d is t o draw t h e
.
c ir c le representin g on e o f t h e b ase s (as n o ) O f t h e

c y l inder l ai d flat on t h e h ori z o nta l p l ane T h en t o
r
.
pr o duc e g h till it cuts the c i cl e a t t h e superior and

inferior p oints G G a nd to take the hei g h t s e G
, , ,
a nd c a rry them up on a b , from g t o g g and from

,
h h
r
.
,
Fi g 5 7 is the ve t ic al p roj ection m a de on the

.
x z .
F ig . 57 .
r r
X L VI To con s t uct th e p oj e ction s of t wo u n e qua l
r r r
.
cy l in d e s wh os e a x is in t e s e ct e a c h oth e obli qu e l y .
L e t A (Fi g 5 8 ) b e the vertic a l p roj ection o f th e two

.
cylinders a nd h S d e th e horizontal p roj ection O f the ir

,
axis Con ceive in th e verti c al proj e c ti o n the cy lin

.
,
ders cut by any nu mb er of h oriz o nt a l plan es ; t h e h ori

z on t a l p roj e c ti o ns Of t h e se planes w i l l b e re c tan g l es ,
as in the previous ex a mple and their sides will b e,
parallel to the axis o f the cyli n ders .
The points of intersection O f th ese lines wi ll b e the

p oints so u ght Wit h out any previous Op eration six of
r
.
,
t h es e p oints of intersecti o n c a n b e obtained F o ex .
a mple t h e p oint e i s situated on d e t h e h ighest p oint ,
o f th e smaller cylinder ; c onsequently th e h o riz ontal

,
proj e c ti on of c i s on d e the h orizont a l proj ection o f

,
p p Th u s six p o ints are Ob tained T a k e at pleasure
. .
an inter m ediate p o int q ; t h r o ug h t h is p oint draw a

line r s p aral l el t o a b w h i c h wil l b e t h e vertic a l pro
,
j e c t io n o f a h orizontal p l ane c ut tin g t h e cy l inder in

q T h e h oriz o ntal pr o j e c ti o n o f t h is secti o n w i l l b e as
.
,
in t h e pre c edin g ex a mp l es a rectan gle w h ic h is O b ,
t a in e d by t akin g in t h e verti c al pr o j e c ti on t h e h ei g h t
‘
, ,
o f t h e se c tion plane ab o ve t h e axis d e and c arryin g it ,
o n t h e b ase in t h e h oriz o ntal proj ection fr o m G t o T
r
.
T h rough T is t h en t o b e drawn t h e l ine ! U p e pe n

r
d ic u l a t o G T ; and t h r o ug h ! and U t h e l ines parallel
t o t h e ax is ; and t h e p o ints in w h i c h t h ese l ines are in
r
t e s e c t e d by t h e perpendiculars let fa l l fr o m q u are
t h e inter m edi ate p o ints required Any numb er o f inter .
mediate p o ints c a n t h us b e Obtaine d ; and t h e c urve

b e in g drawn t h rou g h t h e m t h e Op erati o n is c o mplet ed ,
.
XL VH . To fin d th e inters ec tions Of a s p her e an d a .
cylind e r .
L e f c d and i k g 11 (Fi g 5 9 ) b e t h e h o ri z o ntal p o

et . r
j e c t io n s Of t h e sp h e re and cylinder respe c t ive ly Draw .
p ara l l el t o A B as many verti c al se c ti on p l anes are

,
c o nsidere d ne c essary as e f c (1 T h ese p l anes cut a t, ,

.
t h e sa m e ti m e b o t h t h e sp h ere and t h e cylinder and ,
t h e re sult o f ea c h secti o n w i ll b e a c ircle in t h e c ase

o f t h e sp h ere and a re c tan g l e in t h e c ase o f t h e cy l in
,
der T h r o ug h e ac h Of t h e p o ints o f interse c ti o n g h

.
, ,
i k and fr o m t h e c entre 1 draw indefinite l ines p er

r
, , ,
p e n d ic u l a to A B Tak e t h e radius Of t h e c ir c l es Of
.
t h e sp h ere pr o pe r t o e a c h O f t h ese secti o ns a n d wit h

t h em fro m t h e c entre 1 cut t h e corresp o ndent p e p e n r
r
, ,
d ic ul a s in g g h h i i & c and draw t h r o ug h t h ese

, , ,
.
,
p o ints t h e c urves o f interse c ti o n .

S OL ID G E O M E TR Y
X L V I II TO c o n str u ct t h e interse ction Of t wo ig h t

. r
c ones with circ u l a r b a s e s .
T h e s o lution of t h is p r o b l e m is f o unded on th e
kn o wled ge Of t h e m e ans o f o bt ainin g o n o n e o f t h e
p r o j e ctions of a c o ne a p o int given on t h e o t h er .
F ig . 59 . F ig . 60 .
NO . 1 . A B (Fi g 60 ) b e t h e c o mm o n se ction of
L et .
t h e t wo planes o f pr o j e ct i o n t h e c ir c l es g d e f and
,
g h i k t h e h o riz o nta l pr o j e ct i o ns o f t h e given c on es

r
,
and t h e tri angle s d i f and h l k t h e ir verti c al p oj e c

ti ons S upp o se t h ese c o nes cut by a seri es o f h oriz o n
.
t a l p l anes : e ach se c ti o n wi l l c o nsist Of t w o c ir c les t h e ,

intersecti o ns of w h ich will b e p o ints of interse ction

o f t h e c o nic al surfa c es r
F o ex a mple t h e se c tion m ade
.
,
by a plane m n wi l l h a ve for its h orizont al pr o j e cti o ns

r
t wo c ircles o f d ifi e e n t di a m eters the radius o f t h e
,
on e b ein g i m and Of t h e ot h er 1 0 T h e intersectin g
r
.
,
p o ints of t h e se are p and q and t h ese p oints are c o m

r
,
mon to t h e t w o c ircu m feren c es ; and t h ei vertic al p o

j e ct io n on t h e plane m n wil l b e p q T h us as m any .
,
p oints m ay b e found as is n ecess ary t o c om p lete th e

curve .
But there are c erta in point s Of interse ction which

c ann o t b e ri gorousl y estab lis h e d by t h is met h od with
ou t a great de al of m anipulation T h e point r in the
r
.
fi gure is o n e of t h o se ; f o it wil l b e seen that at that

p oint t h e t wo c ir c les must b e tangents to e ach other ,
and it would b e di fficult t o fix t h e pla c e o f t h e sec

ti o n plane s t s o ex act l y by trial t h at it wo u ld j ust
,
p ass t h rough t h e p oint .
It wi l l b e seen t h at t h e p o int r m u st b e situated in

t h e h oriz o ntal proj e ction o f t h e line g i a p e pe n d icu r
lar 1 1 equal t o t h e h eig h t of t h e c one From o n e raise .
a p erpendi cular and make it e qua l to t h e h ei g h t Of t h e

se c o nd cone and draw its side L i ; and fro m t h e point
,
o f intersecti o n R let fa l l a perpendicular on g i m eet
in g it in r ; t h roug h r draw an indefinite line p e p e n r

d ic u l a r
to A B a n d set u p on it from A B to r t h e
r
,
h ei gh t R T h e p o int r c an a l s o b e Obt ained dire c tl y

.
in t h e vertic a l p roj e c tion b y j oinin g i g and l i as

s h own
r
.
Bise ct g in u and fr o m u a s a c entre with t h e

r
, ,
r adius u describ e a c ircle t h e circu mferenc e o f

r
, ,
w h i c h wil l b e the h orizontal pr o j ection O f t h e in t e s e c

SO L I D G E O M E TRY 93
tion of the two c ones T h e verti c al proj e cti on o f t h is

.
circle will b e g p r q and c an b e foun d by t h e metho d

,
indic ate d ab ove .
NO 2. C o nc eive the horizontal p r o j e c tion (Fi g 61

. .
,
N o 1 ) a vert i c a l p l ane C D c uttin g b ot h c ones t h rou gh

.
their a x is : the sections will b e t wo triangles h avin g ,
No 2
‘
the diameters o f t h e b a se s o f th e c one s a s the ir b ases ,
and th e h ei g h t of the cones as their hei g h t And as in

r
.
the ex ample t h e c ones a e e q u al the tr ian gle s will als o

,
b e eq u al a s the trian gles c e f g f d in the vertic al

, , ,
pr o j e ction C on ceive now a n u mb er of inc l ine d

.
plane s a s c u m e k p & c p assin g thro u g h the di ff er

, , ,
.
,
ent p oints o f t h e b ase b u t sti l l p assin g t h ro u gh th e

,
su mmits Of t h e c one s ; the se cti o ns w h i c h result wil l

still b e tri a n gl es (as h as alre ady b een demonstrated )
r
,
whose b a ses dimini s h in pr o p o rtion a s t h e p lanes e

c
'
r
ede fr o m th e c e n t e s of t h e b ases o f t h e c o nes until ,
at len gth t h e plane b ec om es a t angent t o b o t h c ones

and t h e result is a tan gent l ine Wh o se pr o j e c ti ons are
11 c h c g e f f I t wil l b e Ob serve d t h at t h e cir c u m
r
.
, , ,
f e e n c e s of t h e b ase s cu t e ac h o t h er at m and i w h i c h
r
,
are t h e first p o ints o f t h eir interse c ti ons w h o se v e t ifi ,
c a l pr o j ecti o ns are t h e p o int m mere l y If t h e pro .
j e ct ion s of t h e o t h er p o ints o f i n terse c ti on on t h e l ine s

o f t h e secti o n p l an es are f o und (an o peration pre sent
in g n o di fficu l ty and easi l y un d erst o o d by t h e in s p e c

,
ti o n Of t h e fi gure ) it wi l l b e seen t h at t h e triang l e s

r
,
n c m m c o k e p q e r & c in t h e h o ri z o nta l p o j e c
r
.
, , , , ,
ti o n h ave f o t h eir verti c al pr o j e c ti ons t h e triangl es

,
n e m m o k e p & c and t h a t t h e interse c ti o ns o f t h e

, , ,
.
,
c o nes are in a p l ane perp en d i c u l ar t o b ot h p l ane s o f
pr o j e cti o n and t h e pr o j e c ti o ns of t h e interse c ti ons are

,
t h e rig h t l ines i m m 3 Fr o m t h e kn o wn pr o perties

;
.
,
o f t h e c o ni c se c ti ons t h e c urve pr o du c ed by t h is p l ane
r
,
wi ll b e a h yperb o l a Fi g 61 N O 2 gives t h e p o j e c . .
,
.
,
ti o ns o f t h e c ones on th e l ine o x
r
.
. NO .T h e next ex a m p l e (Fi g 62 ) d ifi e s fr o m
3 . .
t h e last in t h e ine qua l ity o f t h e size Of t h e c on es S up

r
.
pose a n indefinite l ine C D t o b e t h e h o riz onta l p oj e c

ti o n o f the verti c a l se c t i o n p l ane c uttin g t h e two c o nes ,
t h roug h t h eir ax is e f Con c eive in t h is p l ane an in .

v
definite lin e e f D passin g t h r o ug h t h e su mmits o f t h e

,
c o nes t h e verti c a l pr o j e c ti o n o f t h is l in e wi l l b e e f d
,
fr o m d l e t fa l l on C D a perpen d i c ular m eetin g it in D ;

t h is wi l l b e t h e p o int in w h ic h t h e l ine p assin g t h r o u g h
t h e su mm its Of t h e c ones wi ll m eet t h e h o ri z ontal
p l an e ; and it i s t h r ou gh t h is p o int and t h r ou gh t h e ,
su mmits e and f t h at t h e inclined secti on p l anes should

,
b e m ade to p ass T h e h o ri z ontal tra c es o f t h ese planes

.
are O D G D & c : O D is t h en t h e tra c e o f a tangent

‘
r
, , .
p lane t o t h e t wo c onic al su fa c es O e P f ; and t h e ,
p l ane e G D cuts t h e gre ater c one and f o r m s by t h e ,
se c ti o n t h e triangles G e H in t h e hori z o nta l and g e h ,
in t h e vertic a l proj ecti o n ; and it cuts t h e lesser c o ne ,
and f o r m s t h e triangles l f J i f j I n t h e h oriz onta l

,
.
F ig . 62 .
pr o j ection it is seen t h at t h e si des H e I f o f t h e tri an ,
g l es interse c t in k w h i c h is t h eref o re t h e h o riz o ntal

,
pr o j ecti o n of on e of t h e p o ints o f interse c ti o n ; a n d

its verti c al pr o j e c t i o n i s k I n t h e sa m e m anner o t h er
.
,
p o ints c a n b e f o und I t is seen at o nc e t h at M N l

.
, , ,
are a l s o p o ints in t h e interse c ti o n T h e c urves tra c e d

.
t h r o ug h t h e points M k l N in t h e h o ri z o nta l and m k l ,
in t h e vertic al proj e c ti o n are t h e pr o j e c ti o ns of the

,
intersecti o n of t h e t wo c o nes .
7 . CO VE RI N G S O F S O L ID S .
1 . R e gula r ly dr Po he
A solid an gle c annot b e
on s .
formed with fewer t h an thre e plane angles The sim .
pl e s t solid is therefore ; the t etrahedron or p yr a mi d

,
having a n eq u ilateral trian gle for its b ase and its other ,
t h ree sides formed of similar trian gles .
The development o f t h i s fi gu re (Fi g 63 ) i s made by .
drawin g the trian gul a r b ase A B C and then drawin g ,
a round it t h e trian gles formin g t h e inc lined sides If .
the di agram is on flexible m aterial s u ch as p ap er then , ,
cut o u t and th e trian gles folded on the lines A B B C

, , ,
C A t h e solid fi g u r e will b e c onstr u cted

,
.
F ig . 63 . F ig . 64 .
r r
The h e x a h e d on o c u b e is c omp o sed Of six e q u al
r
, ,
squares (Fi g t h e oc t a h e d on (Fi g 65 ) O f ei ght

r
. .
equilateral trian gles ; t h e d od ec a h e d on (Fig 66 ) o f

r
.
twelve penta g o ns ; the ico s a h e d on (Fi g 67 ) o f twenty .

teen faces comp o se d O f six o cta g ons un ited by ei ght
, ,
equilateral trian gles .
T h e same Op eration p erformed o n t h e o cta h edr on

pr o duce s fourteen fa ces o f w h ich ei g h t are h exa g o nal
,
and s ix square ; on t h e dode c a h edron it gives thirty

t wo sides n amely twelve dec a gons and twenty trian
, , ,
gles ; on the i c o sa h edr o n it gives t h irty two sides -
twelve t e n t a g on s and twenty h ex agons T h is last a p

r
.
p oa c h e s alm o st t o t h e globu l ar form and c an b e rolled

like a b a l l .
F ig . 67 .
The other solids which h ave plane su rfaces are t h e

pyra m ids and prism s T h e se may b e re gular and irre g
r
.
u l ar : th ey m a y have t h eir axis p erpendicular o in

c l in e d ; they may b e trunc ated o r
cut with a section ,
p ar a llel or obli qu e
, t o their b ase .
II . r
Py a mid s Th edevelopment o f a r i ght pyra
.
mid ,
and t h e hei g h t are given O ff ers
o f which th e b ase ,
n o di ffic u lty Th e oper a tion c onsists (Fi g 68 ) in ele

. .
v a t in g on e ach sid e o f the b ase a tri an gle h a vin g its

r
,
h ei ght e q ua l to the in clined hei g h t Of e ach side o , ,
otherwise c onne ctin g th e sides to get h e r as shown by

, ,
the dotted lines .
F ig . 68 . F ig . 69 .
In an Ob lique pyramid the development is f o und as

fo l lows : L e t a b c d (Fi g 69 ) b e the plan of t h e b ase
O f t h e pyr am id a b c d its h orizontal pr o j e ction and
, ,
E F G its verti c al proj ection T h en on the side d c

r
.
const u ct the tri angl e c R d m akin g its h ei ght e q u al

,
to the sl o pin g side o f th e pyramid F G This tri a n gle .
is th e d eve lo p m e nt of the side c of t h e p yr a mi d .

1 00 M O D E RN CARP E NTRY
Th en fr o m d with t h e radius E F describ e an
, ,
a r0 e ;
and from R with the radius e qu al to t h e true lengt h
r
,
e G of th e a rris E G describ e a not h e r a e intersectin g ,
the last a t 0 Join R O d O ; the tri angle d B 0 wi l l

.
,
b e the develo pment Of th e side a P d In the sa m e w ay

r
.
,
describ e the trian gle c R T f o t h e deve l opment o f t h e ,
side b P 0 From R a gain with th e same r adius R 0

r
.
, , ,
describ e an arc S whic h intersect by an a e describ ed

,
from O wit h t h e r adius a b ; and t h e trian gle O R S

will be the development Of t h e si de a P b .
I f the pyrami d is trunc a te d by a pl a ne w a p ara l lel

t o th e b ase th e development o f t h at line is O b t a in e d b y
,
settin g off from R on R c a n d R d t h e true len gt h of

-
, ,
the a rris G a in x and 2 and on R S R O and R T t h e , , , ,
tr u e length Of the arris G w i n 4 3 1 ; and drawin g t h e , ,
lines 1 x x 2 2 3 3 4 p arallel t o the b ase o f t h e respect

, , , ,
ive trian gles T R e c R d d R O O R S I f it is trun , , ,

’
.
c a t e d by a pl ane w y p er p endicular t o t h e axis then , ,
from th e point R wit h t h e radius e qual t o t h e true

r
,
len gth of t h e arris G w or G y describ e an a e 1 4 and , , ,
inscrib e in it the sides o f the p oly gon f o rmin g the

pyramid
r
.
I II . P is msa ri g h t prism the f a ces b ein g all

. In ,
p erpendicular to the b ases w h ic h trunc ate t h e so l id it ,
results that t h e ir deve l op m ent i s a rectangle c o mposed

o f all the faces j oined to get h er and b ounded by two ,
par a l lel lines equal in lengt h to the c ont o u r of t h e

b a ses Th u s in Fi g 7 0 a b e d is the b ase a n d b e t h e
.
, .
, ,
hei ght of the p rism ; the four s 1d e s will form t h e rec

t an gle b e f g a nd e h i k will b e th e top of t h e prism
, .
The full lines sh ow a not h er m et h od o f devel o p m ent .
When a prism is inclined the f a c es form di ff erent ,

1 02 M O D E RN CARP ENTRY
8 3 7 4 draw lines p aral l e l t o the axis m eetin g A B ,
D E in F H G L,
These lines re p re sent t h e four
.
arrises 8 3 7
I n th is pr ofile t h e sides of the pl a n o f the p o l ygon
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 give th e width o f t h e faces o f t h e pri s m ,
F ig . 71 .
and th e lines A D E H G L B E t h eir length From

, ,
.
this pr o file ca n b e drawn the h orizontal pr o j ection in ,
t h e manner shown b el o w To trac e t h e development O f

.
t h is prism on a sh eet o f pa per s o that it can b e folded ,
7 5 a n o th e r mpl e is g iv e n b ut a s t h e me t h o d o f
r r
*I
n F ig . exa ,
p oce d u e is th e s a me a s in F ig . r
7 1 , d e ta il e d d e s c ip t i on is u n
n
n e ce s s a ry .
S O L I D GE O M E TRY '
1 03
to gether to form the solid pro c e ed th u s : O n the ,
middle of C C raise an inde fi nite per p end ic u lar M N .
O n th at line set O E th e wi dth of the f ac es Of t h e p rism ,
indic ated by the p olygon in the p o ints 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ,

.
T h r o u gh these p o int s draw line s p a rallel t o th e axis ,
and u p on t h e m set O E the len gth s o f t h e lines in p rofile ,
t h us : From t h e p o ints O 1 and 8 set O E the len gth , , ,
M D in the p oints D D D ; from 2 and 7 set O E a H in ,
H ; from 3 a nd 6 set O E b L in L and L ; a nd so on

,
.
Draw the lines DD D H L E E E E L H D fo r the

r
.
, , , ,
c ontou of the u pp er p a rt Of th e pri sm To Ob t ain t h e .
c o nt our of th e lower p ortion set O E the len gth M A ,
from O 1 and 8 to A A A th e len gth a F from 2 a nd

, , ,
7 to F a nd F the len gt h b G from 3 and 6 to G and G

, ,
an d so on ; a n d draw A A A F G E B B B G F A to , , , ,
c o mp lete the c onto u r Th e develo p m ent is c om p leted

.
by makin g on B B a nd E E th e p olygons 1 2 3 4 5 6 BB
1 2 3 4 5 6 E E similar t o th e p oly gons of the horizon
,
t al proj e c tion
r Cylinders
.
IV . Cylin d e m a y b e c onsidered as
s .
pri s m s of whic h the b ase is c omp o se d of an infinite

,
numb er of side s Th u s we shall Obtain gra p hi c ally t h e

.
developm ent O f a ri g h t cylinde r by a re ctan gle O f the

same hei ght and of a len gth e qual to the c irc um ferenc e
,
o f th e circle which serves as its b a se

, .
TO fi n d th e c ov e r
i n g of a r
ig h t cy lin d e r .
L etA B C D (Fi g 72 ) b e th e se at o g e n e a t in g s e c
. r r ‘
t ion O n A D describ e the semicircle A 5 D re p re sent

.
,
in g t h e vert i c al section o f h a lf the cylinder and divide ,
its circumferenc e into a ny n u mb er of pa rts 1 2 3 4 , , , , ,

5 , a nd transfer those divisi o ns t o t h e line s A D
&c .
,
and B C p rod u ced ; then the p ar a l l elo gr a m D C G F will

b e the c overin g of one half the cylin der .
F ig . 72 .
To fi n d t h e e d g e of th e o r Wh
in g it is b l i qu e
rg ar l ind r
c ve en O
in d
e t o th e
id e s of th e cy e s .
L e t A B C D (Fi g 73 ) b e the se a t O f the gener a t in g

.
se ction th e ed ge B C b e in g ob li qu e t o the sides A B

, ,
D C Draw th e semicircle A 5 D a nd d ivide it into any

.
,
F ig . 73 .
n u mb er of p art s as b efore ; and thro u gh th e divisions

draw line s at ri ght a n gles to A D p roduc in g t h em t o ,
meet B C in r s t u v & c prod u c e A D and th e lines

, , , ,
.
,
1 a 2 b 3 c & c p er p endic u lar t o D F T o these l in e s

, , ,
.
, .
me et the line s A D and B C in i k l m & c Through , , , , ,
.
the divisions on E G dr a w line s perpendicular t o it ;

t h en thr o u gh t h e interse ctions o f t h e o rdinates o f t h e
sem ici rc le with the line A D draw the lines i a k z l y
, , , , ,
F ig . 75 .
&c pa rallel
A G and w h ere these interse ct the p er
to
r
,
.
p e n d icu l a s from E G in th e p o ints a z y x w u & c

, , , , , , ,
.
,
trac e a curve d line G D and dr a w pa rallel t o it t h e

,
curved line H C ; th en will D C H G b e t h e develop m ent

o f the coverin g o f the se m i cylinder A B C D
r r r
-
TO fi n d th e c ov e in g of a s e mi cy lin d i c s u fa ce
r
-
b ou n d e d by t wo cu v ed lin e s
The construction t o Obtai n t h e develo p m ents o f t h ese
c o verin gs (Fi gs 7 6 and 7 7 ) i s p re c isely si milar to th at
.
d escrib ed in Fi g 74 . .
S O L I D G E O M E TRY 107
Fig . 7 6.
F ig“ 7 7
. .
1 08 M O D E RN CARPE NTRY
V Con es We h ave c onsidered cy l inders as prisms
r
. .
w ith p olygon a l b ases In a similar manner we m a y e

.
gard c ones as pyra mids .
In ri ght p yramids with re gular symmetr ica l b ases

, ,
F ig . 78 .
a s t h e lines Of the arrise s extendin g fro m the su mm it

t o th e b ase are e qual and as t h e sides O f t h e poly g ons
,
formin g t h e b ase are a l s o equal their developed sur ,
fa c es wil l b e c o m posed o f si m ilar and equa l is o sce l es

tri an gles w h ic h as we h ave seen (Fi g 7 8 a b c d )
r
, ,
.
, , , , ,
will w h en united f o rm a p a rt O f a e g u lar polyg o n

, ,
TO Obtain t h e p arab o la and h yperb ola p roc e ed in ,
t h e same manner by drawin g parallels to t h e b ase

,
‘
K H t h ro u g h the p oints o f intersection ; and transfer

,
rin g the l en gths thus Obt ained on t h e side s Of th e c one

G K G H to the r a dii in t h e devel o p m ent
, ,
.
Nos 4 and 5 give th e verti c a l proj ecti o ns o f the h y

r
.
,
p e b o l a a nd parab ola resp ectively .
F ig . 79 .
To fi n d th e r
o v e i n g Of th e of a con e th e
r r
c ,
s e cti n o b e in g ma d e by a p la n e p e p e n dic u l a to th e
L et A C E F (Fig 7 9 ) b e the g ener a tin g

. se ction of
r
th e f u stum O n A C describ e th e semicircle A B C
.
,
and prod u c e th e side s A E and C F t o D From the .
c entre D with t h e r a dius D C describ e the ar c C H ;

, ,
and from the s a me c entre with the radi u s D F de scrib e

“
F ig . 80 .
the arc F G D ivi de the semi c ircle A B C into a ny

.
nu mb er of e qual p arts and run the s ame divisi o ns

,
a l o n g the arc C H ; draw t h e line H D cuttin g E G in ,
G ; then shall C H G F b e half the dev e lo p ment of the

r
c overin g of th e f us t u m A C F E .
112 M O D E RN CARP E NTR Y
To fi n d t h e ov e i n g of th e fr rum us t a co n e
of th e
r r
c ,
secti on b eing m a d e by a p l a n e n ot p e pe n dic u l a to

th e axis .
L A C E E (Fi g 80 ) b e t h e frustum Pro c eed as

et . .
in t h e last prob l e m t o find t h e deve l o pm ent of t h e c o v

erin g of t h e se m i c o n e T h en — t o deter m ine t h e e dge -
.
Of t h e c o verin g of t h e l ine E F— fro m t h e po ints P q , ,
r s t & c draw lines p erpendicular t o E F c u tting

, , ,
.
, ,
A C in y x w v u ; and t h e l en g th u t transferred
, , , ,
fr o m 1 to a v s transferre d fr om 2 t o b and s o on wi l l
, , , ,
give a b c d e & c points on th e ed ge o f t h e c over

, , , , ,
.
,
in g .
To fi n d the co v e ing Of th e f us t u m of a c on e wh e n r r
r r
,
c u t by two cy l ind ic a l s u f ac es p er p e n dic u l ar t o t h e

g e n er a tin g s e ctio n .
L et (Fi g 8 1 ) b e t h e given frustum a nd

A E FC .
,
A k C E p F t h e given c ylindric al surfa c es Pr o du c e

, , .
A E C F ti l l t h ey meet in t h e p o int D
, ,
Describ e th e .
semicircle A B C and divide it into any n u mb er o f

r
,
equal parts and transfer th e divisions to t h e a e C H

, ,
describ ed from D with t h e radius D C Thr ou gh th e ,

.
d ivisi ons in t h e semicircle 1 2 3 4 & c draw lines per

r
, ,
.
, , ,
p e n d ic u l a to A C and t h r o u gh t h e p o ints wh er e t h ey ,
i n terse ct A C draw lines t o t h e summit D D raw lines

r
.
also t h ro u gh the points 1 2 3 4 5 & c of the a e C H , , , , ,

.
, ,
t o the summit D ; then throug h t h e interse ctions of the

lines fro m A C to D with the se ats of the cylindric al
r
,
surfa ces k l m n O and p q s t draw lin es parallel

r
, , , , , , , , , ,
t o A C cuttin g C D ; and from the p oints Of in t e s e c

,
ti o n in C D and from t h e c entre D describ e arc s c u t ,
tin g the radial lines in the sector D C H in u v w x y , , , , ,

F ig . 82 .
co ne T h us t h e s p here or sp h er o id m a y b e c onsi d ered

.
,
a s a p o ly h edron terminated l s t by a great nu m b er

r
, , ,
o f plane fac es formed by tr u n cated p y amids Of w h i c h

, ,
the b ase is a p olygon a s in Fi g 82 ; 2 n d by p arts of

,
.
,
S O L ID G E O M E TRY . 1 15
trunc a ted c one s formin g zones as in Fig 8 3 t h e p ar t , .

,
ab o ve A B b ein g t h e vertic al p roj e c t ion and t h e p art

r
,
b elow A B t h e horizontal proj e ction ; 3 d by p arts of ,
c ylinders c u t in gores formin g fi a t sides which dimin

, ,
i sh in width as in Fi g 84
,
. .
F ig . 83 . F ig . 84 .
In redu c in g th e sp h eres or sph eroid t o a p olyh edron

, ,
wit h flat sides t w o m et h o ds m a y b e adopted whic h dif

, ,
fer only in the manner o f arran gin g t h e deve l o p ed

faces .
Th e most simple m et h o d i s by parallel c irc l e s and ,
others p erpendicular t o them w h i c h c u t t h e m in two ,
Opposite points as in th e line s on a terrestri al gl ob e I f

, .
we sup p ose th at t h ese divis ions in p la ce o f b ein g ,
c ircles are p oly g o ns o f t h e same nu m b er of side s t h ere

, ,
will result a p oly h edron like t h at r epre sented in Fi g

r
, .
8 2 o f which t h e h a lf A D B sh ows t h e g e ome t ic a l ele

, , , g
vat ion and the ot h er half A E B th e p lan

, , , .
TO fi n d th e develo p ment fi rst Ob t a in t h e summit s ,

116 M O D E RN CAR P E NTRY
P q r s Of t h e trun c at ed pyra mi ds w hi c h fr o m t h e
, , , , ,
demi p olyhedr o n A D B by produc in g the sides A I

-
, ,
1 2 2 3 3 4 until they meet t h e ax is E D produc ed ;

, , ,
then fr om th e p o ints p q r s and wit h t h e radi i P A , , , ,
P I q I q 2 r 2 r 3 and s 3 s 4 describ e t h e in de fin ite

, , ,
.
,
a rc s A B 1 b 1 b 2 f 2 f e q 3 g 4 h a n d fr om D de
, , , , .
, ,
scr ibe the arc 4 h ; up o n a l l t h ese ar c s set O E t h e di vi

sions of t h e de m i p o ly g o ns A E B and d aw t h e l ines t o
-
r
th e s ummi ts p q r s and D fr o m all t h e p oin ts s o set
, , , , .
o ut a s A 1 2 3 4 & c fr o m ea c h tru n c ated pyr a mid

r r r
.
, , , , , ,
T h ese lin e s w ill repre sent f o e v e v b and o z o na t h e

fac e s o f t h e trun c ated p y ra mids of w h i c h t h e y c onsti
tute a p art .
The develop m ent c a n a l s o b e made b v dra w in g

through t h e c entre o f e ac h side o f t h e p o l v g o n A E B ,
indefinit e p erpendicu l ars and settin g out upon t h e m ,
t h e h ei g h t s o f t h e fa c e s in t h e e l evation A l 2 3 4 D
r
, ,
and t h o ug h t h e points t h us o bta ined dra w in g p aral

l e l s t o t h e b ase O n ea c h Of t h ese para ll e l s t h en set
.
o ut the w i dt h s h i k l d o f t h e c o rresp o ndin g fa c es

, , , , , ,
(e e e & c ) in t h e plan and t h ere w i l l b e t h us f o r me d

, , ,
.
,
trapeziu ms and t rian g l es as in t h e first devel o p m ent

r
, ,
but arran ge d d iE e e n t ly T h is m et h o d is u sed in c on

r
.
s t u c t in g ge o grap h i c a l g l o b es t h e ot h er i s m o re c on .
v e n ie n t in fin din g t h e stone s O f a sp h eri c a l do m e .
Th e devel o pment o f t h e sp h ere b y reduc in g it t o

c onic al z o ne s (Fi g 83 ) is a cc o mplis h ed in t h e same .
mann er as t h e r edu c t i o n to trun cated p y ra m ids w it h ,
thi s di ff erenc e t h at t h e develop m ents O f t h e arrise s

, ,
indicated b v A 1 2 3 4 5 B in Fi g 8 2 are arcs O f cir c le s .

,
des c rib ed from t h e s um mits Of c ones in p lac e of b ein g ,
p olygons .
E draw th e dia m eter A C and the diameter B D p er
r
,
p e n d ic u l a to A C a nd pro duc e B D to I L e t D E rep , .
resent the b ase O f semi se ction O f the dome ; up on D E

r
-
describ e the a e D k w it h th e same r a dius a s the

arc F G H (No 2 ) divide th e a e D k into a ny num . r
be r O f e qual parts 1 2 3 4 5 and extend t h e division , , , , , ,
upon the right line D I makin g t h e ri g h t lin e D I e q ua l

r
,
in len gth and si m i l ar in its divisions to the a e D k

r
, ,
from t h e p oints O f d ivision 1 2 3 4 5 in the a e D k

-
, , , , , , ,
d raw line s perpendicular to D E cuttin g it in the ,
p o ints q r s & c Up o n t h e c irc u mferenc e of the plan

, , ,
.
N O 1 set O E t h e bre a dt h o f t h e gores or b o ards 1 m

.
, ,
m n n O O p & c ; a n d fro m th e po ints 1 m n o p

, , ,
.
, , , , ,
draw ri g h t lines throu gh th e c entre E : from E describ e

c onc entri c arcs q v r u st & c and fr o m 1 describ e , , ,
.
,
c onc entri c arc s t h ro u g h t h e po int s D 1 2 3 4 5 , , , , , ,
l m bein g t h e given b re adt h of t h e b ase m ake 1 w

, ,
eq u al t o q v 2x equal t o r u 3 y equal t o st & c ; dr a w

, , ,
.
th e curve d line throu gh th e p o ints 1 w x y & c to l

r
, , , ,
.
, ,
w h ich wi l l give o n e ed ge o f t h e b o ard o g o re t o c o in

c ide with t h e line 1 E The ot h er ed ge b e in g similar .
,
it will b e found by makin g the distances from t h e

c entre line D 1 re spect ive l y e qual T h e se ats Of t h e
r r
.
d iE e e n t b o ards o g o res on the e l evati o n are found

by t h e perpendicular dotted lines pp 0 0 n u m m & c , , , , ,
.
To fi n d t h e c ov e r
i g n of a se mici cu l a r rom d e .
Fi g 86 N o s 1 a nd 2 — T h e proc edure h ere is more

.
,
. .
si mp l e th an in t h e c ase of t h e se g mental do me as t h e
r
, ,
h ori z o ntal and verti c al sections b ein g alike the o ,
d in a t e s are obtained at once .

S O L ID G E O M ET RY 1 19
TO fi n d t h e r rr
ove in g of a s e mic i c u l a d o me wh e n it
rqu ir d r r
c
is e e to c ov e t h e d ome h o i z on t a lly .
F ig . 86 .
L A B C (Fi g 87 ) b e a vertic al se ction throu g h th e

et .
ax is O f a c irc ular d o m e and l et it b e required t o c over

,
t h is do m e h o riz ontally B ise ct the b ase in the point

.
1 20 M O D E RN CAR P E NTRY
D and draw D B E p erpendi cular t o A C cutting t h e
r
, ,
c ircumferenc e in B N ow divide the a e B C int o

.
eq u al p arts so th at ea ch p art will b e r a t h er less than

,
F ig . 87 .
t h e widt h o f t h e a b o ard ; and j o in the p o ints division

by strai g h t l ines w h i c h will form an ins c rib ed p o ly g o n
,
o f so m any side s ; and throu g h t h ese p oints draw l ine
para l l e l t o t h e b ase A C m eetin g t h e Opposite side s of

,
se ction — from the point h where the line f g produc ed
, ,
m eets D E wit h the radii h f h g describ e t wo arcs

, , , ,
and c u t off the end of th e b o a r d k on the lin e Of a

radi u s h k .
To Obt ain the tr u e len gth of th e b o a rd pro ceed as in ,
Fi g 89 T h e ot h er b o a rds are describ ed in the s a me

. .
m a nner .
F ig . 89 .
To fi n d t h e cov e r
llip t ic d ome
i g
n of a n e .
L e t A B C D (Fi g 90 ) b e t h e p lan an d F G H the

.
,
elevation of t h e dome Divide the e l li p tic al quadrant

.
F G (N O 2 ) into any numb e r o f equal parts in 1 2 3

.
, , ,
4 5 a nd draw t h rough the p oints o f division li n e s

, ,
S O L ID G E O M E TRY 1 23
p erpendicular F H and prod u c ed to A C (N O

to ,
.
me et in g it in i k m n : these divisi ons a re transferred

, , , ,
by the dotte d a rc s to the gore b E c a nd th e remainder

o f the p ro c ess i s a s in Fi gs 85 a nd 8 6
r r
. .
To fi n d t h e cov e in g b o a d s O f a n e lli p s oid a l d ome .
L e t A B C D (N O 1 Fi g 89 ) b e the p lan o f the dome

.
,
.
,
and F G H (N O 2 ) the vertic al se ction thro u gh its

.
maj or ax is Prod u c e F H indefinitely to n ; divide t h e

.
ci rc u mferenc e as b efore into any n u mb er o f eq ua l

, ,
p arts and j oin t h e divisi on s by straig h t lines as p m

, , ,
ml & c Then describ e on a b o ard p rod u c e the line

, .
, ,
formin g on e Of th e side s of th e p oly gon such a s 1 m to , ,
m eet F n in n ; a nd from n with the r a dii n m n I , ,
describ e t wo arc s formin g th e si des of the b o a rd and ,
c u t O E the b o ard on the line of t h e radi u s 11 0 L ines

r
.
drawn th oii g h th e p o ints of divisions a t ri ght an gle s

t o t h e axis until th ey me et t h e circ u mferenc e A D C
,
o f the p lan will give th e pl a n of the b o ardin g
r r
, .
To fi n d th e c ov e ll ip s oid al d ome in g o e s
i g n of a n e .
L e t the ellipse A B C D (Fi g 90 N O 1 ) b e the plan .

,
.
Of t h e do m e A C its maj o r axis and B D its minor axis ;

,
and let A B C (N O 2 ) b e its e levation Then first t o

. .
, ,
describ e on the p lan a nd elevation the line s of t h e

‘
gores pro ce ed thus —

, T h rou gh the line A C (No 1 ) .
produced a t H dr a w th e line E G p er p endicular t o it

, ,
and dr a w B E D G pa r a lle l t o the a xis A C c u ttin g

, , ,
E G then will E G b e the len gth of the axis minor

, ,
o n which i s to b e de s c rib ed t h e semi circle E F G rep -
resentin g a se ction o f the do m e on a vertic al pl a ne

p a ssin g thro u g h the axi s minor .
D ivide th e c ircu mferenc e Of th e semi c ircle into a ny -
n u mber of e q ua l pa rts representin g th e widths O f t h e ,

c o verin g b o ards on t h e line B D ; and thro u gh the
po ints of division 1 2 3 4 5 dr aw lines p arallel t o th e
, , , , ,
axi s A C c u ttin g the line B D in 1 2 3 4 5 D ivide

, , , , ,
.
t h e quadr a nt O f the el l ipse C D (No 1 ) into a ny n u m

r
.
be O f e q u al p arts in e f g h a nd t h rough these p oints

r
, , , ,
d raw th e l ine s e a f b g c h d in b ot h diagram s p e

, , , ,
F ig . 90 .
pe n d icu l a r
to A C and these lines will then b e t h e se a ts
,
of vertic al secti ons throu g h t h e dome p ar a l lel to ,
E F G T h r o u g h t h e p oints e f g h (No 1 ) draw

.
, , ,
.
lines p aralle l t o t h e axis A C c uttin g E G i n O n m k , , , , ,

To d e s c r
ib th e r
i g of a n lli p s oid a l d om e with
r r
e c ov e n e
h o iz on t a l b o a d s Of e qua l width .
L e t A B C D (N O 1 Fi g 91 ) b e t h e plan of the dome

.
,
.
,
A B C (No 2 ) th e se ction on its maj or axis and L M N

.
,
t h e secti o n on its m inor a x is Dr aw t h e circ u mscrib in g .
p ar allelo gram of t h e ellipse n amely F G H K (N O , ,

.
a nd its dia go n als F H G K In N O 2 divide t h e c ir

r
. .
c u mf e e n ce into equal p arts 1 2 3 4 representing t h e , , , , ,
n u mb e r of c overin g b o ards a nd through the p oints Of ,
d ivision dr a w lines 1 8 2 7 & c p ar a llel to A C , ,

.
,
.
Throu gh t h e p o ints O f divisions draw 1 p 2 t 3 x & c , , ,

.
,
p erp endi cu l a r to A C cuttin g t h e dia gonals Of t h e c ir

r
,
c u ms c ib in g p arallelo gram of t h e e llipse (N O .
a nd me etin g its maj or axis in p t x & c C omplet e

r
.
, , ,
the p ar a l l elo grams and inscrib e ellipse s th erein c o

,
respondin g to t h e lines Of t h e c overing Produc e t h e .
sides O f the p arallelo grams to interse c t t h e c ircumfe r

enc e of t h e secti on on t h e m inor axis Of th e ellipse in
1 2 3 4 and line s drawn throu gh t h ese p a ralle l t o
, , , ,
L N will give t h e represent a tion of t h e c overin g b o ards

,
in th a t section To fi n d th e devel o pment Of t h e cover

.
in g p roduce the axis D B in N O 2 indefinitely Join

, ,
.
,
.
by a str a ight line the divisions 1 2 in t h e c ircumfer

enc e a nd pro duc e the line indefinitely making e h
, ,
e q ua l t o e 2 and k g e qual to 1 2 ; 1 2 e k g wi l l b e t h e
,
axis m a j or Of th e ellipses of t h e coverin g 1 2 7 8 Join .
also the c orre s p ondin g divisions in the circumferenc e .
o f the se ction on th e m inor axis a nd p roduc e t h e line ,
1 2 b to m eet the ax i s produced ; and the lengt h Of

this lin e will b e t h e semi a xis minor e h of t h e ellipse
-
, , ,
2 h k whi l e t h e width f h will b e e q u a l to the division

,
1 2 in N M L .
S OL ID G E O M E TRY 1 27
F ig . 91 .
M O D E RN CARP E NTRY
To fi n d t h e c overin g Of a n a nn u l a v au lt r .
L e t A C K G E F A (Fi g 92 ) b e t h e generating sec

.
ti o n of t h e vault O n A C des c rib e a se m i circle A B C

rr
-
.
,
and divide its c ircu mferen c e int o e qual p arts e p e ,
sentin g t h e b o ards o f t h e c o verin g Fro m t h e divisions .
of the semi circ l e b m t & c from t h e c entre D Of

-
, , , ,
.
,
F ig . 92 .
t h e annulus w it h t h e radii D r D s & c de s c rib e the

, ,
.
,
c on c entri c c ircles s q & c representin g t h e c o verin g

r
,
.
, ,
b o ards in plan Th ou g h t h e c entre D dr a w H K p er

r
x
.
p e n d icul a t o G C indefinitely extendin g it through K

,
.
Join the p o ints o f divisi o n O f t h e se m i circle A b b m -
, , ,
m t by str a ig h t lines and p rod u ce them u ntil t h ey c u t

, ,
13 0 M OD E R N CARP E N TRY
(N O 1 ) in 1 mm 11 O p G Thro u gh these p oints

.
, , , , ,
.
dr a w line s 1 (1 me n f & c pa rallel to the side F E of

, , ,
.
,
th e he xa gon : b isect the side F E in N and draw G N , ,
which wi ll b e t h e s eat of a section O f the d ome at ri g h t ,
a n gle s t o the side E F T o find this section not h ing .
m ore is re qu ired th a n t o set up on N G from t h e p o ints

t u v & c th e he ights of t h e c orrespondin g o rdin a tes
r
.
, , , ,
ql , 2 s 3 & c of the elev a tion (N O 2 ) to dr a w the

, ,
.
,
.
o gee c u rve N 1 2 3 4 5 p a nd then t o use the divisions

r
,
in this curve t o form the gor e o coverin g of on e side

E gh k M D .
PA R T II .
PRA CTICA L S O L UTIO NS
Havi n g taken a t h o r o ug h ur s e in S o l id G eo metry

co
t h e student s h o u l d b e n o w prep are d t o s ol ve al m o st .
any pr o b l e m in pra c ti c al c onstructi o n a l most as s o o n ,
a s t h ey pre sent t h emse l ves Th e vari ous pr o ble m s in

.
c o nstru c ti o n h o wever are s o nu me r o us and in m any

, , ,
t h at t h e stud ent will o fte n b e c o n

.
c ases,
s o intri c ate ,
fr o nted by prob l e m s w h ic h w il l require so m any a ppl i

c ati ons O f t h e ru l es h e h as b e en taught i n di fferent ,
f o r m s t h at wit h o ut s o m e h e l pin g guidanc e h e wi l l fai l

, ,
t o se e exa ctly what t o d o .
The f o l l o win g ex amp l es with t h e ir exp l an ati o ns are

, ,
intended to give h im t h e aid ne c essary t o s o l ve m any

di fficult prob lems and e quip h im wit h t h e m e ans o f s till
r
,
fu t h er investi gation and sure r esults

r
.
I t i s Often ne c essary f o the w orkman t o find t h e

r r
e x act s t e t ch ou t o len gt h of a strai g h t line t h at s h all
r
e qual t h e quadrant o a se m i circ l e
r
-
To ac co mplis h t h is z— T ak e A B radius and A t e n ,
t e ; interse c t t h e c ir cl e at C ; j o in it and B ; d raw

from D p arallel wit h C B c uttin g at H ; t h en A H wi l l
, ,
b e found e qu al to curve A D Fi g 1 . . .
This metho d is somew h at di fferent t o t h at alre ady

given ; b oth however are pra cti c al
, , .
Fi g 2 To fi n d a strai g h t l ine wh i ch is e qual to t h e

r r
. .
circ umferenc e Of a c i cl e D a w fro m th e c e ntre , 0

'
.
,
1 31
F ig . 1 .
F ig . 2 .
1 34 M O D E RN CARP E NTR Y
PRACT I CAL S OL UT I O N S 1 35
po ints ; b ise c t A B and B C ; drawn t h rou gh in t e s e c r

tions thus made and line s m eet in g in p oint D give a
,
c e ntre from which strike the c irc u lar mitre as shown

,
.
H e re it m ay b e st a ted that in some cases a strai ght

l in e for mitre s will a nswer ; this me a n s whe n th e c u rv e
i s a q ua dr a nt o r less .
Fi g 4 shows the interse ctions of r a k e a n d level

.
mo u ldin gs for p ediments .
The mo u ldin g o n th e rake incre ases in width and

r
, ,
is ent irely d iEe e n t from that on th e level yet b oth ,
mitre and intersect the r a ke mo u ldin g b ein g worke d

, ,
to suit the level If the c u rve s O f Fi g 4 are str u ck from

. .
c entre s as shown then by the s a me r u le th e r a k e

, ,
mo u ld in g is also str u ck from c entre s .
T a ke any p oint in the c u rve as C ; s qua r e up from it , ,
c u ttin g a t B ; dr a w from C pa r a llel to S L ; j o in L K

‘
r
,
which b ise ct a t N ; m a k e E D e qu al to A B on th e ight ;

j oin L D a nd D N ; b ise ct L D a lso D N ; dr aw t h rou gh ,
int ersection s th u s m a de a nd th e lines m eetin g in F

, ,
give a p o int from which dr a w through N ; m a ke N J

e qual H F ; th en F and J a re c entre s from which strike ,
the c u rve and it will b e fo und t o e x actly int erse ct

,
with th a t Of Fi g 4
‘
r
. .
B oth m o u ldin gs h e e a re sh own a s solid a nd O f t h e

r
,
same th ickn ess Th is is don e for the pu p ose o f m ak

.
in g th e drawin g more p la in a n d e a sily un derstoo d ;

b ut b e a r in mind th a t a l l crown mo u ldin gs a re gene r
a lly s p r u n g
r r rl d m l di g y
.
To fi n d th e f o m f u i
r h rr r r
o a sp ng o so ou n on a n
ak w e it h out t h e us e O f e it di
e o n a tes o -
ce n t e s .
m a y not b e gener a lly known th a t if a leve l m o u ld

It ,
in g is c u t to a mitre th a t the e x treme p a rts of mitr e ,

,
1 36 M O D E RN CARP E N TRY
1 38 M OD E RN CARP E NTRY
F ig . 5 . F ig . 6 .
PRAC T ICAL S O L UT I O N S 1 39
b evel W a b ove Fi g 5 app ly it here and m a rk 2 B ; j o in

.
,
B A ; this done ap p ly th e same b evel on front e dge

,
N P a nd mark th e p l u mb cu t it b ein g p a r a llel with

r
, ,
that of 2B here o K J Fi g 5 ; n ow c u t thro u gh line s

, ,
.
on the b ack an d th e mitre is c om p lete

, .
Ith a s alre a dy b een shown that we dis p ense with

r rr
,
m a kin g o u sin g a b ox f o mit e in g s p r u n g mo u ldings

r
.
In this case the front ed ge o u p p er memb er stands

, ,
pa rallel with f a c e of w a ll so th a t b evel X b ein g a p ,
p iled give s the p l umb cut ; then the cut on to p ed ge

,
i s sq u a re with f ac e Of w a ll Thi s shows t h a t w e have

,
.
,
only t o find the dire cti on Of a c u t On the b a ck of mo u ld

in g t o m ak e the mitre .
do this t a ke a ny p oint as R ; draw from it sq ua re

TO ,
with r a ke Of g a ble Now mark se ctions of m o u ldin g

.
,
a s shown i t s b ack p arallel with R F ; draw fro m D

,
sq u are wi th E N ; e x tend th e rake t o out lin e fro m D at

K ; th is done t ake any p o int on the rake say L ; draw
'
, ,
from it p aralle l w ith R F c uttin g at K ; t ak e it as

r
x
,
c entre and L as radi u s and draw th e a e o f a c ircle ; ,
with same radi u s return t o K on the ri ght ; tak e it as

r
c entre and draw the a e L H ; m ake th e first a e e q u al
,
r
it ; then d raw from H p aralle l with L C c u ttin g at ,
C J ; draw fr o m it sq u are with r ake c u ttin g at C and

r
, ,
j oin O K This give s b evel W f o c u t o n b a ck of mould

.
in g .
!A most p erfec t ill u s tration of this may b e had by

h a vin g the dr a win g On c ard b o ard and cutting it cle ar -
thro u gh a ll the o u ter lines i ncl u din g th a t o f t h e mo u ld

,
in g on line s F D N E m akin g a hin ge by a slight c u t

,
on line R F ; als o m a ke a h inge o f lin e R A by a sl ight ,
c ut on the b a ck a nd in lik e manner m a k e front e dge

,
w ork on a h in ge by a sli gh t cut on l ine F V T h is cut

.
is m ade o n t o p surfa c e Perform t h e s a me O p er a tion

.
F ig . 7 .
on t h e left All th e c u ts be in g made raise b oth sides

.
,
on h in ges A R and A 2 ; pus h t h e sections of mould

in gs on rig h t and left from you ; mak e front ed ge rest
Fi g 9 shows t h e se ction o f a square b ar which has
'
been c u t by two unequal pitches say in t h e directi o n

,
o f b evels J a nd H ; t h e line C B is c alle d t h e seat ;
from it all me as u rements are taken and transferred t o

l ines that are square with t h e pit c h A B ; this pitch
m a y b e c alled a dia m eter b e c ause it and the ordinat e
,
A E a re at ri ght an gles .
F ig . 9 .
Fi g 1 0 shows the sides of a square b a r which may

.
b e any len gth The b ar is t o stand perpendicular and

.
,
pa ss throu gh a p l a nk th a t inclines a t A B ; the le a r ner

PRACT I CAL S OL UT IO N S 1 43
is n o w re quired to s h ow o n the s u rfac e o f plank th e

shap e of a mortise that sh all ex a ctly fi t the b a r .
F ig . 10 .
TO solve this the st u dent is left to e x er cise his own

intel l i genc e
.
The problem m a y b e c le a rly demonstr a ted by a

r
c a rd b o a d mode l ; it be in g cut , a nd the pa rts p ro
-
rr
j e c t e d from t h e flat surfac e wi l l e p e s e n t th e pl a nk ,
and show the mortise in it standin g dire ctly over the

square Fi g 1 0,
. .
Fi g 1 1 It is h ere required t o m ark two uneq u al

. .
pitc h es on two side s o f a square b ar—then to h ave a

r
pie ce O f plank o b o ard cut so t h at it s h a l l exactly fit
b oth pit ch es o n t h e b ar T h e in c linati o n o f plank may
‘
b e assu med as A B and hei gh t of b ot h pitch es as H A ;

,
let E F b e the se at fr o m w h ic h all m e asure m ents are

taken and transferred to lines that are o n t h e surfac e s
,
Of plank and square with A B ; t h us giv ing p oints to

dire c t in drawin g line C D ; and D E produced .
Co u ld we apply the b evel J t o p o ints C and K and ,
have plumb lines on t h e edge o f p l ank then by c uttin g,
t h r o ug h these and t h ose alre ady m arked on t h e sur

fac e t h e proble m would a t once b e solved by m akin g
, ,
b o t h upper and under surfac e of plank fit the two

p itc h es as required But in practic e this wo u l d b e in
.
admissib le on acc ount Of t h e great w aste of material .
T h e proper method is to take any point E and c u t , ,
t h rou g h t h e plank square with E D and a t C c u t

'
, ,
throug h t h e plank square with C D ; h ere it will b e

n oticed t h at line A D on t h e surfac e makes a very
r
d iEe e n t pit c h to th at o f A B on t h e e dge Of plank and
r
,
t ha t C D d iEe s from b oth .
TO understand t h ese p o ints t h orou ghly is the tr u e

se c ret o f t h e nic e st e l ement in the j oiner s art—h and ’
r ai l in g I t bein g c lear t h at two b evels are required

r
.
on e f o eac h pitch—pro ceed to find t h em M ake N L .
eq u al o n e side Of t h e square Take N as c enter and

.
,
strike an arc tou c h ing t h e line E D ; with sa m e radius ,
and L c entre make t h e intersection in S ; j oin it a t L

, ,
1 45 M OD ERN CARPE NT RY
r
which g iv e s b e vel R f o j oint a t E Ag a i n t a ke N a s .
c e n tre a n d strike a n arc to u ching line D C with same

,
r a d i u s a nd L c entre make th e int ersection in W ; j o in

, ,
it a n d L which gives b evel P for j o int at C ; the c u ts

b ein g ma d e by the se b evels .
PANEL L E D CE I L IN GS IN W O OD A ND s ucc o r
B R A CKE TS , AND S IMI L A R WO RK .
It is n o p a rt of th e d u ty Of this work t o s h ow designs

‘
for wo oden c eili n gs b u t in ord er t o illustrate the

r
,
method o m etho d s o f c onstru ctin g a w o od en c e iling

,
I deem it p ro p er to s h ew a desi gn in this style t h e b etter

t o convey to th e st u dent th e reason f o th e v a ri ou s r
steps t a ken t o rea ch th e de sired res u lt .
Fi g 1 2 shows a section o f a roof and th e mode of

.
constr u ctin g a bracketed c eiling u nder it b u t with ,
sli ght modific ation th e sa m e arran gement can b e

a d o pt e d f o
/
r
c eilings u nder fl o o rs Th e rafters A A are
.
1 8 inch es from c e n tre to c entre O n these straps a a

.
, ,
3X 1 % iin c h e s are n aile d at 1 6 in c hes apart and similar

r
, , ,
'
s t a ps a a 1 1,i inc h are nailed t o the c eilin g j oists

, .
To t h e str a ps are n a iled t h e bra ckets b b b s h aped t o ,
th e gener a l lines o f th e intend ed ceilin g a n d also ,
pla ced 1 4 inches a p art The laths ar e nail ed t o th e

r
.
b r a ckets f o th e mo u lded p arts and t o straps for the

r
,
fl at p a rts O f the c eilin g Th e b a ck e t s a n d the str a ps

r
.
f o c eiling sh o u ld not b e more than on e inch in thick

ness for wher e th e b r a ck ets a n d str a p s o c c u r the
,
plaster c annot b e p ressed b etween the laths t o form a

key I f th e b r a cket s a nd s traps are made t hicker
.
,
PRACTI CA L S OL UT I O N S 1 47
p arts o f th e c ei l in g are apt to b e weak and irre gu l ar .
The l at h i n g s h ou l d b e w e l l b onded and h ave no end

j o ints l onger t h an twe l ve in c h es on t h e c ei l ing and ,
t we n t v t o u r in c h es o n t h e wa ll s a n d partiti o ns
-
NO ~
j o ints Of laths s h o u l d b e over l app ed as t h e p l aster ,
w ou l d thereby b e ma d e t h i n ner at a p art w h ere it

f o rms a n o key ,a n d w ou l d t hu s b e l iab l e t o cra c k from
the v ibrat i o n o f roof fl o or o o ther c auses
,
r .
Fi g 1 3 is a secti o n o n a l arger sc a l e at rig h t angles

.
t o that sh o wn in Fi g 1 2 H ere t h e c eilin g bra c ket b

. .
is s h own a fli x e d by h oo ks to t h e wa l l and to t h e c ei l ing ,
j o ists by t h e strap a a T h e c e i l in g h aving b een p l as

r
.
t e e d and th e mou l d in g s o f t h e c o rni c e run On t h e

,
lat h ed bra ckets prep ared to re c eive t h e m t h e p l aster ,
e n rich m ents m arked c d e f g are t h en applied No 3

r
. .
o n Fi g 2 s h ows a c urtain b o x in se c ti o n with its c u

.
-
tain rod
-
.
Fi g 1 4 is a se c tion t h rou g h a wind ow h e ad meeting

.
-
rails and si l l Of a wind ow T h e safe l inte l is p l a c ed

r
.
ab out 1 0 inches ab ove t h e dayli ght o f t h e window f o ,
the purpose of a ll ow in g venetian blinds to b e drawn up

c lear Of t h e wind o w and l eave t h e l ig h t un o b stru c ted
r
.
,
Th e framin g o f t h e wind o w i s c a ried up t o t h e l intel ,
and b etween it a n d t h e upp er sash a pane l i s set in '

,
and t h e b l inds h ang in fr ont o f it .
Fi g 1 5 is a cr o ss verti c a l se c tion and Fi g 1 6 a p lan

.
, .
looking u p Of a sky l i g h t on t h e ridge o f a roof suitable

r r
~
, ,
f o a staircase o corrid o r T h e d esign c an b e ad o pted

r
.
t o su it v a ri ou s widt h s T h e sky l ig h t is bracketed f o

.
p l aster fi n is h in g s in t h e sa m e manner as t h e c e i l ing

,
alre ady d escrib ed T h e fra ming a n d mou l dings at b

.
a re c a rried d o wn t h e sid e of the l ig h t at th e sa m e slo p e

1 50 -
M O D E RN CARPE NTRY
as t h e sas h ti l l t h ey b u tt a gainst t h e si l l and brid l e
r
,
d and e f o r m ing a tria n gu l ar p anel h aving f o its b ase

,
t h e c o rnic e c wh i c h is c arri ed r o und t h e ap erture

,
h o riz o nta l l y and finis h in g flus h w it h t h e c ei l ing p er

, ,
mits th e c o rni c e o n t h e c o rrid o r t o b e c o ntinue d w it h
F ig . 16 .
ou tinterr u pti on O b serve in Fi g 1 6 t h e l o wer c orni c e

. .
finish es t h e wa l ls and t h e u pp er mo u l d in gs O marked

,
c in Fig 1 5 are c arrie d r o und t h e w e l l Of t h e sk y l ig h t

'
. .
Fig; 1 7 s h o ws a p l an Of a pa n e l l ed c ei l i n g T h e l o wer
r m r
.
memb ers o b ed ou l dings a e c a rrie d r o und t h e wa l l s

of th e ro om a n d tend t o bui l d t o g et h er a n d give an
.
,
PRACT I CAL S OL UT I O N S 1
ap p earanc e of s u pport t o th e several p arts Of the ceil

in g Th e b est way o f m a k ing p an e l le d c ei l ings is to
.
c over the floor with b o ardin g and lay down th e l ine s

r
,
o f th e c ei l in g on th e te mpo ra y fl oor th u s formed

. .
T h en build and lath the c eilin g on these line s Whe n .
it is c o m p le ted it will b e q u ite firm and c a n b e c u t into

r
,
se cti o n s suitab l e f o b ein g lifte d u p and atta ch ed to

i
t h e j oistin g Th e same lines wi l l serve a s g u ides f o '
r
r r
.
t h e plasterer settin g the mo u lds f o runn i ng t h e c o

r
.
ni c es a n d f o prep arin g t h e c irc u l ar o rnam ent .
Fig 1 7 :
.
Fi g 1 8 sh ows in pl a n a n d section a c entr e s u ited f o

. r
th is c ei lin g By fixin g the c entral p orti on of it one
.
in c h from th e s u rfac e of th e finish e d c e il in g a n d con

n e ct in g it by small plaster blocks pl a ced a b out on e
“
"
i n ch apart it for ms an e x c el lent ventila tor A z inc

, .
t u b e c an b e l e d from thi s c entre in to a v e n t a n d a n ,

air tig h t v a l ve put on the tub e t o prevent a d own draft
when th e vent is n o t in u se F is a n ir o n rod fixed t o
.
F ig 1 8
. .
a stru t rdwan g b etween t h e jo ists f o r

th e p u rp ose
r
o
o f securi n g a gas pendant o e l ectrolier .
C A B Fig b e th e elevati o n or t h e br a cket

L et ( 1
. 9 )
o f a core t o fi n d the an gle bra cket
"
-
.
,
1 54 M O DE RN CAR PE NTR Y
A B a n d c u tting it in d e f g c ; and prod u c e th em t o

,
meet t h e l ine D E re p resenting th e c entre of the se a t

r
,
o f t h e an gle bracket :
-
and from the po ints of in t e s e c
tion h i k 1 c draw lines h 1 i 2 k 3 1 4 at ri ght angle s
to D E and make t h em e q u al—h l to d l i 2 to e 2
, , , ,
, , ,
& c ; a nd thro u gh F 1 2 3 4 5 draw th e c u rve o f the

.
edge on th e bracket T h e dotted line s on each side

.
o f D E o n th e p lan show t h e thickness o f the b ra cket
r
,
and th e dotte d lines u v s w t show t h e m an ner of

, ,
fin d in g th e b evel o f th e fa c e In t h e s ame fig u re is
r
.
s h own t h e manner o f finding the bra cket f o a n o bt u se

exterior angle L e t D I K b e the exterior an gle : b isect
.
it by th e li n e I G whic h will represent the se a t Of the

,
c entre o f t h e bra c ket Th e lines I H m 1 n 2 O 3 p 4

.
, , , , ,
c 5 are drawn p erpendic u l ar to I G and their lengths

, ,
are foun d a s in t h e former case

r r rr
.
To fi n d t h e an g l e br a ck e t of a co n ice f o in t e i o
rr r r
-
a n d ex t e io oth e wis e r ee n t a n t a n d s a li e n t a n g l e s
, ,
.
L e t A A A (Fi g 2 0 ) b e th e elevation o f th e c o rni c e

.
bracket E B the seat Of t h e mitre bracket o f the in

rr
-
t e io angle a nd H G th at o f the mitre bra cket o f the

r
-
exterior a ngl e From t h e points A k a b c

. o ,
wherever a chan ge in t h e form of t h e c onto u r o f th e

bracket oc curs d raw l ines perpendic u lar t o A i o
,
r
D C c u ttin g A i in e f g h i and c u tting th e line E B
,
in E l m n o B Draw the lines E G G L E B and H K

.
, , ,
representin g t h e plan Of t h e bra cketin g and th e pa r ,
a ll el l ines fro m the intersection 1 m 11 O as shown ,
d o tted in th e engravin g ; then mak e B F a n d H I p er

p e n d ic u l a r
to E B and G H resp ect ively and each ,
e qu al to i A o u to h d n t to g c m s t o f b l r to c a
, , , , ,
1 p to e k and j oin the p oints so fo u nd t o give the c on

,
PRACT I CA L S O L UT I O N S 155
to urs o f t h e b ra ckets required T h e b evels of the fa c e .
are fo u n d as shown by t h e d otte d line s x v y w & c ,

.
o Angl e b -
r
a ck e ts r
f o M oul d e d Co r n ice s
F ig 2 0
. .
To fi n d t h e a n g l e b a ck e t r t th e me e tin g of a
r
-
a con ca v e
wa ll with a. s t a i g ht wa ll .
L et A D E B (Fi g 2 1 ) b e th e p lan of th e bracke tin g

r
.
th e straight wall a n d D M G E th e p l a n o n the c i

‘
"
on ,
c ul a rwa ll ,
C A B t h e e l evation on t h e straight w a ll ,
and GM H on t h e c irc u l ar wal l D ivi d e the c u rve s

.
r
An gl e b a ck e t a t. M e e t ing
-
0! r
S t a igh t
a n d Co n ca v e Wa ll s
F ig 2 1
. .
C B G H into t h e sa m e numb er of equal parts ; thro u gh

,
t h e divisions o f C B draw the lines C D 1 d h 2 e i & c , , , . .
p erpendi cu l a r t o A B and thro u gh t h ose Of G H dr a w

1 58 M O D E RN C ARPE NTRY
Fig 2 3 N os 1 2 3 sh o ws t h e c urb and rib s Of a
.
, .
, , ,
c irc u l ar openin g (C B A N O c u tting in o n a sl o p

, .
in g c eiling No 1 is a se cti o n throu gh t h e centr e B D

. .
N O 2 and E F I
.
T h e h ei ght L K is divided into
,
Cu br a nd R ib s rr rr
o C i cul a A ch Cuttin g in to Sl oping Ce ilin g
F ig . 23 .
eq u al parts in e f g h 1 and t h e sa me h ei g h ts are

, , ,
transferred to t h e main rib in N O 2 at A 1 2 3 4 5 B .

, , , , , ,
.
Thr o u gh th e points A 1 2 3 4 5 in N O 2 lines are

, , , , , , .
d rawn p ara l l el to t h e axis B E I ; and thro u gh the

p oints e f g h i In No 1 l ines are drawn p ara l l el t o
, , ,
.
PRA CT I CA L SOL UT I O N S 1 59
th e slop e K H T h e pla ces o f the ribs 1 2 3 4 5 in

.
, , , , ,
t h e lat t er a n d their site o n t h e pl a n N O 3 and also, .

,
th e curve Of th e c u rb are found by intersectin g l ine s

,
in the manner with which th e st u dent is a lready a c

qu a in t e d .
r
Sph e ica l N ich e s o n S e mici cul a rr
a n d S e g me n ta l P l a n s
F ig 2 4
. .
O N NI CHE S .
To r r
d es c ib e a s p h e ic a l n i ch e on a s e m i ci cul a p l an
-
rr .
Th e constru c t ion o f t h is (Fi g 24 ) is pre c ise ly l ike

.
that o f a sph eri c a l d o me T h e rib s st and in p l anes

.
,
which woul d p a ss thro u gh the a xis if pr o d u c ed T h e y .
a re all of similar c u rvat u re N O 2 shows a n elevation

. .
of th e ich e a n d N O 3 the b evellin g Of the rib s 3 b
n ,
.
, ,
a gainst t h e fr o nt rib at D o n t h e pl a n ; a b is the b ev e l

O f a and b e o f b
, .
L e t H B K (F ig 2 4 ) b e t h e plan I t i s Obvi o u s th a t
r
. .
the rib s m p n wi l l b e parts o f th e qu adr a nt G F

r
, ,
(No Transfer t h e l en gths 10 m p n and r s to

r
.
, , ,
t h e line G E a s sh o wn at O p r s a n d raise p e p e n d icu

, ,
la rs fr o m t h ese p oints to th e quadran t ; G p is th e rib

m p and O p is the b eve l : G r I s th e rib n
,
and r s is r ,
t h e secti o n o f the fro n t ri b at t h e cro wn ; the vertical

proj e c ti o n of th e u pper arris of thi s rib will b e a se mi
c irc l e w ith r a d i u s s s o s H r .
Th e i he of whi ch b oth th e p l a n d e l e v a t ion a r

r
n c an e
s eg me n t s of a ci cl e .
NO i s th e e l evation of the ni che b e ing the se g

. 25 ,
m ent o f a c ircle who se c entre is at E N O 1 A B C is . .

, ,
the plan whic h is a seg ment o f a c ircle whose c entre

,
is H aving drawn on th e plan a s m any rib s a s a re

re qu ired radiatin g t o c entre D and c u tting th e plan
, ,
o f the fro n t rib in a b c d e ; then thro u gh the c entre

, ,
D draw th e l ine G H parallel to A C ; a nd from D de

s c rib e th e curves m l A G C H c u ttin g th e line G H ;
, , ,
and make D F equal t o E O N O 2 From F as a centr e ,

. .
describ e t h e c urves l p l and G I H for the d epth Of

the rib s ; and this i s the true c u rve for all the back
rib s
To find th e lengths and b evel Of the rib s —From the
.
c entre D describ e t h e quadrant and arc s a f bg cg , , ,
d h & c and draw f f g g h h perp endic u lar to D H

,
.
, , , ,
c u tting th e curve 1 p 1 and the l ines o f interse ction will

,
give th e len gt h s a n d b evels Of the several ribs .

1 62 M O D E RN CARPE NTRY :
El lipt ica l Nich e on Seg me n ta l Pla n
Fig 2 6
. .
P R A CT I CAL S OL UT I O N S 1 63
L D in t h e p l an (N O 1 Fi g 2 6 ) b e t h e c entre o f
et .
, .
th e se g ment T h rou g h D draw E F para ll e l t o A C

.
,
a n d c o ntinue t h e c urve O f t h e se gment t o E F Then

r
.
to find t h e curve of t h e b a ck ib s z—F r o m k l m n any ,
po ints in th e curve of t h e front rib (N o 2 ) let fa l l p er

r
.
p e n d ic u l a t o t h e l in e A B c utti n g it in a b c d Then ,
.
fr o m D as a c entre d escrib e t h e curve s a e b f c g e h , , , ,
d h and fr o m t h e p o ints w h ere th ey m eet t h e line E F

,
dra w t h e p erpendi c u l ars e k f l g m h n h 0 and set

r
, , , , ,
u p o n e k t h e h eig h t e k o f t h e e l evation an d th e c o
resp ondin g h ei g h ts o n t h eir o t h er o rd inates when ,
k l m n o w i l l b e t h e p oi n ts t h r ou g h w h i c h t h e c urve
Of t h e r a d i al rib s m ay b e tra c e d T h e manner Of fi n d .
in g t h e l engt h s a n d b eve l s o f the rib s is sh own at

t uu v m
A n i ch e s e mi e lli p ti c in p l a n a n d e l e v a ti on
-
.
L e t N O 1 Fig 2 7 b e t h e p lan and N O 2 th e eleva

.
, .
, , .
tion Of t h e nich e Th e rib s in t h is case radiate fr o m th e

.
c entre D and wit h t h e exc epti o n O f m g (which wi l l

,
b e t h e qua d rant o f a c ir c l e ) t h ey are a l l p ortions o f

e l lipse s and may b e d rawn by t h e tra mme l as s h own
.
,
in N O 4 whi c h gives t h e true curve o f th e rib mar k ed

.
,
.
d in N O 2 and b D in N O 1 Th e rib c in th e e l eva

. . .
,
ti o n is seen at a D in N o 1 ; th e b eve l of t h e en d h i is
,
.
se en at A a in N O 3 and that of th e end e f at b 0

r r r r
. .
,
To d aw th e ib s of a e gul a o c t a g on a l n ich e .
F ig 2 8 —L e t N O 1 b e t h e plan and N O 2 t h e eleva

. . .
,
.
tion o f t h e niche It is obvio u s that t h e c urve o f t h e

.
entre rib H G will b e th e same a s t h at of e it h er ha l f

o f the front rib A G F G In N O 3 t h erefor e draw ,
. .
, ,
A B C D E th e h alf pl an of th e ni che equal to

,
-
A B C H G N O 1 , a n d m a ke D G B equa l to half th e
, .
l
é 2
6 3
g
l 2 3 4 h “
;
Ell iptica l Nich e on Ell ipt ica l Pla n

F18 2 7.
0
-
l r
rr
e gul a O c t a go n a l N i c h e
F ig 2 9
. .
P RACT I CAL S OL UT I O N S 1 67
rib C E in i k 1 m n o O n these points ra ise indefinite .
perpendicu l a rs and set up on them th e heights a l in ,
i l b 2 in k 2 a n d so o n
,
Th e sha ded pa r t s show th e
. .
r
be vel at th e m eetin g of th e rib s at G in No 1
r r
rg l r
. .
To d aw th e ib s of a n i e u a oc t a g on a l n i ch e .
Fi g 2 9 —L e t No 1 b e th e plan and N O 2 t h e eleva

. . .
, .
tion Of th e n i c he Draw th e o u tlin e o f th e p lan o f th e .
nich e a t A B C D E F (N O a nd draw th e c entre .
lines o f th e s eats of the rib s B G H I & c ; draw also , ,

.
G L F eq u a l t o the half o f the front rib a s given in the ,
elevation N O 2 a nd divide it into a ny n u mb er of parts

.
,
1 2 34 Thro u gh th e p o ints o f division dr a w dl c 2

.
, ,
b 3 a 4 p er p endic u l a r to G F a nd p rod u ced t o the

, , ,
seat o f th e first a ngl e rib G E Thro u gh the po ints of .
intersect ion dr a w line s pa r a llel to the side E D of th e

nich e me eting the s e c ond a n gle rib D G ; throu gh th e
,
points Of intersecti on a g a in dr a w pa r a llels to D C a nd ,
so on Th e c u rve Of th e c entr e rib i s fo u nd by s etting

.
u p from n O p q G the h ei ghts (1 1 c 2 & c o n th e pa r

r
, , .
,
a ll el lines whi ch a e p er p endic u l a r t o K G Th e c u rve .
o f th e rib B G or E G is fo u nd by drawi n g thro u gh th e
p oints of intersection of th e p ar a llels p er p endic u lars

t o th e se a t o f the rib and settin g u p on th em at , ,
h m r I G the h ei ghts d l c 2 & c NO 4 show s t h e rib

, , , . .
C G a nd N O 5 th e intermedi a t e rib H I
,
. .
D OUB L E CUR V A TURE WO RK .
To O b t a in t o S o fi it M oul d
'
for markin g th e vene e r

(se e Fig divide th e elevation of lower e dge o f th e
.
h ead (Fi g 3 0) int o a n u mb er of eq ua l pa rts a s A B

.
, , ,
C D E S a n d drop p roj ector s from th es e p oints into

, , , ,
r
the pl an cu tt i g th e chord line A S in A B C
”
D E S ,
”
,
”
Draw th e l ine 8 s Fi g 3 5 eq u al in l ength
.
’ ’
, .
,
t o the stretc h o u t o f the s o ffi t in the e l evation (th e

l ength o f a curved l ine is transferred t o a stra ig h t
o n e b V taki n g a serie s o f smal l steps a r o und it wit h
the c omp asses an d r e p eatin g a like n u mber o f t h e

,
strai g h t line ) a n d transfer t h e po ints A B C & c as

, , .
,
t h ey o cc u r there o n rep eatin g t h e m on each side Of th e

,
centre line E rect perpendiculars a t t h e po ints and

r
.
,
make each of th ese lines e qua l in len gth to its co

despondin gly marked lin e in th e p l an as A a a Fig ’ ’ ’
r
.
,
”
3 5 equal t o A a a Fig 3 2 th ese l etters referrin g e
,
.
,
s p e c t ive l y to the chord line and th e in s ide and o u tside
ed ges o f th e head Draw th e curves thro u g h t h e p oints

.
s o fo u nd .As wi l l b e seen by referenc e t o Fi g 3 5 th e .

,
mo u ld is wider a t the sprin ging th an a t the crown ;

this is in c onseq u enc e of the pulley stiles b eing p arallel .
r
If they were radial t h eir wid t h wOul d b e th e same as
th e wi d th o f th e head at th e c o wn and th e h ead wo u l d
‘
b e p arallel ; th e grad u al I ncrease I n wi dth from th e

c rown to th e S prin ging is also app arent in th e s a sh
he a d and the b e a ds a s indic ated by th e line 0 0 Fi g

, , .
35 which i s the inside o f th e sash he ad and th e o u t

,
-
side of the p artin g h ead ; this variati o n in width ren

ders it imp ossib l e t o ga u ge t o a thickness from the fac e
r t h e gr o ove in the head from its ed ges
r
o .
To Fo m t h e He a d H aving prep ared t h e cylinder

r
.
(Fi g 33 ) to th e co re c t size prepare a nu mb er of

.
,
st aves to th e req u ired se cti o n Whi c h may b e obta ined

r
,
by drawing on e o t wo full size on th e e l evation a s ,
sh own t o the ri ght in Fig 3 6 Th e staves sho u ld b e . .
dry str a ight gr a ined yel l ow d eal free from knots a nd

-
,
1 70 M O D E RN CARP E N TR Y
sap and n ot b e so wide that they

r
,
requ i e h oll owing t o fit If th e .
veneer is pine it wi ll pro b ab ly b end

r
,
d y but hardwoo d wi ll require s oft

,
e n in g with h o t Water O n e end .
F ig 3 3
. .
s h ou l d b e fix ed as sh o wn in Fig 34
r
.
,
by s cre win g d o wn a st a ve a c o s s it .
T h en th e o th er end i s bent gent ly

over until t h e c ro wn is rea c hed ,
F ig . 34 .
when an other stave is s crewed on ,
and the b ending c ontinued u nti l

the veneer is we l l d o wn a l l round ,
and a t h ird stave se c ures it until

F ig 3 5
. .
it i s th orou gh l y dry wh en the e ,
rs
P R ACT I CAL S OL UTI O N S 1 71
r
ma in d e may b e gl u ed on .I t is as well to interp o se a
she et of p ap er b etween t h e cy l inder a nd the veneer in ,
c a se any gl u e sh ou ld r u n u nder which would then a d

,
h ere t o th e pa p er instead of th e veneer The head

r
.
sh o u ld n ot b e worked f o at le a st twelve h o u rs a fter

glu ein g If a b and saw is at hand th e b ac k sh o u ld b e
.
,
rou ghly cle aned O ff and t h e mould b ent ro u nd it the ,
shape m a rked and th e ed ges can then b e cut verti ca l l y

,
with the saw by sliding it over th e cylinder s u ffi c ient l y

,
F ig 3 6 . .
for th e s a w to pa ss When c ut by hand the mo u ld

.
is a p plied inside a n d the c u t is m ade sq ua re to the fa ce ,
the p rop er b evel b ein g obtaine d with th e s p okeshave ,
and fo u nd by standing the h ea d over its plan and

tryin g a set sq u are a gainst it When fitting th e h ea d
.
t o the pu lley stiles t h e correctness o f the j oints is tested

by c u tting a b o a rd t o the same swee p a s th e sill with ,
1 72 M O D E RN C A RPE NTRY
tenons at ea c h end a n d inserting it in the mortis es for
.
t h e pul l eys as s h own at B Fi g 3 6 A straig h t edge

, ,
. .
-
a pp l ied t o t h is and t h e sil l will at o nc e show if t h e

head is in t h e c orre c t p osition and i f th e edges are ,
verti c al a s they s h o u l d b e .
To O bt a i n a D e v elo p e d Fa ce M oul d M ake the line .
i h Fig 3 4 equal to th e stretc h o u t Of t h e p l an o f th e

r r
.
, ,
fa c e of sash h eads viz I H Fi g 32 T a n s f e t h e di

-
,
.
, ,
. .
'
visions as they o c c u r and ere ct p erpendic u lars th ereon

,
.
F ig 3 7
. .
M a k e these e qu al in h ei ght to th e c orrespondin g ord i

nates over t h e springing l ine in t h e e l evation and draw ,
the curves throug h the p o ints so fo u nd T h e gro ove

f or
.
the p artin g b ead c an b e marked by r u nnin g a

in pie c e a r o u nd th e insid e of t h e sash head this
.
-
b ea d b ein g general l y put in p a ra l l el I t is sometimes

r
.
omitted a l to get h er t h e side b eads b ein g c a ri ed up

,
u ntil t h ey die O ff on t h e head .

1 74 M O D E RN CA RPE N TRY
T h e other b ar is treate d in th e s a me m a n n e the r

,
p roj ectors b e in g marke d w ith f u ll lines in the plan .
F ig 3 9
. .
Ci rl r
\
cu aVi i d i
'
o w w1t h
,
S pl a ye d L i n in
1 2
F ig 4 0
. .
Th e r
s o ft mo u ld s f o the h ead linin gs ar e obtained in
r
similar manner to those f o th e head mo u ld th e wi d th ,
b eing ga u ged fr o m th e h e a d itself

PRACT I CA L S OL UT I O N S 1 75
A F rm
a e S p l aye d L
inin g with Ci cul a S ofiit a s rr
shown in p art e l evation in Fi g 3 9 p l an Fi g 4 0 and
.
, .
,
s e ction Fi g
. T h e s o ffi t stiles are worke d in the soli d
F ig 4 1
. .
in two pi ec es j o in ed at t h e cr o wn a nd Thesp r
m gi
n gs .
rai l s are worke d wit h p arallel e dges t h eir c entre lin es

r
,
adiatin g from th e c e ntre of th e elev a t ion E d ge .

L 76 M O D E RN CARPE NTRY
moulds o n ly are required for t h e sti l es and a developed
r
,
m o u l d f o t h e pane l s T h e m eth o d o f Ob taining these

.
h as b een s h o wn on a separate dia gr a m Fi g 42 ,

. .
Ci r
r l r
M e th od o f O b ta i i M o ul d s fo S pl y d
n ng cu a a e
L in in gs .
F ig 4 2
. .
To O bt ain th e Fa ce M oul ds f o r
D r a w th e li n e E E , Fig 42 , a nd pro duce th e f a ce s of
1 78 M ODE R N CARPE N TR Y
ti c a l ection From the a p e x C with the length of

s
r
.
,
on e of it s sides a s radi u s described th e a e E F which

, ,
make e qua l in len g th to th e semi c ircle E D E by ste p

-
p in g le n gths a s previo u sly descri bed Join F t o C and .

,
E C F is th e coverin g o f th e semi c o ne The shap e of

r
-
.
the fr u stu m o p ortion c u t O ff by the se ction lin e

,
Of the lin in gs i s f ou nd by pr o j e c tin g t h e inner ed ge o f

,
th e linin g u p On th e side C E an d drawin g the c on

,
F ig 4 3. .
c entri c arc I J then B I J E represents t h e c overin g

Of th e fr u stum Any port ion o f t h is t h e p anels f o
.
,
r
inst a nc e is fo u nd in th e sam e way TO draw the rails
,
.
,
divide th eir centre lines eq u ally on t h e p erimeter and ,
dr a w l ine s fr o m t h e divisions t o the c entre a s 11 0 ;

m a k e th e e d ges p ar a llel with these lines .
A W in d ow Wit h a S p l aye d S ofiit a n d S p l aye d J a mb s

is sh own in pa rt elev a tion Fig 4 3 p lan Fi g 44 ; a n d
,
.
,
.
P R AC TI CA L S OL U TI O N S 179
se ction Fig 4 5 The linings are gr o o ved and t o ng u ed

. .
t o geth er as s h o wn in t h e en l arged se ct i o n Fi g 4 6 To
r
. .
, ,
o btain th e c orre c t b evel require d f o t h e s h o u l der o f

the j amb and t h e gr o ove in t h e s offi t t h e l inin g mu st
,
F ig 4 4
. .
b e revolved u pon o n e o f its e dges u ntil it is p ar a l le l

wit h t h e front w h en its r ea l s h ap e c a n b e se en T h is
,
.
Op eration is s h own in t h e dia gram o n t h e ri g h t h and -
F ig 4 5
. .
h alf o f th e p l an a n d elevation D raw t h e l ine a b rep

.
,
resentin g t h e fa c e o f t h e j a mb in p l an at t h e desired
,
an gl e Proj e ct t h e ed ges into the elevation and in

r
.
,
t e s e c t them by lines c d pr o j ected fr o m th e t o p and

,
b ott o m ed ges Of t h e s offi t in se cti o n T h is wi l l give t h e

.
p roj ec ti o n of the l inin gs in elev a ti o n T h en from p o int

.
a as c e n tre a nd the width o f the l inin g a b as radi u s
, ,
describ e the arc b b b ringin g the edge b into the

’
,
sa me plane as the edge a Pr o j e ct p oint b int o the

.
’
e l evati o n c u ttin g the t op ed ge (if t h e s offi t prod u ced in

,
c’
Draw a line fr o m c to d and t h e c ontained an gle
’
r
.
,
i s t h e b eve l f o th e t op o f t h e j a mb Wh en the s of fit
.
is splay ed at t h e sa m e an g l e as t h e j amb s th e same ,
b evel wi l l answer for b o t h ; but w h en th e angle is

d iff erent as shown by t h e d o tted l ines at e F ig 45
, ,
.
,
then the s offi t also must b e t u rn ed into the vertical

plane as s h own at e a n d a l ine drawn from th at point
,
’
to interse c t t h e pr o j e cti o n o f the front edge o f the

j a mb in F ; j o in t h is p oint t o th e interse c ti o n Of the
l o wer e d ges and t h e c o ntained an g l e is the b evel for
,
th e gr o oves in t h e s offit (S e e Fi g . .
F ig 4 6
. .
F ig 4 7. .
r
Th e En l a gin g a n d D imi n i s hin g of M o u l di n g s The .
design o f a m o u l din g c an b e readi ly en l arged to any

desire d dimensions by drawing p arallel lines from its
m e mbers a nd layin g a strip Of paper o a strai ght edge
,
r -
o f t h e re q u ir ed d i m ensi o ns in an inc l ined dire c tion b e
t we e n th e b o u n d ary l ines of t h e t O p and b o tto m edges ;

1 82 M O D E RN CA R P E N TRY
o ramou t of proj ecti o n draw t h e h orizontal line b E

n ,
'
Fi g 48 at t h e level o f the l o west m e mb er of the cor

.
,
nic e a n d u pon this line drop pr oj e c tors at ri ght a ngles

,
to it fr o m t h e variou s m e mb ers Des c rib e t h e e qu il a t

.
eral tria n gl e b i E up o n t h is sid e and draw lines fr om

,
the divisi ons t o t h e apex i TO as c ertain t h e length

.
th at s h al l b e a r t h e s ame pr o p o rti o n to b E t h at th e l ine

b ears to A B p l a c e t h e len gt h o f b E on t h e l ine
,
B A fr o m B t o F and draw a l ine from F to C t h e

, :
p o rtion th e l in e G H c ut o ff fr o m J t o H is the pro

of
r
p o t ion a t e len gth required S e t t h is length O ff par a l l e l
.
t o b E within t h e tri a n g l e as b ef o re described and

r
, ,
I
a lso d a w t h e h o riz ontal l ine L H Fig 49 making it
‘
‘
, .
,
q u a l in l en gth t o a a F ig 48 Upon th is line set ofi

'
e ,
. .
th e divisi o ns a s t h e y oc c u r o n a a notin g th a t their ,
dire ction is reversed in th e t wo fi gu res E re ct p er

r
.
p e n d ic u l a s fro m t h ese p oints to intersec t th e p revi

ous ly d r a wn horiz o nt als a n d t h rou gh th e intersec tions
,
tra c e th e n ew profi l e The friez e and a rchitrave a re

.
r
redu c e d in like manner M B Fi g 48 representin g th e ,
h ei ght o f the o ri g inal a c h itrave a n d N H the red u e

tion Th e c orni c e can b e enlarged similarly by pro
.
,
.
,
F ig 5 0
. .
d u c in g the i n c l ine d side s o f t h e trian gle ; a s sh ow n “
t h e d otted l in e s on Fi g 48 su ffic iently t o enable the

' '
,
.
req u ired d epth t o b e drawn within it p arallel t o A B .
O n e me mb er h as b een enlarged to indic ate th e met hod

w h i c h s h o u l d b e clear witho u t fu ther e xpl a nation ; r
R a k in g M oul din g s . Fig 5 0 sh o ws t h e m e th od o f
.
findin g th e tr u e se c ti on o f an in cl ine d mo u ld in g th a t
rr
"
is requ ired t o mitre with a s imil a h o izo n t a l m ou ldin g

‘
1 84 M O DE RN CARPE NTRY
at its lower end a s in p ediments of doors a nd windows
, .
Th e horizont a l section b eing t h e more re adily seen is

rr
,
u s u al l y de cided first L e t th e profi l e in Fi g 50 e p e

. .
sent th is D ivide the o u tline into any number of parts

.
,
a n d erect p er p endi c u l a rs t h er efro m to c u t a horizontal,
line drawn from t h e intersection Of th e b a ck of the

mo u lding with th e top e d ge a s at po int 7 With this
,
.
p o int as a c entre and the vertica l proj ectors from 1 to 7

as ra d ii d escrib e ar cs c u tting th e t o p of t h e inc l ined
r
,
mo u l d a s shown From these points draw p e pe n d icu

,
.
F ig 5 1
. .
l a rs toth e r a ke t o me et l ines p arallel to th e edges o f

,
t h e inc l ined mou l din g dr a wn fr o m t h e c orresp ondin g

po ints o f division in t h e profi l e and their interse c tions ,
will give points in t h e curve t h r o u gh w h ic h t o draw

s W
I
t h e ect i on o f th e t aking mo u ld ; h en t h e p edi ment

is br oke n a n d a l evel mo u lding ret u r ned at t h e t op its ,
secti on is found in a s imi l ar manner as wi l l b e clear

' ‘
r
,
by inspecti on o f th e d a wm g I f th e section Of th e
'
raking mo u l di n g I s g i ven th a t Of th e h orizonta l mould

,
can b e f ou nd by rev ersing the pro c ess describ ed ab ov e
r
.
F ig 51 sho w s th e a ppl ic ati on o f th e met h o d In findin g

,
th e sec t i o n of a r et u n b e a d when one side is level a n d

’
pr o fi l e into a nn u mb er Of p a rts and f o m them draw

y ,
r
paral l els t o the ed ges interse cting t h e mitr e line From .
t h ese interse ctions d escrib e arcs conc entric with t h e

p l an of the c u rved mo u l d a n d at any convenient p o int
,
t h ereon draw a l ine radia l from th e centre E re c t .
p erp endi c u lars o n t h is line fr o m the p oints wh ere the

arc s intersect it and make t h em equal in hei ght t o the
c orrespondin g lines o n t h e section o f th e strai ght
mo u ldin g A and t h ese wi ll b e po ints in t h e profi l e o f
,
F ig 5 3
. .
t h e curved mo u ldin g B When it is re q u ired th a t th e

.
se c tion o f b oth m ou ldings s h a l l b e al ike a c irc u lar ,
mitre i s n ecessary and its true shap e is obtained as

,
s h o wn in Fig 53 D raw t h e p l a n and divide th e profil e

. .
Of th e strai gh t mo u l din g as b efore drawing p arallel s

,
to th e edge towards th e se a t o f t h e mitre Up on a line .
d rawn thro u gh t h e c entr e o f th e c u rve d mo u lding set

O ff divisi ons equal a n d simi l ar to those on t h e straight
‘
pa rt a s 1 t o 8 i n th e drawing From the c entre of the

,
.
P R ACT I CA L S O L UT I O N S 1 87
c u rve d esc rib e a rc s passing thr o u gh th ese p oints and ,
thro u gh the p o ints of interse ction o f these a rcs with

th e p a ra llel p roj e ctors draw a c u rve which will b e the
,
tr u e sha p e Of th e mitre Cut a saddle temp l et to this

.
sh ap e a n d u se it to mark th e mo u ldin gs and gu id e the

,
chise l in c u ttin g .
F ig 5 4
. .
To O bta in th e S e ct ion of a S a s h B a r Ra k in g in P l a n .
Fig 5 4 represents the pl an of a s h O front sash wit h

ri p
.
ba s n th e a n gles . On the left hand is shown the s e c

1 88 M O D E RN C A RP E NTRY
r
tion o f t h e sti l e o ra i l int o w h i c h the b ars have to
mitre Divide t h e profile o f m o u l d ing into a nu mb er
.
o f parts as sh o wn fr o m 1 to 6 a n d fr o m t h ese p o ints

, ,
d raw para l le l s t o the sides o f t h e rails interse c ting t h e

c entre l ine of t h e b ar Also draw p erpendi culars from
.
th e same p onts t o any line a t right an gles t o t h e m as ,
at A Draw a l ine at ri g h t ang l es t o the c entre line o f

.
t h e b ar an d on it set O ff th e d iv i si ons fr o m 1 to 6 as
,
at A Draw pr o j e c t o rs from t h ese po ints p ara ll el to

.
t h e c entre line O f the b ar and where t h ey interse c t

,
th e c o rresp o n d ingly n u mbered l ines drawn p ara ll e l

with t h e si d es o f t h e sas h wil l b e poin ts in the curve Of
t h e se c tion o f the b ar I t will b e noticed t h at t h ere i s
r r
.
no fi ll et o s q u a e sh o wn on t h e b ar and th at in trans
r
,
ferrin g t h e p o ints fro m th e line A they m u st b e e

versed o u ea c h side o f t h e centre S h ou l d a fil l et b e .
re quired o n t h e b ar additional thickness must b e given

r
,
f o t h e purpose T h re e met h o d s of f o rmin g t h e reb ates

.
in the bar are s h own t h e screwed sad dle b eads b eing

r
,
th e b est f o securin g t h e g l ass .
I nt e rior S h u tt e rs I nclu d e Folding S lidi n g B al a n ced

r
, , ,
a nd R o lling Ex t e i or Consi s t of H an gin g L if ti n g

r
.
, ,
S p rin g a n d V e neti a n S h u tt e s
r
.
,
F O L D I NG o as t h e v are freq u ently c a l led B O X

r
~
, ,
I N G S H UTT E R S b e c ause t h ey f ol d int o a b oxin g o

,
rec ess fo r med b etween t h e wind o w fra mes a n d th e

wa ll s are c o mp o sed o f a nu mb er o f narrow l eaves
r
, .
fr amed o p l ai n as t h e ir size m a v deter mine rebated

, ,
and h in ge d t o ea c h o t h er and to t h e window fr a mes .
Th ey sh o u l d b e of su c h size t h at w h en Opened o u t t h ey
wi l l c over th e entire li g h t spa ce of t h e sash frame and
a margin of a 14 in in additi o n Care mu st b e t a ken
. .
1 90 M O D E RN CA R PE N TR Y
F ig 5 5
. .
P R A CT I CAL SOL UT I O N S 1 91
Fig . 55 is a secti o nal elevati o n o f a Wi n d ow Fitt e d

with B o x in g S hutt e r s h avin g a c o ver flap and sp aces
for a blind and a curtain O n e h a l f of th e elevati o n
.
-
shows t h e s h utters Op ened o ut and th e front of th e

fi n is h in g s re mo ved s h owing t h e c onstr u ction o f th e
,
b oxings & c T h e p l an Fi g 5 6 is divided similarly

,
.
,
.
, ,
on h alf s h owing t h e shutters folded b a ck

e with por ,
~
F ig 5 6
. .
ti o ns o f s offi t c ornice & c ; th e other h a l f gives th e p lan

,
. .
and se c tions o f t h e l o wer p arts t h e dott ed l ine s sh o w ,
in g t h e win d o w b a c k .
Fi g 57 is a verti c al se cti o n and Fi g 5 8 an enlarge d

. .
se c ti o n t h r o ugh t h e b o xin gs T h e fra m ed p il a s ter c ov

.
ering t h e b oxi n g is c u t a t th e l eve l o f t h e window

bo ar d and h un g t o t h e stud A t h is b ein g ne c essary ’
r
, ,
f o the c over t o c l ear t h e s h utters w h en o p en (se e

'
d o tted lines o n Opp o site h a l f ) T h e c o ver flap c l o se s

.
into rebat es a t t h e t o p a n d b o tt o m as s hown in s e e ,

tion in Fig 5 5 The window
r
. .
b a c k is c a r ied b ehind the

elb ows and
, gr o o ved t o re c eive
the latter T h e rails o f t h e

.
s o ffi t must b e wide en o u g h t o
co ver t h e b o xin g s and s h o uld

,
h ave the b o xing b a c k t on gued
F ig 5 8
. .
int o it as s h own in the se ction

,
,
Fig 5 5 W hen t h e linin g s of
r
. .
Opening u f rom s o ffi t t o
an n
th e fi O O r
uninterr u ptedly they ,
r
a e c a ll ed j a m b linings ; but
wh en they c omm ence as in ,
the p resent instance u nder th e ,

194 M O D E R N CARP E N TRY
F ig . 61 .
Of the w indow hun g wit h weig h ts in a cased frame in

,
a si mi l ar manner to a p air of sas h es T h e fra m e e x

.
tends the whole height O f th e window and is c a rried

,
down b ehind th e fl oor j o ists t o the set O ff The win

.
P R A C TI C AL S OL UT IO N S 1 95
d ow b o ard is h inged t o t h e fr o nt panel l in g o s h utter r
b a ck s o that when th e former is lifte d t h e shutters
, ,
c an p ass down b e h ind th e b ack out of si g h t Cover .
flaps h un g t o the o u ter linin gs on e ach side cl ose o ver

the face o f th e p ulley stile s and h ide th e c ords Wh en .
it is desired t o c lo se the sh u tters the cover fl aps are,
O p ene d out fla t a s sh own to th e left of the plan Th e

,
.
F ig . 63 .
window b o a rd c an then b e lifted and the s hu tt ers r u n

up a pair o f fl us h rin gs b e i n g i nserted in the top ed ge
r r
,
that purp ose T h e wind o w b o a d is ne x t

'
o f each f o .
s h ut down t h e inside shutter broug h t d own !upon it

, ,
!
t h e outside one pus h ed ti gh t u p to the h ead and t h e

‘
m eetin g rails w h ich overlap an inch fastened with a

, ,
thumb sc re w The b o ttom r ail o f t h e upp er s h utter

-
.
is m ade a n inc h wider t h an th e other for t h e p u r

'
p o se of s h owin g a n e qu a l margin when overlapp ed

r
.
S q u a re le a d we i ghts h a ve g enerally to b e u sed f o

ab o ve and the norm al c onditi o n o f thin gs is th at when

.
t h e shutter i s c oi l e d up t h e sprin g is u nwound Th e .
pullin g d o wn o f t h e s h utte r winds u p the spring and ,
t h e tension is so arran ged t h at it doe s not quite over

co m e the we i g h t of t h e shutter and the friction w h en
t h e shutter is down s o that th e latter m ust b e assisted
,
u p with a l on g arm Gre a t c are s h ou ld b e taken in

.
fixin g th ese shutters t o arran ge the b arrel p erfectly

l evel and parallel with the front and t ose cu ely fix t h e ,
r
bra c kets These may b e b olte d t o the girder or bre ast
.
summer or screwe d t o t h e fixings plugged in t h e wa l l ,

,
as shown by dotte d line s in Fi g 64 Wh ere p ossib le a . .
wo o d gr o ove s h ould b e f o r m ed on e ach side o f t h e o p en

ings for the shutters t o w ork in b ut ir o n ,
channels (Fi g 65 ) are freq u ently u s ed

. .
T h ese are ce m ented into a c h a s e in t h e

r
wall o p ilaster Fi g 64 i s a secti o n
. .
t h rough a s h op fasc i a show in g s h utter ,
and blind b arrels fixed t o t h e fac e of t h e F ig 65
wall where n o provision has b een m ade b e n e a t h t h e

,
‘
girder Fi g 66 s h ows the ad a ption of one of t h ese

. .
sh u tters to the inside of a window ; the b arrel i s fix ed

in a se at forme d b eneath the window the top o f w h ich ,
is h in g ed t o gain ac c ess t o the coil Th e m ini m um

r r
, .
sp ac e re quired f o a coi l f o a sh u tter ab out 6 ft hi gh

, .
is in A friction r o ller F sh o u ld b e fixe d

.
c l o se t othe b ack r ail to prevent c h afin g as t h e c oil u n
winds ; t h e s h utter is l ifted by me ans o f a fl u sh rin g

r
in t h e L iron b a at th e t o p and t h is r i n g en ga ges w ith
,
a ti l t in g h o ok in t h e s o ffi t t o keep th e s h utter u p T h e .
m etal varieties o f these s h utters are wo und up by t h e

aid of b alanc e wei g h ts o b evel whe el gearin g r .
200 M OD E RN CARP EN TRY
F ig . 66
.
2 02 M O D E R N CARPE NTRY
Fig .
S a shes are from t o 3 inc h es thi ck The inner e dge .
o f t h e outer fac e is R e b a te d to rec e ive the gla s The

r
s .
inner face i s left either square ch amfered o moulded ;

, ,
Fig 67 Fig 68 Fig 69 Fig 70

. .
. .
. .
. .
two c ommon fo r
ms of m ouldin g a re lamb s ton gu e (Fi g ’
-
68 ) and ov o lo (Fi g . The size o f th e reb ate is indi

PRACT ICAL SO L UT IO N S 03
ca in Fi g 7 0 ; it vari es with th e thickness o f the sash

te d . ,
its depth b e in g always a little more t h an on e third this -
thickness The w idth of th e reb a te v a ries from a q ua r

.
ter o f a n in ch to h alf an inch and the mould is u sually ,
s unk the sa m e de p th a s the reb ate T h is last fact is of .
som e imp ortance a s it a ff ects th e sho u lder lines ; a nd

,
with hand work it influences the amo u nt of lab or in

the m a kin g of the sashe s .
As little m a terial a s p ossible is u sed in the s a shes in ,
order t h at the li ght sh a ll n ot b e interfere d with I n gen .
eral the style s a nd t o p r ai l are sq u are in secti o n b efor e

,
b ein g reb a ted and mo u lded In c asement s a shes how .

,
ever it is often advisab le t o have th e outer styles a

,
little w ider than the thickn e ss espec ially when they are ,
ton g ued in t o th e frame The width of the b ottom r a il

.
is from on e and a h a lf t o twic e the thickness of t h e

s a sh S a sh b ars whi ch req u ire reb a tin g and mo u ldin g
.
o n b oth side s should b e as n arrow as possib le in order

, ,
n ot t o interr u pt the li g h t They are usu ally fro m.
fi v e eighths of a n inch t o on e and a q u arter inches W ide

-
J oin t s of The sashes a re fr a med t o gether by

S a s he s
r
.
mean s of the M o t is e a n d Te n on Join t (Fig The .
p rop o rtions of the thickness and width of tenons ,
h aunche d tenons & c are t o a l a rge extent app ii

,
.
,
c able here H ardwo o d cro ss ton gu es are sometimes in

r
-
.
s e t e d to stren gthen the j o ints while thick s ashe s

sho u l d h ave D oub l e Te n on s An altern a tive to h alving
.
in sash b ars is t o arr a n ge th a t the b ar which is sub

j e c t e d t o t h e gre ater stress — as f o e xa mple th e ver r ,
tic al b a rs in slidin g s a shes and th e horizont a l b ars i n

h in ge d c a sement sashe s —
,
shal l b e c ontin u ous ; this c on

t in uous b a r
is mortised to re ceive th e other which is ,
2 04 M O D E RN CARP E NT RY
scrib ed i e cut to fit t h e first and o n w h i c h t h e short
r
. .
,
ten o ns are left This meth o d i s c al l e d F a n k in g th e

.
S as h B a r s and is illustrated in Fi g 7 2
, . .
F ig . 72 .
F ig . 71 .
Ca s ement Wi n do ws C asement windows m ay b e

.
hin ged in suc h a manner t h at they Op en eit h er inwards

or o utwards T h ey m a y c o nsist eit h er of on e sash or o f
.
,
f ol din g sashes and are hun g w ith butt hin ges t o solid
r
,
reb ated fra m es T h ese F a m e s consist Of j amb s he a d

.
,
206 M O D E RN C AR P E NTRY
r r
Enla ge d Ve ti ca l
Se ction
Fig . 73 . F ig . 74 . F ig . 75 .
r r
En la ged Ho iz on ta l Section .
Fig . 7 6.
PRACT I CAL S O L UT I O N S 2 07
w ater esc ap es t h r o ugh t h e h ole b ored in the c enter of
t h e si l l
.
F ig . 77 .
Wh en c asement sashe s are h un g after t h e m anner of

fo ldin g doors t h e vertical j o int b etween t h e meetin g
,
styles is reb ated Altern ative met h ods o f reb atin g

.
F ig . 78 .
are shown in Fi g 79 and 80 Fi g 80 is known a s a

r
. . .
Hook Join t and . is th e b e tte on e .

Ca s eme n t S a s h e s O pen in g 0 ut wa ds .
r T h ese ar e m re
. o
e asily m ade W e at h erpro o f than inward op ening sas h es -

.
T h e c h ief Obj e cti o ns t o t h eir adoption are t h at t h ey are

n o t easily ac c essib l e f o r
c leanin g t h e outside esp ecial ,
ly in upper ro o m s and t h at th ey are a lso liab le when ,
left Open t o b e d amage d by high winds and t o let in

,
t h e rain durin g a stor m Fi g 8 1 is a sketc h Of on e

. .
c orner O f s u ch a wind ow I t will b e noticed that these

.
F ig . 80 . F ig . 81 .
frames like doo r frames h a ve t h e ex poses a rrises
r
,
m ou l ded in vari ous ways a nd that the sashes may ,
eithe b e hu n g flus h wit h on e fac e of th e frame (a s in

r
Fi gs 7 6 and 7 7 o fit in t h e t h ick n ess of the fr a m e
.
(Fi gs 7 8 and . T h e sill s h ows t o b e D ou b l e S un k ,
i e t o h ave t h e upper surface—up on w h ich the b o t

. .
,
t om rail o f the sash fi t s —reb a ted wi th two slo p es

(we a therings ) .
r
must b e so c onst u cte d that the sas h e s c an b e removed
e asi ly for th e p u rpose of rep lac in g b rok en sas h l ines -
.
T o enab le t h is to b e d o ne th e edge Of t h e inside lin in g

,
is either made flush with t h e face o f t h e pull e y styl e

(Fi g . o r
it is reb ated slig h tly as shown in Fi g 8 3 . .
T h e edge Of the outside linin g proj ects for a distan c e

o f ab o ut t h ree qu arters of an inc h b ey ond t h e fac e of
-
the pu ll ey style to f o rm a reb ate a gainst w h ic h t h e

r
,
o ute (upp er ) s a sh slides Th e out er sash i s k ept in

.
F ig . 83 . Fig . 83 54 .
r
p osition by the P a ti n g L a th (Fi g 82 ) w h i c h fits int o
a gro o ve in t h e pul l ey style T h e gro ove f o r
.
. t h e inner
(lower ) sas h is f o r m ed by t h e p artin g lat h a n d a
S t a ff B e a d orS t op B e a d w h ic h i s se c ured by screws .
T h e sta ff b ea d on t h e sill is Often m ade fr o m t w o t o

three inc h es de ep t o a l low t h e lower sas h to b e raise d
su ffici ently f or ventilati o n at t h e m eetin g rai l s wit h out
c ausin g a draug h t at t h e b o ttom (Fi g .
A vertic al section t h r o u gh t h e h ead Of t h e frame is

similar t o a horizontal section acr o ss t h e pulley style ,
PRACT I CAL SOL UT I O N S 11
exce p t that the b a ck lin in g a nd p artin g sli p a re of

c o u rse a bsent .
Th e si l l O f the fram e is so lid and w e athe red and

r
,
sh o u ld always b e O f h ardwo od p referably o ak o te ak

, .
T h e sill has a w idth e qual to the full t h i ckness o f the

fra m e Wh en the we atherin g h as two s t e ppin g s it is
.
,
know n a s a D ou b l e S u n k S ill An altern ative to the

.
p lan of h avin g the widt h of the s il l of t h e full thickne ss

O f the frame is to arran ge it so t h at t h e o u tside e d ge
,
is flush with t h e outside fac e o f t h e b ottom sash as ,
shown in Fi g 89 With a sill arr a n ged in this m anne r

. .
,
and do u b le s u nk there is less dan ger o f water dr ivin g

,
F ig . 84 .
through th e j oint b etwe en the sash and t h e si l l than

with a sill th e full th ickne ss O f the frame I n order .
t o render w atert ig h t t h e j o int b etween the wo o den

and stone sills O f window frames a metal ton gue is ,
Often fixed into c orresp o ndin g gro ove s c u t int o t h e um

der S l d e of th e wo oden sill and the upp e r s u rfac e O f
the ston e sill A reb ate d j oint b etw e en the t wo sills
.
serves th e s a m e p u r p ose as t h e metal ton g u e .
Fi g 84 shows th e methods O f fixin g the p u lley style

.
into the he ad and sill re s p ectively when the width O f,
t h e si l l is e qual to the fu ll t h i ckn ess of the frame T h e

r
.
P ull e ys on which th e sash lines r u n — sash o axle p u l

leys are fi x e d in mortises ne ar the u pp er ends of th e
pulley sty l es I t is also nec essary t o h a ve a emov a b le
.
r
p ie ce in the lower p a rt of ea ch pulley style t o allow ,
o f acc ess to the wei ghts T h is piec e is named the

.
P ock e t P iec e I t may b e c u t as sh own in Fig 8 5 ; its

. .
p osition i s then b ehind t h e l o wer sash and it is h idden ,
Solid Mulli on . ulll on
F ig . 8 4 176 . F ig .
fro m V iew when the window is c l osed O the pocke t . r

,
p ie c e may b e in t h e m idd l e Of t h e pu l l ey style as s h own

in Fi g 84 ; t h e vertic al j o ints b etween the p o c ket pie c e
.
and t h e pu l ley sty l e are t h en V s h aped to prevent dam

a ge to t h e p aint in c ase o f re m oval .
F ig . 85 .
Sa s h e s The only differenc e b etwe en t h e j o ints of

.
slidin g sashes and t h o se o f t h e c ase m ent sas h es a l re ady

describ e d is in t h e constru c ti o n of t h e me etin g rails .
E ac h of the meetin g rails is m ade t h icke r t h an t h e sash

t o the extent o f th e thi ckness o f t h e p artin g lath ; other
wise t h ere wo u ld b e a s p ac e b etween t h em e qual to t h e
tenon j o ints u sed a s shown in Fi gs 86 and 8 7 . . Th e

proj e ctin g ends of the styles a re c alle d J ogg l e s ; t h ey
assist in en ab lin g the sas h es espe cially in wide,
win
d ows to slide m o re fre ely When a s is u su a lly t h e c ase
r
,
.
,
b oth sashes slid e a nd a e b a lanc ed by wei ghts , th e
wind ow is kn own as a D ou b l e Hun g sas h and frame -
w indow If on e sas h on l y slides and t h e other is fixed

.
,
in th e frame t h e window is S i n g l e Hu n g Figs 7 8 t o

,
-
. .
8 0 sh ow the details o f a sash and frame window fi x ed

in a on e a n d a h a lf b rick t h ick w a ll a nd h aving a ston e
- - - -
he a d a nd sill .
PRACT ICAL S OL UT IO N S
Fo r
t h e sake app earan ce o w h en it i s re quired t o
of ,
r
h ave wider win dows than c an b e arr an ged wit h o n e
pair o f sashes tw o or thre e p airs o f sashe s ar e o ften
,
c o nstructed side by side in t h e same frame Wh en .
t h ree pairs o f sas h es are u sed i t is usual to h a ve t h e ,
midd l e p air wider th an t h e ot h ers ; such a c o mb ination

(Fi g 7 3 ) i s n amed a V e n e ti a n Wi n d ow T h e ve ti c a l
. . r
divi si o n s b etwe en adj acent p airs o f sas h es are c a l led
M u llions These mulli o ns may b e c onstru c ted in sev
.
era l different ways I f t h e middle p air o f sas h es only is

.
require d to slide t h e mullions m ay b e solid from 1 4

,
1 "
"
t o 2 thick and the sash cord c onducted by me ans o f
r
-
addition al pulleys to the b oxes which a e at the o u ter ,
edges of the frame Fi gs 84 and 8 6 s h ow this arran ge
r
. .
m ent If it is desirab le to h ave all t h e sas h es t o sl ide

r
.
,
the m u llions must b e h ollow t o p ovide ro om f o the

wei ghts Fi gs 8 5 and 8 7 s h ow det a ils o f a mullion w ith
r
. .
provision made f o on e wei ght to b al a nc e th e two

sashes adj acent to it With this arran gement the sash
.
c ord passes roun d a pu lley fixed into the upp er e nd of

the we i ght I f stone mullions are used in the window
.
Op enin g sep arate b oxin gs m a y b e m ade s o t h at e ach

,
p air O f sash es is hu n g indep endently as shown in Fi g .
83 and t h e w indow b e c o mes as it we re t wo or t h re e

“
, , ,
as t h e c ase m ay b e — separate window fra m es wit h th e

r
,
sill and head e ach in one len gt h f o th e sake o f

stren gth
r
.
Th e Ha n g i n g of V e tic a l S li din g S a s h e s As shown .
in ill u strati o ns already g iv e n t h e sas h es of sas h and

r
, .
frame w indows are b al a nce d by c ast iron o l eaden -
wei ghts The b est c o rd is employed for h an gin g sas h e s

r
.
o f o rdinary size while f o very he a vy s a shes the s a sh

,
r
lines are o ften o f steel o c opper The s t a fi b e ad and
.
p artin g b e ad h avin g b een r em o ved t h e c ords are p assed

,
ove r t h e axle pu l leys (w h ich are b est of brass to pre

vent c o rr o sion ) and are tied to th e upper ends o f t h e
wei g h ts T h e weig h ts are p assed through t h e po c ket
.
h oles a n d suspended in the b oxes The p o cket piec es

r
.
h avin g b een eplace d the u pp er sas h w h ic h s l ides in

, ,
t h e o uter gro ove i s h un g first th e fre e ends of t h e

, ,
c o rds b eing either naile d into gro oves in t h e outer

r
.
ed ges of t h e sash o secure d by kn o tting t h e ends a fter

passin g them t h rough h o le s b ored int o the style s of t h e
sas h T h e upper sas h h avin g b een hun g t h e p artin g
.
,
laths are fixed into t h e gro o ve s in t h e pu l ley styles and ,
t h e l ower (inner ) sash is h un g in a simi l ar manner ,
after which the sta ff b eads are s c rewed in p osition .
Care s h o u l d b e taken t o h ave t h e c o rds o f t h e rig h t

l e ngths ; if t h e cords for th e u pper sas h are t o o lon g
t h e weights will touc h t h e b otto m o f t h e fra m e and ,
ce ase t o b alanc e t h e w ei g h t of t h e sash b ef o re t h e l a t

r
ter is c l o sed I f t h e c ords f o t h e l o wer sas h are t o o
.
s h ort t h e weights wi l l c ome in c o nta c t wit h t h e a x l e

,
'
pu l leys and t hu s prevent it fr o m closin g S everal dif

r r
h angin g sas h es —t h e Obj e c ts o f
, .
f e e n t de vices f o
w h i c h are eit h e r t o render u nne c essary t h e use o f
r
we i g h ts o to faci l itate t h e c l e aning o f t h e outside o f
th e window— h ave be en p atented and are in m o re o ,
r
less general use A detai l e d descripti o n of t h ese is
.
,
however b eyond t h e scope o f t h is b ook

, .
B ay
“
Wi n d ow s A b ay wind o w is on e t h at proj ects
.
b ey o nd t h e fa c e of t h e wa l l T h e side lig h ts ma y b e
eit h er sp l aye d o r
.
a t rig h t an gles t o t h e fr o nt The

wind o w Openin gs may b e f o r med by h avin g st one o r
.
usual ly by a w o o den c o rni c e and t h e w oo den r o o f is
r
,
c o vered wit h le ad sl ates o ti l es Th e window fra m es

r
, .
may b e arran ged as fixe d lig h ts sash and frame o , ,
r
F on t El eva ti o n
v
F ig . 88 1
7 6 . F ig .
ea se T h e most u s u al arran gement i s to have

me n t s .
t h e lower li g h ts fixed and t h e u pper o nes as sas h es

r
,
hin ged to Op en f o ventilatin g purp o ses Fi gs 8 8 t o 90 . .

PRACT ICAL SOL UT I O N S 219
show th e details o f a b ay window with splayed side

li g h ts t h e upper side l ights b ein g h in ged o n t h e tran
,
s o m t o Open inwards
r
.
Wi n d ows With Cu v e d Hea d s When a wind o w

.
Op enin g is surm o u nte d by an arch the top o f t h e win ,
d o w frame requires t o b e o ff t h e same curvature as t h e

under side (s o ffi t ) o f t h e arc h I n t h e c ase o f fixe d
.
F ig . 90
.
r
sashes , o o f solid frame s w ith c asement sashe s th e
“ ”
,
h e ad of t h e frame is cut o ut of t h e solid A h e ad .
w h ic h o win g to t h e size O f t h e curve c annot e asily b e

, ,
ob tained in on e piec e is b u ilt u p of se g m ents th e

, ,
r
Ho iz o n ta l S e c tion .
F ig . 9 0 1A .
j o ints b ein g radial to th e curve and secured by h a rd

,
wo od keys As an a l tern ative method t h e he ad m ay

.
‘
b e b u ilt up o f two t h i c knesses—wit h overla p p in g

j o ints —a nd se cure d to get h er by s c rews .
A sas h and fra m e wind o w in su c h an openin g may
h ave on ly t h e o utside l inin g cut t o t h e c urve of t h e
ar c h t h e inner side of t h e fra m e b e in g left square T h e
,
.
upper sas h wi ll t h en re quire a t o p rail wit h a straig h t

upper e dge a n d a curved l o wer ed ge a s s h o wn in Fi g , .
91 .
rr
A chit a ve
Oul s ide f In s ide

Eleva l ion
p r
r Win d ow
rd H
E l e v a t ion o f u ppe t fa o a.
h a v in g Cu ve ea d .
F ig . 91 .
Wh en t h e h e ad of t h e fra m e h as t o b e curve d it ,
may
(1 ) b e b uilt u p o f t wo t h icknesse s wit h overlappin g
j o ints and se cured by s c rew s ; it m a y
,
(2 ) b e f o r m ed o f t h re e thicknesses o f t h in m aterial ,
b ent up o n a b l o ck o f t h e c orrect radius and w el l gl u ed

r
,
and s c rewed t o get h e r ; o

(3 ) t h e h ea d m a y b e o f t h e sa m e thi c kness as t h e
pul l ey sty l es w it h tren c h es c ut o u t o f t h e b a ck (up
,
p er ) side le avin g o n l y a vene er o n t h e fa c e side under

,
-
t h e trenc h es Wo o den keys are gl ued and driven int o

.
t h e tren c h es after t h e h e ad h as b een b ent upon a b lock

t o t h e re quired s h ap e .
A strip o f st out c anvas gl ued over t h e upper side

w ill stren gt h en t h e w h o l e m aterially Th e outside and .
M O D E RN C A RP E NTRY
Fig . 92 .
c r
i
o n ce .
r
S ign 8 0 3 d .
f rt El
on eva tion .
r
ve ti ca l Se ction .
F ig . 93 .
r
Ho iz o n ta l Se ction .
F ig . 94 .
PRACT I CA L S OL UT I O N S 223
r Fr a me Win d ow s l i O Win g
S k e t ch o f p a t o f a S a s h a n d
P
.
r
a n e ll e d a n d M o u ld e d J a m i l i n in g , e t c.
,
F ig . 95 .
L in in g s When window frame s are n o t of s uffi ci ent

.
t hickne ss to c o m e flush wit h t h e inner fac e o f t h e w al l ,
the p laster may b e ret u rned ro u nd the b rickwork and

r
finis h ed a gainst t h e fra m e o a n arr o w fi l let o f wo od
,
m a y b e s c rib ed t o t h e w a ll and n ai l ed t o t h e frame I n.
dwe ll in g h o uses h o wever t h e m o re usual w ay is t o

r
-
, ,
fi x linin gs si m i l ar t o t h ose used f o o uter d oo r fra m es .
T h e widt h o f t h e l inings depends up o n t h e t h i c kness

o f t h e wa l l ; t h ey s h o u l d pr o j ect b ey o nd t h e i nne r face
o f t h e w a ll f o r a distanc e e qual t o t h e t h i c kness o f t h e
F ig . 96 .
plaster and are usua l l y sp l aye d s o t h at t h ey will n ot

,
interfere w it h t h e ad missi o n of lig h t T h e inside of .
window and d o o r o penin gs usua lly are finis h ed si milar

,
r r
l y ; t h us t h e A rchit a ve o B a nd M o u ldin g whi c h i s
, ,
secured t o t h e edge o f t h e linin gs and t o r o ugh wo o d en

r
G ou nd s is fixed al o n g t h e sides and t op in b o th c a s e s .
fac e fram ed and m o u l ded and t h e inside finis h e d b ead

,
flush T h e arran gement of b ox s h utt ers requires t h at

.
the shutters on t h e same side s h al l vary in width so

that t h ey wi l l fo l d int o t h e b o xes on e a c h side of t h e
window t h e outermost s h utter (w h i c h is t h e widest )
,
t h en actin g as t h e wind o w lining Fi g 96 sh ows a h o ri . .
z on t a l secti o n t h roug h o n e side of a wind o w s h owin g ,
hinged s h utters f o ldin g s o th at a splaye d l inin g is o b

;
t a in e d . Fi g 97 s h o ws h in ge d s hu tters c o nsistin g of
.
on e n arrow and o n e wide shutter on e ac h sid e of t h e
F ig . 97 .
Openin g Thi s a rran gement is suitab le f o a thin wall r

r
.
,
where it i s u ndesir ab le t o h ave bo xes f o t h e s h utters

p roj e ctin g b eyond t h e fac e o f t h e wall Fo h ang . r
in g window s h utters it i s usua l to use b ack fl a p h inges ; -
t h e j o int at t h e c o rner o f t h e s h utters in Fig 97 is .
na med a rule j oint

r
.
.
S l idi n g S h u tt e s workin g in vertic al grooves and

r
,
b alanced by we ig h ts are sometimes used They e

r
.
,
q u ire t h at the wall under the window sill shall b e e

cessed ; t h e fl oo r a lso often needs tri mmin g to a llow
PRACT I CAL SOL UT I O N S 227
s pa c e for them t o slide

s u ffic iently low To .
h ide th e gro oves in

which the sh u tters
slide thin verti c al fl ap s
,
are h u n g to the window

frame and the window
,
b o ard is also h in g e d at
the front e dge t o allow
the sh u tters t o slide b e
Hin ge d Fla p
Weights for
Shutte r
.
s .
F ig . 99 .
low the sill F ig s : 98 a nd

r
.
9 9 are se ctions of v e
t ic al slidin g shutters .
Hin g e d S k y li gh ts .
S kylights which are

h in ged to o p en a re fi t
ted up on th e u pper
edge of a Cu b or
'
r
frame fi x ed in the p l a ne
of th e r oof, th e com
Fig 9 8 ,
.
228 M O D E R N CARP E NTRY
mon r a fters b e in g trimmed to the requ ire d s ize to
re ceive the c u rb Th e curb is made from m a t eri al 1 14
.
t o 2 inches t h ick and of w idt h such that its u p per edge

,
stands from 4 t o 6 inches ab o ve the p lane of th e ro o f

r
.
The A n g l e J oin t s of the curb may b e dovetaile d o

r
t on gu ed and n aile d Th e S a s h F ame rests u p on th e
.
u pper ed ge of t h e c u rb ; it i s from 2 to inches

thick and c onsists o f stile s a nd top r ail of the sa m e
,
thickness and a b ottom rail which is thinner than t h e

,
stile s by the depth of t h e reb a te B ars are inserted in

.
the direction of t h e sl o p e of th e ro of and the b u tt

r
,
hinges used f o han gin g the s a sh a re invari ab ly fi x e d as

the u nder side of the t o p rail
r
.
The j o ints b etween the curb a nd the roo fi n g sl a tes o

tiles a re made weatherpro of wit h s h eet le ad At the
upper end—the b a ck o f t h e curb — a small L e a d Gu tt e r
.
is f o rme d with th e le ad going u nderneath t h e s l ates

,
and overlappin g t h e u pper ed ge of t h e curb T h e sides

o f the c u rb may b e flashed w ith so akers—
.
short len gt h s
o f sheet le ad wh ich are worked in b etween th e slates
Or the j o int may b e made wit h on e strip o f lead f o rm

ing a sm a ll gutter d own the side o f the curb I n eit h er .
case the le ad overlaps th e upper edge o f the curb At .
the lowe r end of the c u rb t h e le ad overlaps t h e slates

,
.
To prevent w ater fro m risin g b etween t h e glass and

th e upp er side of th e b ott o m rail sinkings are cut into
,
the r ail (S e e Fi g
rr r
. .
D o me Win dows I nstead of h a vin g the light in o

.
p a rallel t o the p lane of t h e r o of it affords a m o re ar

r
,
t is t ic tre atment o f the ro of and often give s a b etter e

,
sult in lightin g if the window is fixed vertic al l y T h e

,
.
g ener a l arran gement o f the framin g as well

,
as of the
r r
han g and a ddin g suitab l e B a g e B oa d s a nd Fin ial
,
'
(Fi g 1 01 ) a d o rmer window m ay b e m ade t o i mpr o ve

.
t h e general app earanc e of the roof of a building T h e .
sides o f th e d o rmer m a y b e e it h er b o arded and c overe d

wit h t h e same kind o f m ateri al as the roof o they may ,
r
b e framed for side l i ghts .
r
Ve t i ca l S e ct ion
r
t h ough AB .
F ig . 1 02 .
As d o rm er windows are generally in exposed p o si

ti o ns and t h e sas h e s are arran ged as e a s e m e n t s t o o p en
, ,
their efficiency depends lar ge l y upon t h e perfecti o n o f

the j oints b etwe en the sash es and th e frame I t o ugh t .
t o b e mentioned h owever t h at w ith sash es hun g fold

,
in g semi c ircular ton gues on t h ei r han gin g stiles are

,
by far t h e b est Fi gs 1 01 and 1 02 give the det a ils o f

. .
PRACT I CAL S OL UT I O N S 2 31
a dormer window wit h sideli g h t s fixe d in a roof of

, ,
ordin ary p itch The sashes w h ich a re hun g foldin g

.
, ,
o p en inwards The roof may b e b o arded and covere d

r r
.
w ith le ad o it m ay b e c o vere d wit h slates o tiles

,
.
T h e j o ints b etwe en t h e ro ofin g slates of the main r o of ,
and t h e roof and sides o f t h e d o r m er are made w e a th

’
rr
,
e p o o f wit h sheet le ad fl a s h in g s Fi gs 1 03 and 1 04 . .
s h o w a dorm er window fixed in a M an sard r oof ; in t h is

exa mp l e t h ere are n o side li ghts .
a r
g B r
d
e oa
r
F on t Ele v a t io n
S ide Ele v a tion
F ig . 1 03 . F ig . 1 04 .
L a r S k y li
ge g ht s and L a n te n rL ig ht s . Fo rli gh tin g
the well o f a l arge stairc ase or a r o o m whic h for so me , ,
reas o n c annot b e li g h ted with side w ind o ws s p e ci ally

, ,
large skyli ghts are often n ec essary T h ese are o f a .
m ore elab orate c o nstr u c tion th an the skyli ghts already

d es c rib ed ; th ey vary c onsider ab ly in size s h ap e and ,
desi gn ; th e plan m a y b e rect an gu lar p olygon a l c ir , ,

23 2 M OD E R N CARP E NTRY
cu l arre lliptic a l and t h e utline may b e pyramidal
, o ,
o ,
c oni cal or spheric al T h e framework m ay b e f e ither o
wo od r
.
,
iron T s u pport such a skyli ght a stron g

o . o ,
wooden curb is framed into t h e roof and proj ects fr om ,
6 to 9 inches ab ove t h e ro o f surfac e The j o ints b e .
twe en the curb and t h e roof are made watertig h t w ith

s h e et lead The framework of the skylig h t may c on
.
sist o f reb a ted quarterin g ; with se p ar a te li g h ts w h i ch

fi t into t h e reb a tes of th e framin g ; or th e sas h es t h em
F ig . 1 05 . F ig . 1 06 .
selves m a y b e c onstru c ted wit h str on g an gle sti l es ,
w h ic h are m itred to get h er and pr o vided wit h eit h er a

r
,
h ardwood ton gue inserted in t h e j oint o with a ,
w o o den r o ll on t op t o ke ep o ut t h e water .
Wit h skyli g h ts o f t h is descripti o n c h annels for c on

,
d e n s e d water should always b e pr o vided Th ese are

r
.
place d at the u ppe r inner ed ge of t h e c urb t h e e

‘
r
,
m a in d e of t h e inside fa c e o f t h e c urb b ein g c overed

by eit h er p ane l l ed framin g o match b oarding r .
234 M O D ERN CARP E N TRY
T h e constr u cti o n of skylights a nd lantern lights a f

f o rds good ex amples of th e ap p lic a ti o n o f geo metry
t o practical work as desc rib ed in previ o us pa ges When .
S e ct ion t h rgh C D
ou . .
F ig . 1 09 .
the ro o f li ghts are p yramidal as shown in Fi gs 1 06 a n d

-
1 1 0 an d a separate frame is c onstructed a s shown in

,
Fi g 1 10 the meth ods of Obtainin g th e len gths and

.
,
b evels o f the hip rafters a re si m ilar to t h o se describe d

for gettin g hip rafters Wh en the roo f li ghts mitre
.
-
PRACT ICA L S OL UT I O N S 23 5
a gainst o n e an ot h er t h e sizes O f th e li ghts a nd the

,
b evels of t h e an gle stiles w h ich mitre to gether are o b

t a in e d as s h own at X in Fi g 1 1 2 With li ghts of .
S e ct ion t h rt ou AB
F ig . 111 .
c urved outline t h e s h ap es o f the hip r a fters or an gle

,
stiles as well as t h e develo p e d s u rfac es ar e Obta ined

, ,
a s explain ed b efo re .
L a y L i g h ts
- At t h e c eilin g level o f ro of li ghts use d
.
-
for stairc ase wells or in si mi l ar p o sitions it is often

, ,
F ig 113 Fig 1 14
F ig . 112 .
. . . .
c onsidered advisab le for th e sake of ,

appear anc e to ,
h ave a horizont al se c ond li ght c alled a l ay li ght This -
r
.
c onsists of a sas h — o if t h e sp ac e is lar ge a n u mb e r o f ,
sashes—fi x e d into frame s in th e c e ilin g Th e chief .

2 36 M O D E R N CARP E NTRY
feature of lay lig h ts i s i n the attempt at de cor a tion by

-
arr an gin g th e b ars in so m e ornamenta l desi gn (Fi gs .
1 1 3 and T h e l a y li g h ts are often glaze d wit h

-
ornamenta l gl ass whic h alth o ug h it improves t h e a p

r
, ,
p e a a n c e di m inishes th e amo un t o f l ig h t trans m itted
rnh rr
, .
G ee u s e s a nd Con s e v at o ie s In t h is typ e of
o .
b ui ld in g w h ic h is largely constructe d o f wo od and

glass t h e fra m ework is u su al l y o f m ou l de d and r
, e
b ated quarterin g wit h side sas h es fixe d in t h e reb ates

, .
As in t h e c ase of skyli g h ts the r o of lights w h i c h in ,

-
t h is c a se re a c h fr o m t h e ridge to t h e eaves have n o ,
c r o ssbars sinc e thes e w o u ld impede t h e flow of w ater

,
r unnin g down the slope of t h e ro of Care should b e .
taken t o h ave the b ars stron g enough to c arry t h e glass

wit h out sa ggin g ; and it is w ell to rememb er t h at w h en
a ro o f is o f flat p it ch a h eavy snowst o rm will t h r o w a
large additi o nal w ei g h t upon it w h ile wit h a steep
“
r o o f t h e wind has much p ower The distanc e ap art o f .
t h e b ars w h ich c arry t h e glass ran ges fro m 1 2 t o 1 8

inc h es and t h e len gths o f t h e s h eets of glass should b e
,
as gre at as possib le s o as t o di m inis h t h e nu mb er of

,
c r o ss j o ints
-
sin c e t h ese all o w of accumulations o f dir t
,
w h i c h c annot b e re m oved easi l y T h ese r o of l i ghts are .

-
c o nstructed in exact l y t h e same m anner as skyli g h ts ;
t h ey are h owever often muc h lar ger and require to b e

, , ,
t h icker unless purlins are plac ed t o supp o rt t h em

,
.
Wh en as i s often t h e c ase p art of t h e r oof l ight is

, ,
-
m ade t o o p en t h is p art— o ften a n arr o w strip at t h e

,
h ig h est p art of t h e r o o f (Fi g 1 1 5 ) — is m ade as a sep .
arate li g h t w h ic h o verlaps t h e upper edge o f t h e fixed

,
l o wer li g h t Additi o nal ventilati o n is se c ured by ar

.
r an gin g t h e side sas h es t o o pen .

t h e an gles t h e j o int cross t on gued and fixed w it h a
,
handrai l b olt w h i c h s h o uld b e p ainte d wit h red l ead

,
b efo re inserti o n T h e j o ints in t h e h ead are h a l ved

.
to get h er t h e mullions stub tenoned and fixe d wit h

,
F ig . 116 .
co a c h screws T h e j amb s are ten oned and wed ged into

.
t h e h e ad and sill T h e trans om ten o ned into t h e j a mb s

.
and mulli on s and se cured wit h b o lts The m ul l i ons

, .
m ay b e w o rked in on e p ie ce as sh o wn at D or b u ilt ,
up a s a t C a nd ton gu ed a nd screwed to g ether

, .
PRACT I C A L S OL UT I O N S 239
F ig : 117 .
F ig . 119 .
A Ca s e d Fr a m e B a y Win d ow i s s h own in t h e h al f
p lan , h a l f inside e l evati on , and central vertic al section ,
N os . 1, 2 and 3 , F ig 1 1 9
. . T h is wind o w is c om p o sed of
F ig . 1 20 .
PRACT IC AL S OL UT I O N S 2 43
in g on th e stone corni c e a nd a re n ailed at the t o p into ,
a shap ed rib fixe d on t h e fac e of the w all ; th e rib s are

c overed with we a ther b o a rdin g which a ff ords a goo d ,
fixin g for the tiles Th e w all is c arrie d by a b re ast

.
s u m m er forme d of t wo 1 2 in by 6 in b a lks b ol te d t o . .
get h er w ith sp ac in g fillets b etwee n and t h e s offi t is

, ,
c arrie d by thre e b rackets fixe d to the b re asts u mmer

and t h e he ad of the window frame .
A P i v ot e d L ig h t in a sol id frame i s shown in eleva

t ion in Fi g 1 22 a n d se cti on Fi g 1 23 T h ese are use d
. . .
c h iefly in w arehouses lanterns and other in ac cessible ,

‘
p ositions th e lig h ts b ein g op ene d a nd c losed e it h er by

r r
,
c ords and p u lleys o by metal ge arin g Fo small .
li ghts t h e frame s are u sual l y m ade o ut o f in s t u fi

r
.
by 2 o 3 in wide S mall li ghts are pivoted horizo ntal

. .
ly large o nes vertic ally

,
T h e p ivot should b e fix ed t o .
t h e fra m e not t h e sas h and from

,
in to in a b ove
,
. .
t h e c entre a c cordin g t o t h e wei ght of the b ottom rail

,
.
T h e lower p art of t h e sas h s h ould ex c ee d in w ei g h t t h e

upp er part j ust su fficient t o k eep it cl o sed ; its acti o n
,
may b e easily demonstrate d by insertin g t w o b radawls

in t h e stiles and b alanc in g t h em on t h e fin gers The
,
.
sash is inserted and removed from t h e frame e it h er by

me ans o f p l oug h grooves in t h e ed ges of t h e s t il e s f a s
s h own by t h e d o tted l ine s in Fi g 1 22 o by c u ttin g a .
,
r
n o t c h t h rou gh t h e fac e of the stile fo r t h e p assa ge of
t h e p in whic h i s c onc e ale d w h en in use by t h e guard
,
b e ads This latte r i s th e b etter met h o d as it do es n ot

.
,
reduc e t h e stren gth o f t h e sas h as do es t h e form er b y , ,
cuttin g aw ay t h e we dgin g Th e sto p b eads at the .
sides are cut in two one p art b e in g fixed t o t h e frame

, ,
th e other t o th e s a s h Their j oints c a n b e at any an gl e

.
T h e ab o ve des c rib es t h e met h o d w h en t h e sash is
gro o v ed . Wh ere the b e ads are slotted a variati on
,
must b e made with referenc e to t h e t op cut (s e e Fi g .
F ig . 125 .
t h is c ase t h e sas h must b e drawn out and

In
rested up o n t h e pin t h en t h e b ead laid o n it and
,
marked as b efo re t h e interse c tion a givin g t h e m itre

,
p o int.
PRACT I CAL SOL UT I ON S 2 47
A B u ll
’
s -
Ey e F r
am
wit h a p iv o te d sash is sh own in
e
Fi gs 1 2 5 an d 1 2 6 and enlar ged detail o f t h e j oint T h i s

. .
frame is b uilt up in two t h i c kn esses glue d and s c rewe d ,
t o get h er e ach rin g b ein g in t h re e pie c es b reakin g j o int

r
.
,
The b eads m ay b e ste am ed and b ent r o und o w o rk ed ,
on the ed ge of a b o ard t h at has b e en cut to t h e swe ep ,
F ig . 126 .
and c u t o ff in t wo l engt h s T h e sas h is m ade in t h re e

.
pie ces wit h butt r adial j o ints b o lted t o get h er To e n

,
.
able th e sash to open a plane surfa c e must b e provided

,
at the c entre e qual t o t h e t h ickness o f the sash and

,
b eads as s h own by t h e dotte d l ine s H avin g fitted t h e

,
.
sash in and th e b e ads aro u nd e ac h side b rad them tem

, ,
rr
ily t othe sas h
po a lay a strai ght edge a c os s it p aral
,
-
r
l e l with the c entre and square up w it h the set squar e
,
a line at e a ch side equal in len gth to the t h ickness t h e n ,
cut the pieces s o marked o ff with a fine saw b o t h b eads ,
a n d sas h and glue them to the centre of t h e frame and

, ,
fix t h e p ivots t o these frames and p ro cee d as in a sq ua re

frame .
F ig . 127 . F ig . 128 . F ig . 129 .
L .
rr r
ay i n g Out a Ci cu l a L o u v e : S u ppose the frame
o f the l o u vre to b e forme d of f o ur pie ce s a s s h own at ,
Fig 1 27 T h ese section s may b e formed of on e th ick

pie c e of plank o r
. .
may b e b uilt up o f several t h i c k

,
nesses I f of on e thickness the j oints m ay b e held t o

r
,
.
get h er with handrai l screws o d owelled and keyed If

r
.
,
o f several t h i c knesses t h en th e j oints can b e b roken o
o verlapp ed and t h e piec e s eith er screwed or naile d

,
t o gether To set out the l ouvre b o ards m ak e a sketch

.
,
o f t h e whol e thin g full size a s shown at Fi g 1 2 7 t h en
r
,
.
, ,
set up the section o side as s h own at Fig 1 28 t h en .

,
proj ect from the q u ick of th e b ead then draw a line ,
C D Fi g 1 2 9 p ar allel t o the inclination of b evel of

,
.
,
r r
Th e curve s f o t h e unde side m a y b e mark ed o ff o n the
arrise s dire c t fr o m t h e devel o p m ent and t h e o uld ,
m
t h en applied t o t h e o t h er side t aking c are t o adj ust it
,
in t h e ri g h t p ositi o n and t o t h e m arks made T h e ends .
s h ould b e saw ed and turne d t o t h e lines T h e next .
pr o c eedin g wil l b e t o set ou t t h e fra m e for t h e gr oo ves ;

t h ese are repre s ented in t h e c onventi o na l sketches 4 5 , ,
and 6 I t w i l l b e n o ti c ed fr o m Fi g 1 3 2 t h at t h e b ottom
. .
louvre b o ard is n o t gr o o ved in all r o und ; t h is is a b et
F ig . 1 30 . F ig . 131 . F ig . 132 .
ter m et h o d t h an b rin gin g i t o u t t o t h e fr o nt and t h us

destr oyin g a p art o f t h e margin b ead o f t h e fram e T h e .
c uttin g o f t h e gr o o ves and t h e fittin g in of t h e l o uvre
b o ards requires c areful w o rkin g in order t o get good

j oints I t must b e clear l y underst oo d t h at Fi g 1 2 9 is
.
.
n o t a fu l l develop m ent o f a l l t h e b o ards ed ge to ed ge ,
as t h at c o uld n o t b e represented in t h is spa c e but ,
en o ug h is s h own t o give a c lear ide a o f h o w t h e lines

are o btained T h e ful l breadt h o f e a c h is represented
. .
by t h e di m ensi o n l ines O P R S T U V and from

, , , , , , ,
t h is all t h e o t h er is e a s y .
PRACT ICAL S OL UT I O N S 251
r
Th e Con s t uction of D oo r D rare name d in
s oo s a c
r
.
‘
co d with their mo d e s of construction p osition

a n ce
r
, ,
style o th e gener a l arran gement of the ir p arts and ,
also the m ethod in which th ey a re h u n g as B a tt e n e d , ,
F ig . 1 33 . F ig . 134 . F ig . 1 35 .
rm d d B r
B att e n e d F a d P a ll d r Fr md
E tr V t ib u l S r S a h D i mi i h d S til
a e an ce , ne e o a e ,
D u b l M ar D war
n a n ce , es e, c een, s ,
n s e e,
gi G hi f F l d i g S wi g Jib
ot
Wr
“
o e n ,
c, ,
o n ,
n , ,
ah e Hu g &
ous e The essentials in the design and
n , c .
c onstr u ction of doors a re for the first that t h ey shal l

, ,
h ave a due p ro p ortion to the buildin g or p l ac e th ey

h ave c cupy and b e suitab ly o rnamented ; in t h e sec
to o
on d th at t h eir surfa ces s h all remain true and their

,
parts b e so arran ged and c onne c ted that t h eir shape

will b e u n a l terab le by th e strains o f usage and t h e e f
feets of we a ther T h e various ex a mp l es illustrated will
.
indi c ate the p o ints to b e c o nsidered in designin g do ors

r
f o sundry sit uati o ns and th e m et h ods o f c onstru c ti o n
,
h ere in des c rib ed will supp ly th e ne cessary inf o r m ati o n

to meet th e c onstructive require m ents
r r r
.
a tt e n e d and B a tt e n e d F ame d and B a c e d D oo s

B
are s h own in Fi gs 1 3 3 and 1 3 4 T h ese d o ors are suit
r r
. .
ab le f o p ositions where o n e o b oth sides are expo sed

t o th e we at h er L ittle o n o atte mpt is made t o orna
. r
ment the m— e c on o my of c ost stren gth and u tility b e ,
in g the chief require m ents of t h is class of do or whi c h ,
are fitted to c o a c h h ouses W C s and o u th ouses gen ’
rl ly
-
. .
,
e a
r
.
'
T h e plain B a tt e n e d D oo (Fi g 1 33 ) is c omp o s ed of .
b attens A fr o m ,
t o 1 14 in t h ick , p l o ug h ed and
.
ton gued in t h e j o ints wit h strai gh t ton gues w h ic h

sh ould b e p ainted b efore insertion nailed t o thre e ,
ledges B fr o m 1 in t o 1 14 in t h ick usua l ly wit h

, . .
,
wr o ug h t n ails lon g en o ugh t o co m e throu g h and b e

c lin c h ed o n t h e b a ck side T h e ends of t h e l edges are
.
b etter fixe d wit h screws and t h eir top edges as well as

,
t h ose o f t h e braces C s h ould b e b evelled t o thr o w o ff

the water as s h own in t h e detail Fi g 1 35 T h e lower
r
. .
, ,
ed ges m a y b e t h roated o b evelled un der as shown ,

.
Th e brac es s h ou l d b e pla c ed s o t h at t h eir lower ends

are at t h e h angin g side for if i n t h e o pp o site dir c e
,
t i o n t h ey wi l l b e useless t o prevent the door rack in g

,
.
Their ends s h o uld b e n o tc h ed int o t h e l edges ab out 1 in .

the m T h e b o ards are t on gue d int o t h e frame at t h e
r
.
t op and sides and t h e ledge s a e fra m ed int o t h e stiles

,
wit h b arefac ed tenons T h e braces s h ou ld n o t b e taken

.
int o t h e angle formed by t h e stile and rail but b e kept ,
b a c k from t h e s h o u l der ab out 1 in as s h own I f t h e .

, .
brac e is p l aced in the c orner t h e strain t h r o wn on it ,
h a s a tenden c y to f o rce o ff t h e s h o ulder un l ess t h e do or ,
is very n arrow w h en t h e b ra c e wil l b e near l y uprig h t

, .
T h ese do o rs as in fa c t a l l framed w o rk exp o sed t o

,
da mp s h o u l d b e put to get h er w it h a qui c k dryin g paint

,
inste ad of glue in t h e j oints b e c ause ordinary g l ue h as

r
,
suc h an a ffinity f o water t h at it will soften in da mp

situations releasin g its h old and als o b e t h e m eans o f
r
,
settin g up dry o t in t h e ti mb er T h e b attens in t h ese

r
-
.
doo rs s h o uld b e made in slack f o e a c h f oo t of

r r
.
wi d t h t o al l o w f o sub se quent exp ansi o n o o t h erwise ,
t h e s h o ulder wi l l b e for c ed o ff T h e fra m ew o rk o f .
t h ese d o o rs i s first m ade and w ed ges u p t h en t h e b at ,
tens fo l ded in and driven up into t h e t o p rail and

nailed t o t h e l ed ges after w h ich t h e b rac e s are cut
,
ti g h tly in and nai l ed t o t h e b attens in turn and t h e ,
w h ole c le aned o ff t o get h er I n lar ge gate s o f t h is de .

‘
scripti o n it is us ual t o stub ten o n t h e bra c es int o t h e

rai l s in w h i c h c ase t h ey must b e inserted first and
,
wed ges up with t h e fra m in g

r
.
Fr a m e d o P a n e lled D o ors are of severa l kinds dis

r
,
t in g u is h e d by t h e nu mb er o treat ment o f t h eir pane l s

r
,
o by t h e arran gement of t h e m o u l dings as f o ll o ws

r
,
TWO to Twe lv e P a nel D oo s

r d S u k Wh en a t h in p ane is use d wit h
.
S qua e an n . l
ou t m u dings as s h own
l A in t h e e evation diagram t l
f a Fr
o a
am d r
,
o four p ane l do r (Fi g

e o -
o .
PRACT ICAL S OL UT I O N S 25 5
F ig 1 38 F ig 139
r Wh en
. . . .
M ou l d e d a n d S qu a e . side of t h e p an el i s
on e
m o ulded and the other plain as at B ,

.
B e a d Flu s h Wh en one side of t h e p anel is fl ush or

.
,
nearly so with t h e fra m e and with a b e ad work ed

, ,
r o u nd the ed ges t o bre ak t h e j oints as at C ,

.
25 6 M O D E RN CARP E NTR Y
B e a d B u tt Wh en t h e b e ad i s work ed o nly o n t h e
.
t wo side s of t h e p anel as at D ,
.
R a ised P an e l Wh en t h e c entre p art o f t h e panel is

.
thi c ker t h an t h e m argin Th ere are f o ur vari eties o f

.
r aised p ane l s
F ig . 1 40 .
1 . Th e Ch a mf e rd
t h is the p anel is c h a fmf e e d
e . In r
d o wn equal ly all round fr o m t h e c entre t o t h e ed ge
r
,
w h en square o from a central rid ge if r ectangul ar a s

, ,
shown .
P la n a n d S e c t io n s o f a C h a mfe rd
e
R a is e d Pa n e l .
F ig . 1 42 . F ig . 1 41 .
2 . R ais e d a nd Fl a t o r
R ai s ed a nd Field e d . Wh en a
ch amfer is w o rke d a l l r o und t h e ed ge l e avin g a fl at i n ,
t h e c entre as at A Fi g 1 42
, ,
. .
3 R a is e d S u n k a n d Fi e ld e d (a s at B Fi g
r
.
, ,
.
When the c h amfer sta ts fro m a m arginal sinkin g b e

l o w th e f a ce
c a l led sti l e s T h e on e t h e h i n ges are fixed t o is c al led
’
t h e h an gin g stile t h e on e c o nt ainin g t h e l o c k t h e strik

,
in g sti l e In a p air o f d o ors t h e t wo c o min g t o get h e r

.
are c alled t h e meetin g sti l es T h e inside verti c al me m

r
.
b ers are t h e mountings o m o re com monly m untin gs , .
T h e h o ri z ontal me mb ers are rai l s respe ctively t op

r
, , ,
frieze middle o lo c k and b o ttom T h e p ane l s ar e

, , , .
F ig . 1 44 . F ig . 1 45 .
m
n amed si i l ar l y Wh en t h e grain o f t h ese run h o ri
“
.
z o n t a ll y
,
t h ey are said t o b e l ayin g pa ne l s ; w h en
“ ”
vertic ally upri gh t D oo rs are c al l ed S o lid M o u ld ed
r
-
.
,
“ ”
w h en the m o u l din g is wrou g h t o stu c k in t h e sub -
stance of t h e fra min g itse l f as is s h own at Fi g 1 45 ; ,

.
and P l a n t e d w h e n t h e m o u l din g is w o rked sep

r
a a t e l y and b radded ar o un d t h e fra m e as s h own at ,
a Fi g 1 43 and D Fi g
,
.
,
T h ese a re also c a lle d
,
.
s u nk mo u ld in g s .
PRACT I CA L SOL UT I O N S 25 9
B e ad Fl u sh P a n e l s
are c o mmo n l y m ade as s h o wn at
a Fi g 1 4 6 but su c h p anels wi l l un l ess m ade o f t h o r
,
.
, ,
o ughly se as o ne d stu ff inevitab ly sp l it w h en dry in g

,
.
T h e c o rre c t w ay t o o bt ain t h e e ff e c t o f b e ad flus h p an

e llin g i s t o w ork t h e b e ads up o n t h e ed ges of t h e
frami n g as s h o wn in Figs 1 47 and 1 48
,
. .
F ig . 1 46 .
B ea d B utt Pa n e ls
are b etter kept ab o ut in b e .
low t h e framin g as a truly flus h surfa c e i s di ffi c ult t o

,
prep are t h ro u g h t h e yieldin g of t h e p anel an d w h en ,
pro duc ed will s eld o m last as the s h rink age of t h e

, ,
“ ”
p ane l and fr a me i s u ne qu a l Planted in s u nk mo u l d
.
-
2 60 M OD E RN CARP E NTRY
ings should b e fix ed t o t h e fra min g n o t t o t h e p ane l s
r
, ,
as shown in Fi g 1 4 3 D f o if fixed to t h e p ane l s wh en

.
, ,
t h e latter s h rinks t h e m o u l d in g w i l l b e drawn away

fr o m t h e fra m e leavin g an unsig h tly gap T h e b a c k
,
.
ed ge o f t h e m o uldin g s h o uld b e b evel l e d under as

sh own s o t h at w h en bradde d in t h e fro nt edge wi l l
, ,
ke ep c l o se d ow n to t h e p anel As it is n o t per m issib l e

.
F ig . 1 47 . F ig . 1 48 .
to brad p o l is h ed m o u l d in gs ex c ept in t h e c ase o f in

rr
,
f e io w o rk t h ese are u sua l l y g l ue d t o t h e fra m e a n d

, ,
t h eir ba c k ed ges s h ould o f c o urse b e square T h e p anel .
s h o u l d b e p o lis h ed bef o re the mouldin g is planted in ,
s o t h at in c ase o f shrinkage a w h ite margin will n o t
b e sh own Wh en h owever the mo ul d in g is wide and

.
, ,
t h in it i s unav o idable t h at it b e fixed t o t h e p ane l t o

,
k e ep its front edge d o wn and to o verc om e t he d itfi

,
2 62 M O D E R N CA RP E NTRY
S plit if fixed i mmo vab l y o w h en s w el l ing t o di sar
, ,
r ,
ran ge t h e m itres T h e b raddin g in of mo uldings is less

.
likely t o d o t h is if t h e b rads are not plac ed too thi ckly ,
as t h ey yi eld sli g h tly to the pressure Fra min g is

r
.
usual l y gr o o ved in deep f o t h e panels and t h e lat .

,
ter given in p l ay sidew ays but fittin g c lose len gt h

r
,
.
ways o f the grain This is su ffi c ient f o pane l s up t o .
2 ft wide . O ver th at widt h the gr o oves s h ou l d b e

.
in deep and t h e p anel enter

.
,
in at e ac h side O rdi . .
~
nary dry s t u fi wil l eventual ly s h rink ab o u t in t o .
t h e fo ot and wi l l swell e qually if expo sed t o da mp

,
.
Wh en wide p anels are used t h ey will w arp less if gl ued

up in several piece s as t h e pull o f t h e fibres i s lessened ,
by t h e cutting and th e e ff ect o f t h e w arpin g is di min

,
is h od in t h e sa m e r ati o as t h eir widt h M u c h can b e ;
d on e to ensure t h e per m anent flatness o f p anels by pay

ing attenti o n to t h e way t h e b o ards h ave b een cut fro m
t h e tree T h e d irecti o n o f t h e an nu a l rin gs o n t h e end
.
will ind ic ate t h is and the various pie ce s s h o uld h ave

,
t h eir si mi l ar sides plac ed t o gether Wh at is m e ant by .
t h is w i l l b e rendere d plain by an exa m inati o n o f Fi g

r
.
1 4 9 Wh en a p anel is glued up wit h t h e h ol l ow o h e art

.
sides o f t h e rings all o n on e face as at A and t h e b oard ,
warps it wi ll e a s e in one continu o us curve as s h o wn in

, ,
t h e unshaded diagra m w h i l st if glued up wit h t h e ,
he art sides reversed alternately as s h own at B it will , ,
assu me t h e serp entine s h ap e s h o wn in t h e uns h aded dia

gram Boards cut radi c al ly o wit h t h e annua l rings
. r
p erp endi c u l ar t o t h e surfac es as at C will swe l l less , ,
tha n t h e o t h ers and wi l l n ot warp per c eptibly

r
,
.
Pr op o T h e S i z e o f d o ors depends s o mu c h u pon

tio s n .
the sc ale and d esi gn o f t h e b ui l dings t h ey o c cupy t h at ,

PRACT ICAL SOL UT ION S 2 63
n o definite d at a c an b e given wit h in re ason ab le lim

r
,
its f o imp o rtant d o ors ; but it may b e p o inted o u t t h at

r
,
very large d o ors not on ly tend t o dw arf a b ui l din g o

a ro om b ut they als o take up a gre at de al o f sp ace in
,
op enin g and the di fficu l ty o f preservin g their acc u rat e

,
fittin g increases in dire ct ratio w it h t h e size Th e .
fo llowin g m ay b e taken as an indi c ati o n o f t h e m o re

usual di m en sions given t o ordinary g o o d c l ass dwellin g
r
h o u se door s : E n t an ce D o o s fr o m 7 ft to 8 ft 6 in r , . . .
i llus tr
a ti n g th e E ffe c t
of Pos itio n o n t h e Pa r
ts ,
o f a Pa n e l .
F ig . 1 49 .
hi gh by from 3
ft t o 4 ft 6 in wide 2 to
. in t h ick. .
,
. .
R e ce p tion R ooms 7 ft by 3 ft 3 in by 2 in
, . B ed . . .
R ooms 6 ft 8 in by 2 ft 8 in by in D etails of in
rr
, . . . . .
t e io do ors ; stiles and top rails in c o m mon work o u t , ,
of in muntin gs and frieze rails 4 in middle a nd

.
, .
,
b ottom rails 9 in S u p eri or doors v a ry much b u t gen

.
,
'
erlly stile s and rail s are s m wh at w ider t h an t h e

a o e
ab ve muntin gs and frieze rai l s narro w

o er H ei ght f o
lo ck r
.
,
il a l ly 2 f 8 in t its c entre
us ua T h is is a c on
t o
i t h ei g h t f r
'
. . .
v en en h h andle whi h i s generally place d

o t e ,
c
in t he midd l e o f dept h of rail Wh en an entr an c e do or .
is appr o ached from a step t h e m iddle rail i s kept ab o ut

6 in lower t o b rin g t h e h eig h t of the h and l e con
.
,
v en ie n t
rb oth internal and external

.
Common D oo s, are m ad e
r
,
“ ”
of yell o w pine o Ge o r gia pine t h roug h o ut A b et .
ter class o f interi or d o ors h ave yel l ow p ine fra m es and

white p ine p anels The latter woo d s h ould n o t b e
.
u sed for extern a l work as it is far too soft and will
rr r r
,
not stand wet S up e io I nt e n a l D o o s are m ade

.
througho u t of H ond u ras maho gany b lack w aln u t and ,
o a k ; a l so o f pine and b aywo od vene ere d w it h S p anis h
r r
,
m aho gany E x t e n al D o o s o f o a k teak wa l nut and

.
, ,
p itch pin e .
In c onstructin g do ors o f any o f the a b o ve m entione d

fi gure wo ods gre at attenti o n must b e p aid t o t h e ar
,
ran gement o f the memb ers so as t o b alanc e t h e fi gure , ,
and this m ay also well b e studied in the conversion o f

. r
t h e p lank F o instanc e tw o stiles e a ch h avin g pro , ,
n o un c e d fi gu re at on e end and t h e ot h er end p lain , ,
s h ould h a ve th e fi gured ends place d at the b ottom Th is .
give s th e e fi e c t of solidity whi l st t h e reverse wo u l d ,
make t h e d o or lo ok t op h eavy S i m ilarly the u p p er .
rails should b e plain the l ower fi gured I t must b e ,

.
understo od the ab ove only applies when the w ood is a

mixed lot When th e wo od is handsomely fi g u red
.
t h r o u gho u t the p oint of most im p ort a nc e is the e ff ect

,
o f its p osition up o n the fi g u re a nd th is is so great that ,

F ig . 151 .
F ig . 152 .
PRAC T ICAL S OL UT I O N S
w aved in l en gt h due to cro oke d gr o wth and t h e b o a rd

, ,
passin g t h rou gh them in a plane the ir ed ges c ro p out

,
on th e surfac e in irre gular elliptic sh a pe

r r
.
D o ub l e M a g in e d D o o s are wide sin gle do ors frame d

to app ear a s p airs of do ors T h ey are used in Op enin gs
.
too wide p rop o rtionate l y for a sin gle d o or b u t w h ere

r
,
h alf th e o p enin g would b e r a ther small f o c onvenient

pa s sa ge Fi gs 1 5 0 to 1 5 4 show elevation and se cti o n s
r r r
. .
o f a D ou b l e M a g i n e d E n t a n c e D oo typ i c a l o f the ,
style in v o gu e in th e latte r p a rt of the ei ghte enth a nd

early p art of th e nineteenth c enturies .
These do ors a re m ade in t wo w a ys I n th e e arli er .
met h o d t h e c entral im it a tion stile w h ic h in t h i s c ase

,
is re ally a m u ntin g i s m a de in on e p iec e and forke d

,
over the t op and b ottom r ails which are c ontin u o u s

,
.
T h e intermediate rails are s tub t e n on e d t o the c entral ,
a nd t h ro u gh tenoned and wed ged t o th e outsi de s tile s ,
b u t u nless t h e stub ten ons are fox wed ged t h e sh oul

r
-
ders are very li able to st art f o w h i c h reason the
r
,
m ethod of constr u ction n ow to b e describ ed is g ener a lly

preferred . T h e do o is c o mpo se d of two Sep arat e
p ie c es of framin g e ach c o mplete with two stil es a nd a
,
set of rails that ar e tenoned t h ro u gh a nd we dged u p .
The tw o p ortion s are t h en u nited by a p lou gh ed and

ton gu ed a nd glued j oint which is h idden by a s u nk
,
b e a d in th e c entre as shown in th e di agram Fi g 1 5 5

, ,
.
,
a nd the p arts keyed to get h er wit h thre e p airs of h ard

w ood foldin g wed ges The do or i s sometime s furt h er
.
stren gthened by h avin g fl at iron b ars sunk and screw ed

into th e to p and b ottom e d ges T h e a tual pr o cess o f
.
c
p uttin g th e do or to geth er is a s f o llows : After th e v a ri

ou s r a ils and p ane ls h ave b e en du l y fitted and m arked ,
e ach leaf is taken sep a rately and th e stiles kno cked on .
T h e on e intended for the m eetin g stil e h a vin g b een
F ig . 1 53 .
F ig . 154 .
F ig . 155 . F ig . 156 .
g l ued i s cramped up and wedged T h en the meetin g

r
.
,
stile s a re m a de to a width gro oved j o inted a nd e

, , ,
f o und bey o nd t h e si g h t line w h ic h wi l l b e a seri o us
,
defect .
To S e t Ou t t h e b evelled sh o ulders of t h e stile and

rail T aking t h e stile first h aving as described in t h e
.
,
first meth od gau ged and face d up t h e inside e dges and ,
s e t o ut th e width o f t h e rails and m o rtises on t h e b ack

“
edge square o ver on e a c h side t h e si g h t lines of t h e

,
middle rail as at a a Fi g 1 5 6 Then draw a second

,
. .
S ti le a nd R a il of a D im in is h e d
S t ile D o o r
r
.
M et h o d o f O b t a in in g S h o ul d e L i n es .
F ig .
line representin g t h e dept h o f sti c kin g o f t h e rail on

t h e fa ce side and t h e reb ate o n the b ack side as at b
, ,
.
Next run gau ge l ines d o w n on ea c h sid e o f t h e dimin

is h e d part as work in g l ines o f reb ate and stick in g and ,
fr o m the points o f interse ctions o f t h e stick in gs and

reb ate s resp ectively draw in th e s h o u lder lines to t h e
,
si g h t line o f the lower ed ge of the rai l a t c The only

r
.
d iEe e n c e t o b e m a de wh en th e stile i s prep ared by

ga u ges w o u ld b e run from t h e ori ginal fac e ed ge in
ste ad of the a ctual diminis h ed e d ge an d as b ef o re ,
stated t h e si g h t lines w o uld b e m arke d on th e fac e

,
e d ge inste ad of the b ack and squ a re d d o wn to t h e l n

r ti
,
te sec on s .
To S e t O ut t h e R ail M ark
t h e b ott o m edge the on
r
.
widt h o sight line s of th e widest p a rt o f t h e s t il e s

” .
S quare this p oint on t o t h e up p er e dge as s h own by

dotte d line in the sketc h Fi g 1 56 and set O ff t h ere,
.
,
from the amount of t h e di m inish on th e stile a s sh own ,
by t h e dotte d line o n th e st i l e in t h e e x am p le : this is 2

“
in This line knifed in on t h e e dge i s th e si ght line
.
, ,
of the up p er p art o f t h e st ile Again set o ff b eyond t h is

.
line the a mo u nt of the stickin g a nd reb ate s h own in

the sket ch by the lines e and f Next run t h e stickin g .
and reb ate gau ges on front a nd b a ck sides as shown a t ,
g and square down t h e lines e and f to meet t h e m

,
.
Then dr a w the sh oulder line s from th e interse ctions t o

the p o int d on e ac h si de H avin g t hu s found t h e s h o ul
.
de r line u p on on e rail b eve l s may b e set t o t h em a n d

,
u se d to mark any numb er A c o ntrivanc e s o meti m es

r
.
u sed when a large nu mb er of s imil a s h oulders h ave .
t o b e set out is s h own in Fi g 1 5 7 T h is is known as a

r r
. .
Sh o u ld e S qua e I t c onsists of an o rdinary set square

r
.
provided with a m ovab le fenc e o b ar B w h ic h is slot ,
te d to p a ss on b ot h sides o f th e square and is p ivote d ,
near t h e ri ght an gle A set screw ne ar t h e outer end

.
o f t h e b a r p asse s thro u gh a c onc entric sl o t and fixe s ,
t h e fenc e in any de sire d p osition T he p ivot w orks .
t ig h t lyf in a small slot to a l l o w the l o wer ed ge of t h e

r
b ar to ent e th e ri gh t a n g le , a n d th e o u ter e d ge of t h e
0
( w M O D E RN CARP E NTRY
A Pu n o rV ES TI B UL E D OOR S. r
Ca n a y S ol e)
F ig . 157 .
r
is re a dy f o app l ic ati o n t o t h e o t h er pie ce The mould .
in g upon a diminish ed stile sho u ld n ot b e mitred but

c o ntinued o n t o the sh o u lder and the rail scrib ed over
,
it which will prevent an o p en j o int o ccurrin g sh ou l d

,
the rail s h rink Wh en d o ors a fter kn o ckin g t o get h er

r
.
, ,
are stored f o a sec ond seas o n a sli g h t differenc e w i l l ,
h ave to b e m ade in the settin g out o f the s h o ulders o f

the mid d l e rail T h e wider p art o f t h e stile w i l l s h ri n k
.
mo re than th e narrow p art and c o nsequently if t h e ,
sh o ulders are set out a c c urately at first as des c rib e d

ab ove when t h ey are refitted th e s h oulders will b e
,
found s h ort at t h e lo w er ends To prevent t h is a ll o w .

,
ab out in extra o n t h e lower part o f t h e s h o ulder

.
at ea ch end of t h e ra i l .
A Gothi c D oor of t h e Tud o r peri o d is s h own in t h e

elevation in Fi g 1 5 8 and se cti o n in F ig 1 5 9 T h e h ead
.
'
. .
i s f o ur c entred T h e upper pane l s are pierced tr a c ery

-
.
,
and t h e l o wer o ne s c arved drapery T h e m ouldin gs .
in t h is type o f do o r are invari ab ly stuck s o l id and ,
t h o se on t h e stiles st o ppe d at t h e si gh t lines o f t h e

rai l s The m ould in gs on t h e latter are a l s o frequent ly
.
st o pp ed at t h e muntin gs as sh o wn e spec ia lly in t h e ,
earlier work M any o f t h e d o ors h owever o f t h e Tu

r
.
, ,
d o peri od h ave t h e upper ends o f t h e m untings m itre d .
In modern w ork o f t h is sty l e w h en t h e m o uldings are

r
,
n o t stopped it is usual t o s c rib e t h e m at t h e in t e s e c

,
ti o n C h amfe rs h o wever are al w ays st o pped t o o b

r
, ,
.
tain a square built s h oulder f o t h e muntin g as a

-
s h oulder scrib ed o ver a c h a mfer so o n gets fau l ty

t h rough t h e s h rinka ge .
M ediaeval d o ors were a l ways c onstru c ted o f o a k

r r
,
b ut p it ch o G eo g i a p i n e is n ow m u c h u sed in t h is
P RA CT IC AL S OL UT I O N S 2 75
F ig : 1 58 . F ig . 159 .
style of work The older ex amp les are mortised t en

.
,
o med, and pinned t o get h er wed gin g and gluein g b e

,
in g a mod e rn invention The j o ints a t the h e a d a re

.
u sually slip tenons p inned rwit h
dovetai l k eys in ;
o
r
, ,
s e te d These j o ints in a m odern door w ou l d b e se

r
.
c ured either wit h a h am mer h e aded key o -

h andrail
b olts.
F ig . 1 60 .
Fi g . s h o ws t h e elevati o n of a su p erio r fi v e p an
1 60 -
e l l e d interi o r d o o r wit h its fi n is h in g s Fi g 1 61 s h ow s

. .
a vertic a l se ction t h roug h th e O p enin g and Fi g 1 62 is

, .
27 8 M OD ERN CARP E NTRY
R e v olvin g D oo r
s—
arran gement of vestibule . An
doors suitab le for b anks h ote l s etc is s h o wn in plan
, , ,
.
,
in Fi g 1 64 The doors are arran ged a t rig h t a n gle s t o

. .
e ach o t h er and r evolve ar ou nd a vertic al ax is like a

,
t u rn stile Curved side fra m es e ach a little wider t h a n

-
.
,
a quarter of a circle are fixed on ea ch side of t h e do o r

way A s u it a b le w
,
. idth for t h e doors i s 3 Th e a d '
P la n s of R e v ol v in g Ve s t i b ul c D o o r
s.
F ig . 1 64 . F ig . 1 65 .
vanta ges o f such an arrangement i s that it is noise

r r
less and d a u g h tp o of t h e latter fe a ture b ein g obtained
,
by havin g an indi a r u bb er t on gue fixed in t h e outer

-
ed ge o f e ach do or T h e doors are so hun g th at a l ter

.
n ate d oo rs c an b e fo l de d b ack a gainst t h e adj a c ent

on es (Fi g and th u s give a n u ninterr up ted pas
.
sa ge wh en req u ired
r r
.
O th e P a n e lled F a min g — Framew ork filled in e n

r r
.
t i e ly with wo oden p anels o with wo o den p anels in

r
,
t h e lower p a rt and glass in th e upper p art is also e

r
,
quired in the fi ttings for o ffices f o sc h o o l p artitions , ,

PRACT I CA L S OL UT IO N S 27 9
and for s c reens in c h ur c h es business pre m ise s etc Th e

, ,
.
arran gement of t h e framin g is similar to that of do ors ,
and t h e sam e terms are used to de scrib e the vario u s

p arts the only differenc e b e in g th e p roporti ons of
,
hei g h t and width ; th ese are of c ourse governe d by , ,
sp e ci al re quirements
rr r
.
S up e i o D o o s — In superi o r work where t h e doors

a n d s u rround in g framew ork a r
,
e m ade o f orn amental
h ardwo o d it i s oft en ne c essary t o c onstr u ct a do or

, .
whi c h s h all b e of on e kind o f wo o d on on e side o f t h e

d o or an d an entirely different kind on t h e other side .
T his w o u ld b e n e c essary for ex am p le with a door

, ,
Openin g from a n entran c e h a l l fitted entirely with o ak

into a r o om t h e fittin gs of whic h m u st all b e of w a lnut
or
,
maho g a ny S u ch a doo r m ay b e c on structe d in two

.
t h i ckn esses e ach of the respe ctive kin d o f wo od a n d

, ,
e ach of a t h ickness e qu al t o on e half of th at of the -
fi nis h e d do or Th e tw o p a rts are then se c u red to geth e r

by t ap erin g dov e taile d keys and th e ed ges of th e d oOr
.
are afterw ards vene ere d to m at ch the side o f the do o r

t o which they c orrespond Fi gs 1 66 and 1 68 give de
. .
t ails of thi s kind o f do o r

ru d
.
G o n s —T h earchitraves surroundin g an openin g

'
r
.
are n aile d to t h e linin g o where p ossib le to th e fr ame

,
.
I n the b est c lass of work h owever it is us u al not t o

, ,
fix the door frame s until th e plasterin g is finis h ed

rr
.
Rough wo ode n b attens o G ou n d s o f thi ckness e q u al ,
t o th at of the plaster a re fi x e d to the walls aro u nd all

,
do o r and wind ow Openin gs The se serve a s a g u ide

‘
t o th e pl a sterer a nd t h e do or fr a m es a nd the s u r
,
r o und in g arc h itrave s are se cured t o them Wh en it .
it n ot desirabl e t o h a ve any n a il h oles visible in t h e

F ig . 1 67 .
r
Ho igon ta l Section
F ig . 1 68 .
it a g a inst th e wall wi t h t h e larger hol es fittin g on the
screws and then c arefully drivin g it down s o that t h e
,
h ead s o f t h e screws hook into t h e fibres b e h ind t h e
slots By placin g t h e screws so th a t t h ey are sli g h tly

.
inclined t h e tendency is t o draw the arc h itraves c loser

,
t o th e wall Fi g 1 69 shows t h e exp l anatory detail
r
. . .
T h e ab o ve remarks up o n d o or fra mes linings etc

, ,
.
,
apply espe cial ly t o the do ors of dwe llin g ho u ses D oo

-
.
PRACT ICAL S O L UT I O N S 283
fr am e s for warehouses w orkshops o u tb u ildin gs etc

r
.
, , , ,
do not a s a r u le re quir e linin gs o a rchitraves a sm a ll

.
,
fi llet b ein g n aile d int o the an gle b etw een the d o or

fra m e a nd t h e w a ll inste ad. V estib u le do ors are often
h un g to swin g b oth ways and t h e do or fram es h ave
r
,
a h o llow reb ate o gro ove in t h e m i ddle of t h e w id th

'
o f t h e fr a m e t o re ce ive t h e rounde d ed ge of the do o r

,
(Fi gs 1 7 0 1 71 and
.
,
M any of th e he avier kinds
of frame d and ledge d doors are no t p rovided wit h
w o oden fram es b ut are hung wit h b a nds and g u d geons
or a rran ge d t o run on p ulleys as describ e d elsew h e e r ,
tzs s s o
l l | 2
| 3 | 4 | 5 |6 |7 | 8 r
Fee
r
l
.
Sca le of D a wing
Deta il s of a pa i rf V o e s t ib ul e
'
DT r
OO s with S ide l igh t s .
F ig . 1 72 .
Fi g 1 7 3 show s a n o dinary s a sh doo r with th re e

.
p ane ls b e low Fi g sh o ws a se ction o f do or and

. .
r
fra m e Fi g 1 7 5 s h o w s plan o f do o r an d p art of cross
. .
section o f frame Fi g 1 7 6 s h o ws t h e hei g h t and wi dt h

r
. .
o d o f a do or which g u ides t h e workman in l ayin g ou t

,
h is work
r
r r r
.
E x t e n a l Doo s a re invariab ly h u n g in S olid F ame s

r
.
I nterna l do o s c h iefly to b uild u p c asin gs o L i n i n g s

, ,
o f c omp aratively thin s u b stanc e I n c ert a in p o sitions

r r
. ,
s u ch as ve stibule s a nd s h op f on t s whe e t h ere are n o

r
z
,
w all o p enin gs to line solid fram es a re also u sed f o ,

284 M O D E R N CARP E NTRY
F ig . 1 73 .
interior d o o rs T h e m e mb ers of s o l id fra m es are us u
r
.
a l l y made o f square section o slightly thicker than

wide ; t h is arran ge m ent may h owever b e vari ed t o , ,
m e et th e n ec essities o f the design ; t h e reb ates stops , ,
m o uldin gs & c are w o rked in th e solid The o uter

r
. .
, ,
vertic al memb ers o f t h ese fr ames are c alled j os t s o

j ambs ; interio r o nes mullions T h e h o rizontal m e m
,
.
b ers are sill transo m and head T h e j a mb s are fra med

r
.
,
b etwe en th e head a n d sill c hi efly t h at the ends o

,
horns o f t h e latter m a y run b ey o nd the fra m e and s o ,
provide fixin gs t h at can b e b u ilt into the wall ; and
S e g me n t -
he a de d Fr
a me .
F ig . 1 77 .
a l s o b e c ause t h e s h o ulders o f th e p o st f o rm a b etter

r
abut ment f o c arryin g any l o a d th at may b e t h r o wn
on t h e h ead t h an th e ed ge of a tenon would T an s oms . r
are out b etween t h e j a mbs and also b etween t h e mul
lions w h en t h ese are used
r
.
A S e gment h e a d e d F a m e i s sh own in Fig 1 7 7 and

-
.
,
enlarged details of t h e j oints in Fi gs 1 7 8 1 79 1 80 Th e .

, ,
.
h e ads of t h ese fra m es are c u t ou t o f the s o lid when

t h e rise wil l p ermit o f t h eir b ein g cut from pine of
ord in ary widt h When this c a nnot b e done they a e
. ,
,
r
PRACT I CAL SOL UT ION S 2 87
m a de in t wo len gt h s j o inte d at t h e crown and fas

, ,
tene d with a h andrail b o l t The horns are t aken o ut

.
leve l at th e sprin gin g line and the b a ck i s made

r
,
ro u ghly p ar allel to th e s h oulders f o c o nvenienc e in

fixin g When t h e frame is 4 in a nd upwards in thick
. .
ness do u b le tenons sho u ld b e u se d a s s h own in Fi g

, ,
.
1 7 9 ; a nd if th e p o sition in w h i c h t h e fra m e is t o b e
fix ed doe s no t ad m it o f t h e horn s b ein g l eft on th e ,
mortise s s h ould b e h aunched b ack as sh o wn in Fi g , .
F ig . 1 78 .
F ig . 17 9 . F ig . 1 80 .
a lt h o ugh the horns would no t b e c u t o ff until t h e

1 80,
frame w as fix ed as t h ey w o uld b e req u ire d for the
,
purp ose o f cramp in g up the frame

r
.
A S e mi h e a d e d F a m e m ay h ave its h e ad c u t in two

or three len gths a nd b o lted to geth er b ut is fre quently ,
built up a s shown in Fi gs 1 8 1 1 82 1 83 T h e j amb s

.
, ,
.
and transom are work ed solid b u t th e h e ad is form ed ,
in two thickn esses gl u ed a nd screwed t o get h er on e ,

layer b ein g in two len gths t h e o t h er in thre e so a s
, ,
t o b reak j oint T h is i s b oth a str o n g and e c onomic al

.
way of for m in g a h e ad b e c ause t h e grain is l ess c u t

,
a cross th an it would b e in a head cut o ut of o n e thick

ness and t h e lab o r o f reb atin g i s also dispensed with
r
, ,
t h e inner rin g b ein g k ept b a ck in t o form a e .
b ate Th e head i s fastened t o th e j amb s by hammer

.
h ead tenons and s h oulder t on gues a s shown in Fi g ,

.
1 82 and doub le tenons are used for the transom t o

,
S E M i H EA D E D S O L
-
ID FR A M E .
F ig . 181 . F ig . 1 82 . F ig . 1 83 .
a void cuttin g t h e r o o t of t h e h e ad tenons T h e tran .
s o m is b etter kept ab out 3 in b e l ow the sprin ging as

.
sh o wn t o ensure a str o n g j o int But if t h e exi gen cies

,
.
o f the desi gn n ece ssitate its b ein g p laced at the sprin g
in g t h en t h e j amb sh o uld b e c arried ab o ve th e sp in g

, r
in g and a p ortion of the c u rve worked upon it b ecause ,
2 90 M O D E RN CAR P E NTRY
r
Is o me t ic S k e t ch o f a D o ub l e
h
Re b a t e d S e t o f Pl a in L i n in g s wi t D o ttble
r
S e t o f G o un d s .
F ig . 1 84 .
PRAC T ICAL S O L UT IO N S 2 91
G ru d n s —Fi gs and 1 89 a re li ght fr a mes form

1 88
r
o .
in g a b o u nd a ry t o a ll o p enings in p l a stere d walls the i ,
He a d Of a F rm d J mb L i
a e a i
n n .
g
F ig . 1 85 .
pu r p ose b e in g t o a ct
the n a m e im p lies a s a gro u nd
,
as ,
wo rk for the linin gs a rchitraves & c and a lso a s a

, ,
.
,
of S offi t s h o wi n g H ous i n gs .
F ig . 1 86 .
r
m argin and g a u ge f o t h e t h i ckne ss o f the p laster
r
.
They are either b evelled o gro oved o n the b a ck e dge s

to form a key for th e p l a ste r a nd sho u ld b e fr a me d up
,
p erfectly sq u are and with faces and inside edges tru e
, ,
strai ght a nd sq u are to ensure go od fittin gs in t h e fi n

r
,
is h in g s.They are fi xed by n a ilin g to p l u gs o wo o d
En d o f a Jamb L i n i n g s howi n g Ton g ue s .
F ig . 1 87 .
b ricks in the wa lls a nd sh o u ld b e sec u re plumb and

, ,
o ut of windin g They a re u s ua lly prep ared out of 1 in

.
.
E le v a tion a n d E dg e V ie w of a Se t
Of G rd
o un s.
F ig . 1 88 . F ig . 1 89 .
their width dependin g upon th e width of the

s t ufi ,
architr a ves which shou l d overh an g t h e m ab out in

r
. .
,
M ore c over th a n this is not a dvis a b le , o the fi x in g for

with rails and stiles where re quired from 3 t o 5 in
,
.
wide (see Fi g
r r
.
G o u nd s are sometimes moulde d o b e a ded on their

inside edge s a s in Fi g 1 91 T h ey are then c alled
r r r
. .
,
A r chit a v e Gro u n d s o M o u lde d G oun d s and are fix ed ,
t o th e ed ges o f the linin gs wh ich in such c ases must

,
M e th o d of rrg i g
A
rd r
a n n
A M oul d e d G rd
o un .
G o un s
”
fo G l i g Up ue n .
F ig . 1 91 . F ig . 1 92 .
b e fixe d first Th e mou l ded ground is more frequent ly

.
used in window and s h utter o penin gs t h an in d o or

Openin gs A l l j o inery fi n is h in g s are fi xed t o grounds
r
.
,
but these a e seldo m fra m ed except in the c ases o f ,
door window and s h utter openin gs all o t h er work

, ,
be in g fix ed t o roug h grounds which will b e ill u strated ,
in t h eir appr o priate plac e .

F rm d Gru d
a e are us u ally w e d ge d up and sent
o n s
o u t from the s h O p in p airs as shown in Fig 1 92 Fi g ,

.
,
.
1 93 b ein g an ed ge view to l arger sc ale T wo sets are .
li ght ly n a ile d fac e t o f a c e a nd with h e a ds reversed

, ,
i n whi ch p osition they c a n b e kno c ke d a p art a nd gl u e d ,
then cr a mp ed sq ua red a nd w e d ged u p with faci lity

hi r
r
.
, ,
A ca t are the m o u lded b orders or frames to

v es
r
window o d o o r op enin gs When square at the b a ck .
,
a s in Fi g 1 91 they are t erm ed S in g l e fa ce d ; when

.
,
-
moulded at th e b ack a s in Fig 1 85 D oub l e f a ce d N o

,
.
,
-
.
Frm d A r
hi r t a
d Gr d
a e c ve
an o un s .
F ig . 1 93 .
architrave sh o u l d b e m ade wider t h an 6 in in o n e pi e c e .
as th ere i s gre at dan ger of its splittin g when shrink

in g b e in g fixe d ne c essarily at b oth ed ges ; b u t when
,
this size is exc eeded t h e m ouldin g sh ould b e mad e u p

r
,
o f two o more memb ers grooved and t on gued t o ,
gether at som e c onveni ent p oint a s shown in Fi gs 1 8 5 , .
and 1 93 th e latter b ein g an ex ample of a very w ide s o

r rr
,
c alle d F a me d A chit a v e ; th en if fi xed a t b oth ed ges , ,
i t will b e free to s h rink in th e middle .

He a vy A r
hi r
c a are p lo u ghed and cross ton g u ed
t ves
in the mitres a n d in some c ases framed or stub mort ised

,
a nd tenoned a s shown in Fi gs 1 94 a nd 1 95 Th ese

r
. .
,
are gl u ed a nd fi x e d with screws tu ne d in from the

b ack S m a ll h a ndrail b olts are also u se d to draw u p
.
the mitres in thick m o u ldin gs S ets of arc h itraves s o .
t re a ted are fram ed up o n the b e n c h provided with ,
stretch ers at the b ottom end an d b rac ed to prevent ,
hi r T
r e n on e d a n d
' '
An A c t a ve
Mi n e d .
F ig . 1 94 . F ig . 1 95 .
rackin g durin g transit and are fixed c omplete S m a ller

,
.
ones are mitred and fixed p iec e by p iec e I n th e b est .
c lass o f p olished work secret fix ings a re u sed for se

,
c urin g the architrave t o the gr ounds These are shown .
in Figs 1 96 1 97 and 1 98 A numb er of stout screws

.
,
.
are turned into the gr oun ds w ith t h e ir heads proj e ct

in g uniformly a b o u t 14 in Correspon din g h o l es a nd
’
b evelled slots are made in th e b ack o f t h e mo u ldin g ,
which is dro p ped on t h e screws and c a refu ll y dri ven ,

-
(see Fi gs 1 99 and. T h e latter is t h e b etter w ay ,
as there is less di fficulty in fittin g the s h oulder and ,
a l so less dan ger o f splittin g t h e plinth when drivin g ,
t h e dovetail tenon in ; th is is glued an d secured wit h

a screw turned in th e b ack A h a n d s c e w may b e . r
used t o grip the sides of t h e block whilst drivin g the
l atter on to prevent its splittin g .
Me tho d of ht
Fi x i n g Pl in t o A r
hi r
c t a ve .
F ig . 1 99 . F ig . 2 00 .
D o or a nd Ja mbs Co m p lete Fi gs 2 01 and 2 02 s h ow . .
a do o r wit h j amb s and l inin gs c o mp l ete T h e det ails

f or
, .
c onstru c tin g and fastenin g in p l ace are a l l s h own .
E ac h memb er of the do or is named als o b ase and ,
gr o unds .
Fi gs 2 02 t o 22 0 s h o w a nu mb er of typic al do o rs so m e
.
,
o f which will b e fo u nd s u it ab le for any p arti c ular pur
p ose .
PRAC T I CA L S OL UTI O N S 99
w wc
’ '
Re u s
A RC H
C O RE
F ig . 2 01 . F ig . 2 02 .
Fig . 2 04 . Fig . 2 05 .
F ig . 2 06 . F ig . 2 07 . F ig . 2 08 .
F ig . 215 . F ig . 2 16 . F ig . 217 .
F ig . 218 . F ig . 219 . F ig . 22 0
PRACT I C AL S OL UT I O N S 3 03
‘
S ECTIO N
S ECTION C
F ig . 221. F ig . 222 .
306 M O D E RN CAR PE NTRY
Th e N at u r r e Of Fo
Forc e m ay b e defined as that
ce
r r
.
which moves o tends to m o ve a b ody at rest o

r
, , ,
w h ich chan ges o tends to c h an ge t h e direction or

, ,
rate of motion of a b o dy alre ady movin g A familiar .
e x ample of forc e is m e t w it h in gravitation whereby ,
an obj e ct h as a t e n d e n cy to fall t o t h e ground I n

’
order to s up port it an upw a rd f o rc e e qual t o t h e

,
wei ght of the ob j e ct must b e exerted T h e p h rase .
“ ”
e qu al forc e implie s that forces c an b e measured .
I n this co un try they are u sual l y meas u re d in t er m s of

wei ghts in lb s cwts etc An y on e w h o h as see n a
r
.
,
. .
,
pu l ley o lever at work know s t h at the direction o f

, ,
app lic ation o f a fo rc e c an b e changed E vidently .

,
t h en f o rc es c a n b e represented graphic ally L ines

r
.
,
d r a wn to sc ale a re employed and t h e se can b e a e
ran ged to exh ib it at t h e sa me time b oth th e ma gnit u de

and the dire cti o n o f t h e f o rc es T hu s a w e ig h t o f 1 0 .
,
l b s a c tin g vertic al l y downwards c a n b e represented

.
by a vertic al strai g h t line 1 0 units in len gth I f t h e .
u nit o f le n gth b e t h e lin e wil l me asure ten times

if the unit of forc e b e represented
by a l e n gth of th e grap h ic represent ation o f the
”
f o rc e wi l l b e a vertic al straigh t l ine 1 0 lon g
mor
r r
.
R e s u lt a n t of t wo es (1 ) Wh en tw o o
o e For c
r
.
m o re forc es to get h er act at a point in t h e same d i e c

tion and in the sa m e strai g h t line the es u lt a nt forc e ,
r
is equal to the sum of t h e com p onents .
E xa m p l e (a ) I f t wo 1 0 lb w ei ghts att a ched to a

. .
c o rd are h un g upon t h e same nail t h e resultant wei ght ,
actin g upon t h e nail is lb s .
(2 ) I f two e q u a l forc es to gether act at the same

p oint in Opposite dire cti o ns b u t in the same strai g h t ,
M E C HAN I C S OF CARP E NTRY 307
they n e u traliz e e ach ot h er and th e fo rce s are said

l in e ,
r
,
t o b e in e qu ili b ium .
E xa mp l e A s p rin g b alanc e c arries a wei ght of 6

.
lb s The index fin ger o f the b alanc e sh o ws th at the

.
sprin g ex erts an u p w a rd forc e eq u al t o the downward

forc e— th e wei ght ; a nd a st a te o f e q u ilib ri u m is ob
t a in e d .
If th e two u ne qu a l forc e s t o geth er a ct a t the s a m e

p o int in o p p osite dire ctions b u t in th e sa m e str ai g h t
r r
,
line th e re sultant f o c e is e q u al to t h e d ifl e e n ce b e
,
twe en the forc e s a nd i s in th e dire ction of th e gre ater

,
.
I t i s evident th en th a t th e dir ections o f t h e forc es

, , ,
a n d therefore th e an gle s they m a ke with on e another
m u st b e c onsidere d in determinin g the forc e s a ctin g at

any given p o int .
I f a flex ib le stri ng b e a ttach ed t o a wei ght and then ,
p assed over a fri ctionless pu lley th ere w ill b e th e ,
s a m e tension in every p art o f t h e strin g irres p e ctive ,
o f any chan ge o f dire ction c au sed by usin g t h e pulley .
To il l ustrat e these facts c le arly sup p o se th at t w o 7 ,
lb wei ghts c onn ect ed by a c ord han g over a smo oth

.
, ,
pe g as s h own in Fi g 1 T h e tot a l we i g h t on th e p e g
. .
,
ne gle ctin g th e wei g h t of th e c ord (which m ay th u s

b e any len gt h ) is 1 4 lb s the s u m o f th e tw o wei ghts
,
.
,
.
Again s u ppose thre e s u ch p e gs in a h orizontal

,
strai ght line an d the c ord a nd wei g h ts to b e p asse d

,
ove r them a s shown in Fi g 2 Evidently the we i ght . .
on the c entral p e g i s n ot h in g N ow sup p ose the out .

,
side p e gs to b e lowere d sli gh tly as sh o wn by dotted ,
l ines in the fi gure ; th e c entral p e g will n o w c arry a

small pro p o rtion o f the w ei ght and th e more t h e o ut ,
side p e gs a re lowered , th e mor e we i ght w ill b e thrown

on the c entral p eg unti l a s shown in Fig 1 it c a rri es
, , .
,
all the wei ght i e 1 4 lb s Therefore t h e we i ght up on

, . .
,
.
th e c entral p e g v a ries ac c ordin g to th e direction o f t h e

forces actin g on it— from nothin g in Fi g 2 to 1 4 lbs in . .
Fi g 1. .
The m a gnit u de and dire ction of the resultant forc e

a c tin g upon the c entral p e g and u p o n e a c h o f t h e o u t ,
si de p e gs c an b e determine d by the p arallelo gram o f

,
forces .
F ig . 1 . F ig . 2 .
ra ll lo gr
Th e P a am f Fo r c e —If w or es a ti g t f
a t a p oin h r e p resented in m a g it u d a nd dir
e o s o c c n
t ectio
by h a d j a nt sides f a par a llelo g r m the r
.
e n e n
t es u lt a n t
w for s will b e r
e ce o a ,
f th t e p r esented in m a g it u d
d d ir by th a t di a g on a l of th par a llelo gr
o es e o ce n e
ti am
thr
an ec on e
wh i h pa c o g h the p o in
s s es u t .
E xamp l e 3 Fi g 4 s h o ws t h e appli c ation o f t h e
. .
parallel o gram of forc es to dete rmine the resultant

f o rce o n t h e pe g B .
I n th e ab ove ex a mples no all ow a nc e h as b een made

r rr
f o th e weigh t o f t h e c o rd o f o t h e fri c ti o n o n t h e
pe gs I t is assumed in e ach c ase that t h e f o rc es are
.
actin g at t h e p o int of interse ction o f the strai ght lines

pr o duce d .
F ig . 3 .
E x a mp le 4 Two
f o rc es of 1 0 and 6 lb s respe ctively
. .
a c t from a point and in dire c ti o ns w h i c h are at ri g h t
an gles to each o t h er D eter mine t h e ma gnitude and

.
dire ction o f t h e sin gle forc e which can replac e t h e t wo

forc es .
L e t the l ine A B (Fig 5 ) represent in ma gn itude a .
force o f 1 0 lb s a ctin g at t h e po int A in t h e directi o n

.
indic ate d by t h e arr o w and A C a force of 6 lb s act in g

,
.
M E C HAN I C S OF C A RP E NTRY 31 1
a t ri g h t a n gle s t o A B C omplete th e p a r a llelo gram

.
A CD B Then th e len gth of th e dia gon a l A D rep

.
resents the m a gnit u d e o f the res u lt a nt fo rc e and the ,
d irecti o n in w h ic h it a cts will b e from the p oint A as ,
s h own by th e a rrow .
I t m u st b e u ndersto od c le a rly th a t a res u lt a nt is a

forc e wh ich c a n take the plac e of a n d will p ro duc e
r
,
the same e ff e ct a s two o mor e forc es T o m aint ain

r
.
,
equilibri um th e res u lt ant forc e m u st b e c o u n t e b a l

r
, _
a n ce d by an e q u a l f o rc e actin g in th e O p po sit e d i e c
tion The forc e So a ctin g is c alle d th e e qui lib a n t

. r .
F ig . 5 .
E xa mp l e 5
Fi gs 6 an d 7 s h ow th e m a gnitud e and
. .
direction of th e resultant f o rc e when f o rces of 9 and 6

lb s res p e ctively act at a n g l e S o f (a )
.
(b )
'
T h e si mple app ar atus s h own in Fi g 8 cle arly illus .
trates the principl e of the parallelo gram o f forc es O n .
a vertic a l b o ard are fi x ed two sm all p u lleys by m eans

o f screws so that t h ey revolve w ith a s little fricti o n as
,
p ossib le By m akin g a t h ree w ay strin g p assin g it

.
-
over the two pul l eys a nd addin g v a ryin g we i ghts t o

,
312 M OD E RN CAR P E N TRY
eac h of t h e thre e ends o f the s t rin g it can b e demon
“
r
,
s t a t e d cle a rly how the thre e forces act I n Fig 8 th e . .
weights are res p e ctively 5 6 and 4 l b s B y drawin g

, , .
t h e p arallelo gram A B D C s u ch that A B e quals 5 ,
uni t s in len gth a nd A C equ a l s 4 units t h e d ia gonal

, ,
D A is fo u nd to measure 6 u nits a nd t o represent t h e ,
m a gnit u de of the m iddle wei ght If oth er we igh ts are .
attac h ed t o the ends of the strings di ff erent res u lts ,

-
will of c o u rse b e obt a ine d

, , .
F ig . 6 . F ig . 7 .
r
T ia n g l e Of Fo rs
T h e tri angle of forc es is used t o
ce .
dete rm ine the ma gnitude and direction o f any t h re e

fo r c es which b alan ce each ot h er The rule may b e
r r r
.
stated as follows : I f th e e fo ces a ctin g a t a p oi n t a e

r rr
in e qu ilib iu m t h e y ca n b e e p e s e n t e d in magn it u d e
r r
a n d d i e ct ion by th e th e e s id e s of a t ia n g l e t ak e n in r
or
d r e .
3 14 M O D E R N CARPE NTRY
-
that is in the spac es b etwe en s u ch lines Th u s in Fig

,
. .
9 the three forc es actin g at th e p oint 0 a re referre d t o

a s A B B C,
C A res p e ctively
, .
E x a mp l e 2 Given th e m agnit u de (9 lb s ) and the

. .
dire ction (indic a ted by the arrow ) of A B and t h e ,
angles which the direct ions o f the thre e forc es make

with e a ch other it is require d to fi n d the m a gnit u de
,
and direction of B C a nd C A when the force s a re in

e q u ilibrium .
F ig . 9 . F ig . 10 .
Draw the line a b (Fig 1 0 ) p aral l e l t o t h e directi on

.
o f action of th e forc e A B 9 units l o n g and in the

, ,
d ire cti o n sh own by the a rrow Fr o m b draw b c p aral .
le l to B C until it meets a c dr awn p aral l el t o C A T h en .
the tri an gle a b c is th e trian g l e of forc es and t h e ,
dire ction of th e f o r c es B C and C A c an b e found by

‘
t akin g the sides o f th e trian gle in o rder viz a to b

r
, , ,
.
b t o c c t o a ; and t h ese directions give also th e d i e c

,
ti o ns of action of t h e for c e s represented by th e lines

p aralle l to a b b c and c a respe ctively T hu s A B acts
, ,
.
em m the j oint 0 ; B C acts tow a rds o

; and C A acts
fr o m O .
M E C HAN I C S OF CARP E NT RY 315
T h e f o llowin g ex a mples show t h e applic a tion o f these

princ i p l e s t o simple p r actic al que stions .
Ex a mp l e 3 .A rope b e ars a t ensile stress (p u ll ) of

30 cwts . Fin d th e m a gnitude of th e stress in e a ch of
t w o o th er ro p es which m ak e an an gle o f 60 with e ach
°
oth er and to gether b a l anc e t h e stress in th e fi rst rop e

, ,
supp o sin g the s e c ond a nd third ro p es a re e qu ally

stre ssed .
F ig . 11 .
Fi g 1 1 sh o ws t h e app l i c ati o n of the tri an gle o f forc e s

.
t o th e s o lution o f t h is questi o n t h e answer givin g t h e

,
stress in eac h rop e as cwts By go in g round the

.
sid es of the tri an gle in o rder it will b e seen th at the

,
forc e in e ach of th e three r o pes a cts from the j o int .
E xamp l e 4 A b ucklin g chain i s use d to raise he a vy

.
-
blo cks of stone Wh at is the amo u nt o f stre ss in the

.
links of the ch ain when raisin g a wei g h t of o n e to n if ,
t h e bucklin g ch ain is
-
(a ) p ul l ed ti g h tly as in Fi g 1 2 ; .
(b ) pl a c ed loosely ro un d t h e stone as in Fi g 1 3
. .
F ig . 12 .
T h e c o rre c t s o lution o f t h is questi o n depends on (1 )

the wei g h t o f t h e st o ne ; (2 ) the an gl e b etween the
forc es A C a nd B C .
F ig . 13 .
Th e applic ation of t h e trian gle o f f o rc es in each c ase

( Fi gs 1 2 and 1 3
.
) s h ows that th e stresses A C and B C
are more than twic e as gre a t w h en the ch a in is fixed
318 M O D E RN C A RP E NTRY
Fi g 1 6 show s a somew h at modified design of trian
.
gular wall bracket and Fi g 1 7 is the trian gle of f o rc es

r
-
.
,
by whi ch the stresses in the various memb ers are a s c e

t a in ed .
F ig . 16 . F ig . 17 .
Ex a mp le 6 . Wh at is the n a ture an d amount

stress of
in each o f the m e mbers A B a n d A C (Fi g 1 8 ) c aused .
by the we i ght of 1 0 cwts actin g a s s h own ? .
This ex a mple m a y b e t a ken as ty p ifyin g a simple

kind of roof truss with the wei g h t t akin g th e p l a ce o f
r
-
t h e ridge piec e R e letter o fi gure t h e dia gram a c cord

.
-
’
in g to B o w s notati o n Draw the vertic al line 2 1 3 1
.
,
equal in m a gnitude and direction t o the wei g h t 2 3 .
C o mplet e t h e trian g l e by drawin g lines p a ralle l to t h e

m emb ers A C a nd A B fro m t h e p oints 2 1 a nd 3 1 e
,
r
s p e c t iv e l y Th ese line s represent t h e amount of stress
.
al o n g t h e m emb ers A C and A B O n takin g t h e sid es .
o f t h e trian gle in order as shown by the arrows it i s ,

M E C HAN I C S O F CARP E NTRY 31 9
seen th a t 2 1 3 1 act downwards ; 3 1 1 1 a cts tow ards the

j o in t A as do es also 1 1 2 1 ; theref o re e ach memb er is
,
s u bj e ct to a c ompression stress (thr u st )

Fi g 1 9 show s an othe r ex a mple of this kind with a
.
m u ch smaller angle b etwe en the forc es .
Fi g 2 0 il l ustrates a still f u rt h er ex a mp le w her e the

.
,
t wo side s are of u neq u al inclin ation .
F ig . 18 . F ig . 19 .
P ol yg on Of Fo r
The method o f o bt ainin g th e
ce s .
resultant o f a n y two forc es actin g a t a p oint can b e

extended to thre e four o any numb er of force s r
rr
.
, ,
E x a mp l e.O A O B O C O D O E (Fi g 2 1 ) e p e
, , , , ,
.
s ent th e m a gnitude and dire ction of fi v e forc es a ctin g

3 20 M O D E RN CAR PE N TRY
at t h e point O D etermine t h e magnit u de and direction
.
o f the resu l tant forc e .
This prob le m c an b e solved eith er by an application

o f the p arallelo gram o f forces o r
by a direc t c onstr u e
tion .
(1 ) D etermine by the p arallelo gram o f f o rces the ,
res u ltant O 1 of f o rces O A and O B (Fi g S i mi

r
.
l a ly determ in e t h e res u ltant O 2 of the forc e s O 1 a nd

,
F ig . 20 . F ig . 21 .
O C Again 0 3 is th e resultant o f th e forc es O 2 and O

.
,
D ; and fin a l l y 0 4 i s the resultant o f O 3 and O E .
T h erefore O 4 i s th e res u ltant of all the ori gina l forces ;

r
,
in other words a sin gle forc e e q u al in m agnit u de

’
o , ,
and direction to the force 0 4 will have th e s a m e e ff ect

at the p oint 0 a s the fi v e forc es h a ve when act in g to
ant—whi ch c orresp o nds wit h t h e o n e determined by
t h e p arallelo gram of forces—is obtain ed It s direction .
is indic ated by th e arrow .
Fi g 2 5 is t h e p olygon o f force s when two of the

.
‘
forc es b e and d e act tow a rds t h e j o int (Fi g

, ,
.
the ma gnit u de o f a l l t h e fo rc es b ein g as in the p revious

example I n this c ase the equ ilibrant is determined
.
,
and is shown by the t h ick line in Fi gs 24 and 25 . .
F ig . 24 . F ig . 25 .
Fi gs 21 and 2 5 should b e comp a red c a refu lly

r
. .
The p olyg on of f o ce s ma y b e stated a s follows : If

rrr r
t wo o mo e f o ce s a ct at a p oi n t th e n if s t a ti n g a t
r rr
.
, ,
a n y p oin t a l in e b e d a w n t o e p e s e n t t h e mag n it u d e
r rr r
a n d d i e ct ion of th e fi s t f o ce a n d f om t h e p oi n t t h u s
r r r rr
,
ob t ain e d an oth e lin e b e d awn s imil a ly t o e p e s e n t

r r
t h e s e con d fo c e a n d s o on u n til li n e s h a v e b e e n d awn
rr r r
e p e s e n t in g e a c h f o c e —t h e
,
e s u lt a n t of a ll th e s e
r rr r r
,
f o ces will b e e p e s e n t e d by a s t a i g ht lin e d awn

r r r
.
f om th e s t a tin g p oin t t o th e p oin t fi n a lly e ac h e d .
Polygons p arallelo grams or tri an gl es of f o rces

r
, , , ,
w h en used t o deter m ine either t h e resultant o the
rr
equilibrant o f stresse s a ct in g a t a p oint a re c a ll e d
r
,
ecip oca l diag am s.

M E C H AN I C S OF CARP E NTRY 32 3
I n clin e d Fo ri ce s n on e P l a n e b ut n ot a ct in g th r
ough
on e P oin t The fore goin g ex ample s deal only with

.
forc es w h ich act at a sin gle given p oint and in these ‘
c ases the resultant acts at t h e same point When all .
t h e forc es do not act at t h e s a me p oint t h e m a gnit u de ,
and direction of the resultant is obtained as in pr evious

ex ample s i e by drawin g th e re c ipr o c al di agram ; th e
,
. .
,
line of acti on however still rem ains t o b e determined

, ,
.
To det ermine this line of action it is ne c essary t o draw

rr
,
w h at is kn o wn as the f un icul a o l in k p olyg on Th e .
method is a s follows :
F ig . 26 . F ig . 27 .
E xa mp l e . L et Y ,
Z(Fi g
b e t h re e for c es in
X, . 2 6)
the same plane and of the m a gnit u de an d directi on
s h own It is required to fi n d the m a gnit u de and the
.
line of action of th e res u ltant forc e .
R e letter the forc es a b c d ac cordin g t o Bow s nota

-
’
tion a n d dr a w the reci p roc a l di a g r a m th e li n e

a
’
w h i c h c loses t h e fi gure r epresents t h e m a gnitude
d
’
o f th e res u ltant To o bt a in t h e actual l ine o f action

r
.
o f t h e resultant take any p o int o p ole O and j o in

,
a O
’
b O c O d O
’
T h e fi gure t h us obt ained i s c a l led
’ ’
r r
.
, , ,
t h e p o l a di a g a m T h e funicular p o lyg o n is n ow c on
.
structed by drawing— any wh ere in th e sp a c e b — a line

1 2 p ar alle l to b O an d intersectin g t h e for ces X and Y
’
at 1 and 2 respe ctively From 2 draw 2 3 p arallel t o

Z
.
c O
’
interse ctin g t h e forc e
,
in 3 T h roug h I draw .
1 4 p arallel to a O and t h rou gh 3 draw 3 4 par allel to

’
,
d O
’
Throu gh the p oint of intersec ti on 4 draw a line
.
,
R pa rallel t o a d R is the re q u ired line of act ion o f

’ ’
.
the resu lt a nt o f the thre e given forc es and its m a gn i ,
t u de is re p resented by the len gth of a d ’ ’

.
F ig . 28 .
Pa r
a ll l o r
c s e additi o n t o f o rc es a ctin g in the
F e . In
w ays a l ready explained it is nec essary t o c onside r a
r
,
few examples of p a a ll e l f o rc es (T h ese must not b e .
mi staken for t h o se de alt wit h by t h e p aral l e lo gram of

fo rc es as they are entire ly different )
, .
In all the exa mples of paral l e l f o rc es now t o b e c o n

r
.
s id e e d t h e f o rc es wil l a c t vertically
,
As t h ese can b e .
sh own e asily b o t h grap h ically an d arit h me tic ally e ac h ,
exa mple wil l b e w orke d o u t by b oth met h ods

‘
T h e simplest examples of t h e e quilibrium of paralle l

forces are found in t h e use of l e v ers T h e l ever s h own .
in Fi g 28 is a str a i ght b a r restin g on a tri a ng u l a r

.
ported so t h a t it will rest horizontally (Ne glect the .
w ei g h t of the b ar ) .
Arit h metic ally — S inc e the lever i s in equi l ibri um

.
,
th e total downward forc e o f 6 lb s is b alanc ed by an .
upward fo rc e (rea ction ) o f 6 lb s at t h e unknown p o int .
o f sup p ort and th e moment o f the u pward reacti o n

, ,
a b out any p o int i s equ a l t o the sum o f the m o ments

,
o f the downw a rd forc es a b o u t th e s a me p oint Con .
side r moments a bout A
M om ent of we i ght at A ab out ,
B
re a cti on ab out
AX: 1 2/6 : 2 feet
Gr a ph ic ally —I n t h e c o nsiderati o n o f these forc es

graphic a l ly t h e p oly gon o f f o rces b e c omes a straight
r
,
line A p ol a r diagr a m a nd a fu nic u lar polygon a re e

.
q u ired .
_ Fi g 3 0 sh ows the b ars with the wei ghts s u s p ended

. .
L etter t h e forc e s A B and B C T h e p o lar di a gram is

.
d rawn as fol l o ws : D raw t o a suitab le sc ale a vertic al ,
l ine a c 6 units l o ng— eq u al to th e sum o f the wei g h ts

,
.
From any po int 0 w h ich m ay b e at a ny c onvenient dis

tanc e fro m a c draw 0 a O b and O c T o c o n struct
, , ,
.
th e funicular poly gon draw in t h e spac e B 1 2 p ara l l e l

, , ,
to b 0 .From 1 draw 1 3 p arallel t o a 0 and fr o m 2 ,
d raw 2 3 p ar a l lel t o O e and produce it t o interse ct

,
1 3 in 3 Then th e vertic al line drawn throu g h t h e

.
point 3 w ill give th e position o f the fulcrum I f t h e .
dist ances from this point to t h e points o f ap p lic ation o f

M E C HAN I C S OF CARP E NTRY 3 27
r
the w ei ghts b e m easured it will b e fo un d that th ey are
,
in inve se p rop ortion to th e m a gnit u des of th e .
F ig . 30 .
wei ghts and t h at th e wei ght on the ri ght h and side o f

,
the fulcrum m u lt iplied by its arm of lever a ge will b e

, ,
e q ua l t o the we i g h t on th e left h a nd sid e m u ltiplied by

the arm of leverage on th a t side —th e a rms b ein g o n e
,
and two fe et respe ctively .
F ig . 31 .
E xa mp l e 2 . Fo u r w ei ghts o f 2 3 6 a n d 4 lb s e
, , ,
. r
s p e c t iv e l y han g o n a b ar a s sh own in Fi g 3 1 D eter . .
m ine the p oint at whi ch t h e b ar m u st b e supp orted t o

rest horizontally th e wei ght o f the b ar b ein g n e gle cted
,
.
Arithmet ic ally —L e t the req u ired po int of s up port
.
b e denoted by th e letter X When the b ar is in e qu il

r
.
ib ium the sum of the m oments a b out A of t h e down

,
ward forc es must b e equal to the moment ab o u t A of

, , ,
the u p ward re action a t the point o f support .
th e downward mo m ents ab out A
O 21 66 60
Th e m oment ab out A of the upw a rd reaction
—S um of all t h e w e ig h t s X A X
XA X : 1 5A X ;
I 5A X 2 1 47 ;
AX _
feet .
F ig . 82 .
G rap h ic ally —Draw t h e verti c a l line o f loads e a ,
representin g to sc ale th e s u m of t h e weights as s h own

(Fi g . C onstr u ct t h e p ol a r di a gram by drawin g
M o m ent of 10 cwts a b out
. in c h -
lb s .
M om ent of .
x ab o u t
inc h lb s -
9 X 1 0 >< 1 1 2
1 60 lb s .
63
E xa m p l e 2 A m a n weig h in g 1 4 0 lb s is usin g a
. .
c r o w b ar 5 ft lon g Wh at must b e t h e p o sition o f t h e

. .
fulcrum t o enab le him to b alanc e a wei g h t of 1 260 lb s .
a t t h e ot h er end ?
L e t A B b e t h e length of th e b ar ; F the p osition o f
th e fulcrum ; a nd x the len gt h of the l o n g arm in
inc h es ; th en (60—x ) is th e len gth of t h e S hort a rm in
inc h e s .
Taking moments a b out F ,
1 40x 1 2 60 (60 x ): -
1 4 0x : 7 5 600 —l 2 60x
1 40x + 1 260x : 7 5 600 ;
1 400x : 7 5 600 ;
54 of lon g arm .
1 4 00
P 200 1b5 .
F ig . 34 .
E xa mp l e 3 A l ever 7 ft lon g i s used as s h own in

. .
Fi g 3 4 I f a for c e of 2 00 lb s is applied at P in t h e
. . .
direction o f t h e arrow what we i gh t p lac ed at a p oint , ,
1 2 from t h e ful c rum c an b e raised ?

”
,
T a kin g momen ts in f t lb s ab out F .

-
.
,
WX I Z 2OOX 7 ;
W 1 400 l bs : .
M E C H AN I C S OF CARP E NTRY 33 1
L oa d e d B ea ms
The determination of t h e prop ortion
.
of t h e total wei ght c arri ed by e ach s up p ort of a lo aded

b eam— in oth er words th e u p w a rd re action of e ach ,
supp ort whi ch is ne c essary to m a int a in e q u ilib rium

affords a go od p r a ctic a l e x am p le of the theory of p aral
lel forc es .
E xa mp l e 1 A b e a m rests up on s upp orts p lace d 8

.
fe et ap art A wei ght of 1 2 lb s i s pl a c e d on t h e b eam

. .
at a dist a n c e of 2 ft fro m th e ri ght h a nd su pp ort

.
-
.
Wh a t prop ortio n of the we i ght is c arri ed by e ach of the

s u p p orts th e w e ight o f the b e a m b ein g ne glected ?
,
F ig . 35 .
Arithmetic a lly — In this c a se (Fi g 3 5 ) the down

. .
w a rd forc e (we i ght ) of 1 2 lb s m u st b e b alan ce d by up

r
.
w a rd forc es (rea ctions ) a t th e p oints of s u pport e ,
s p e ct iv e ly e q u al t othe p re ssure a t the se p oints an d to ,
gether e q u al t o 1 2 lb s ; and the moments of t h e up .
w a rd force s ab out th e p oint e m u st b e e q u al .
Re a ction at A X A c R e a ct ion at z E X E C,
ie
. . Re action a t A zR e a ct ion at .
o rRe a ct on i at A
S um of
rea ction s
a t A a nd B
ie
. . Re action a t A : 12
T his ma y b e e x pre s s e d in g enera l ter

ms a s foll ows
P r
e ur
e ss on o n e e n d t ha t D i s ta n c e o f t
l o a d fro m
ha t L en g th b etween
ca u s ed by a n y l oa d l oa d
h
ot er e n d
s u pport s .
th e re fore P r ur
e
es s A 1 2 lbon s. CB AB ;
Pr
e ur
Z
1 2X B c 1 2X 2
e A
ss on 3 lbs .
AB 8
Si r r ur
mi la ly , P
e es s on B
12
—
Ac
~
12 < 6
9 lbs .
Grap h i c al ly — Fi g 3 6 shows the b e a m and supports

.
wit h t h e l o ad in positi o n T h e polar dia gra m is drawn

.
as fo l lows : Draw a vertical line a b representin g t h e ,
F ig . 36 .
we i g h t (1 2 l b s ) to a suitab le scale From any p o int 0

. .
,
w h i c h may b e a t a ny c onveni ent distan c e from a b ,
draw th e trian gle O a b Draw as in t h e fi gure a verti

.
c a l line dire ctly under the l o ad and on e u nder e ach

Z
,
p o int o f support as x y L etter t h e lo ad A B an d

, , ,
.
,
S imilar l y ,
R e a cti o n a t A due wt . a t DXD B 7X 9
to wei g h t a t D AB 16
R ea cti o n a t A d ue wt . a t EX E B 2X 2
to we i g h t a t E AB 16
The total re action at A i s e qual to t h e s um o f t h e

p artia l re acti o ns as shown ab ove ; o it may b e o btaine d r
dire ctly t h us
T o tal reacti o n at A
(wt . a t a t a t EXEB )
AB
8g cw st .
S imilarly ,
T ot a l rea cti o n at B
(wt . a t a t EXEA )
AB
92
16 16
Graphic a lly — Construc t the vertic al line of lo a ds ,
representin g t o scale t h e s um of t h e wei g h ts as s h own

in Fi g 3 8 Fix t h e p o le O and draw t h e dotted l ines
. .
,
O a O b O c 0 d
, ,
L etter t h e loads and dr a w a dotted
,
.
vertic al line directly under each lo ad and under e ach

support as sh o wn Fro m any p oint in t h e first line
.
,
draw in the spac e A a line 1 2 p arallel to a O ; from ,
2 dr a w 2 3 p ar a l l el to b 0 ; fro m 3 draw 3 4 p a rallel t o

c O ; and in the spac e D from 4 draw 4 5 parallel to ,
d 0 Join 1 to 5 t h us c ompleting the funicu l ar poly

.
,
gon By dr a win g a line parallel t o 5 1 —t h e closing

.
line of this p olygon— t h ro u gh p ole O a nd meetin g the ,
vertic a l lin e of lo a ds a t e it is fo u nd th a t e 3 e qua ls ,

M E C H AN I C S OF CARP E NTRY
the re action E A and e d eq u a l s the re a c tion E D ; they

,
are to gethe r e q ua l to the s u m of th e wei ghts in the

b eam.
Fig . 38 .
E xa mp l e 3 . A b e a m wei ghin g 6 cwts is lo aded as

“
.
sh o wn in Fig 3 9 D eterm ine the re a ction a t e a ch end

r
. .
ne cess a ry t o pr odu ce e qu ili b iu m .

Wh en t h e wei g h ta unif o r m b eam is t o b e c on s id
of
ered it m ay b e taken as a ctin g h alf way b etween the

,
-
supports and thus addin g ha l f its wei gh t to e ac h sup

,
port With this di ff erenc e the meth od u sed i s as in th e

.
previo u s e xa m p le Fi g 40 shows the g r ap hic a l s ol u

. .
tion .
3 38 M O D ER N CARPE NTRY
F ig . 41 .
F ig 4 3 . .
F ig ; 46
F ig . 44 . F ig . 45 .
M E C H AN I C S OF CARP E NTRY 339
d raw b 11 p arallel t o B N ; and from g draw g n p a rallel

t o G N until b n and g n m eet T h en b n g i s the poly
-
gon (a trian gl e in this c ase ) of forces a ctin g at th e

p oint ; and b n and n g r epresent th e amo unt of stress
in the princip al rafter and tie b eam respe ctive ly -
.
The dire ction of the stress is f ou nd b y takin g the

f o rces in o rder : thus g b act s up w ards ; b n acts t o
,
wards th e j oint therefore th is m emb er is in c o mpres

,
si o n ; 11 g a cts fr o m the j oint which indic ates that the ,
tie b e am is in tens i on
-
.
At j o in t f o ur forc e s a ct n amely B C B N C M , , , , ,
and N M The two known force s ar e B C a ct in g down

r
.
wards and B N tow ards t h e j oint F o t h e ma gnitude .
o f th e stre ss on B N h a s already b e en found and its ,
direction o f a ction at j oint (2 ) is the Opposite to its

direction at j o int Fi g 43 s h ows t h e applic ati on
.
o f the p oly gon of forc es t o this j oint I n it b c and

r
.
,
b n are dr a wn eq u al and p arallel t o B C an d B N e

S p e c t iv e l y ; and by drawin g n m p aralle l t o N M and
'
c m p arallel t o C M the stress dia gram is ob taine d

,
.
This s h o ws th at t h e s tress in C M the upper part of t h e ,
princ ip al rafter i s mu c h l ess th an in B N the lower

, ,
p art By tra c in g t h e p oly gon it is found th at b c acts

.
,
tow ards the j oint c m t o wards the j oint (ther efore C M

,
is in c o mpre ssion ) m 11 t o wards the j o int (c ompressi o n )

r
,
a n d n b t owards th e j o int (c ompre ssion as in the p e
v io u s fi gure ) .
At j o int (3 ) there are four forc es i e C M C D , . .

, ,
D L ,
M L actin g as s h own O f t h e se f our for c es t h e
,
.
two C M and C D ar e kn own S inc e t h e am o unt and .
n ature o f t h e stress in any m e mb er must b e t h e sa m e
a t any intermed iate p o int b etween the j o ints the s tres s ,

F ig . 47 .
F ig . 48 .
49 F ig 50
F ig . .
. .
s o metimes named a German truss T h e det ailed e x .
p l an ati o n alre a dy given wil l en a b le the figures to b e

u nderstood .
S TR E N GTH O F WO O D EN B EA M S .
For the purpose of c a lculatin g the c arrying c a p acity

o f wo oden be ams it is ne cessary t o n o tic e t h e n ature o f
,
t h e stresses t o which t h ey are subj e c ted a s wel l a s t h e ,
m anner in which they a re loaded and t h e arran ge m ent ,
o f t h e lo ad
r r
.
S t e s s a n d S t r a in Wh en a wei g h t o other forc e

.
“
, ,
a cts upon a b e am it tends to c h an ge t h e s h ape and

,
s ize o f t h e b e am T h e forc e is te c h nically c al l e d a

r
.
s tr e ss w h ile t h e c h an ge in s h ap e o size is c alled a

r r
,
s t a in . Wh en a be a m o girder supported at b oth ,
F ig . 51 .
ends i s loaded t h e upp er p art tends t o s h o rten T h e

,
.
l o wer fibres on t h e o t h er h and are in a state o f ten

, ,
si o n as t h ey tend to stret c h T h e f o rce actin g o n the

,
.
upper fibres o f su c h a b eam i s t h erefore a c om p r e s s i on

s tr ess ; th at o n t h e l o wer fibres is a tensio n s t e s s r .
T h e existen c e o f t h ese stresses m a y b e m ade very

apparent e ither by makin g a saw cut a c ross o by -
,
r
a c tua l ly cuttin g ou t a wed ge s h aped pie c e fr o m t h e
r
-
m iddle o f a b e am o f wo od f o h a l f its dept h a s sh o wn ,
in Fi g 5 1 O n restin g t h e b e a m o n t wo supp o rts wit h

. .
t h e cut ed ge upper mo st and t h en l o adin g it it will b e

, ,
se en th at the saw c u t clo ses T his shows th at the fib re s

-
.
o n the upp er side ar e in a st a te of compression I f the .
same b e a m is n ow turne d o ver so that t h e saw c u t is on

r
-
the lo wer side and a gain lo ade d the tendency is f o

, ,
th e c ut to Op en th u s s h owin g t h at the fibre s on t h e

,
low er s ide a re in a state of tension .
F ig . 5 2.
r r
S h e a in g S t A sh e arin g stress is on e w h i ch
es s e s .
gives th e fibre s of th e wo o d a tendency t o slide over

on e anothe r A s h earin g stress m ay b e either in th e
r
.
direction of th e fibres o at ri g h t an gles t o them T o .
illustr a te a sh earin g stre ss in the dire c tion of t h e fib res

of a b e am ,
ima gin e t h e b eam cut into a n u mb e r o f
F ig . 53 .
b o a rds ; pl a c e th ese o n th e top o f e a ch ot h er in th e

p osition of a b e a m re stin g u pon Su ppor ts at e ach end _
,
and p lac e a lo ad in t h e m i ddle Th e resu lt wil l b e t h at .
t h e b e am will b end as sh o wn in Fi g 5 2 and t h e b o ards .

,
will slide over e a c h o ther A she arin g stress acro ss

.
'
th e fib res of a l o ade d b e am c an b e il l ustrated by t ak

in g a b ar o f so ap or so m e su c h soft m aterial restin g
r
, ,
it up on s u pp orts and lo a din g it T h e es u lt will b e a s

,
.
sh own in Fi g 5 3 . .
344 M OD E RN CARPE NTRY
M e t h ods of A r
r
a n gin g B e a ms
The natur e a nd .
amo unt of stress in th e fibres of a lo aded b ea m depend

up on the w ay th e b eam is s upp orted and o n t h e ar
ran ge m ent of the load Th u s a c a n til e v e is a b e a m
. r
w ith on e end on ly sec u red up o n a support t h e o t h er ,
end overhan gin g The lo ad upon a c anti l ever m ay be

.
a c oncentrate d l o ad at t h e outer end as in Fi g 5 7 or ,

.
,
t h e load m ay b e anyw h ere b etwe en t h e outer end and
F ig . 54 .
th e s u pported end ; a nu mb er o f lo ads of varyin g

wei gh ts m ay b e distributed ove r the len gt h ; t h e l o ad
m ay b e a uniformly distrib u ted on e extendin g o ver t h e
r
len gt h o f t h e b e a m o it may b e a c omb inati o n o f a
,
c o nc entrated lo ad and a distribute d lo ad A c antilever .
loa de d in any o f t h e ways j ust describ e d has t h e fibres

in t h e upper ed ge in a state o f t e n s io n t h o s e in t h e ,
.
lowe r h alf b e ing in c ompression (Fig .
F ig . 55 .
r
A b e a m s upp o te d a t b ot h e n d s
may b e loaded in any
o f t h e w ays describ ed f o r
t h e c a nti l ever wit h the e ,
r
sult t h at t h e stresses wil l b e as sh own in Fi g 55 ; i e . . .
t h e upper p art wi l l b e in co mpressi o n and t h e lower ,

mine t h e b endin g m o ment o f b e a m s lo aded under dif
r
f e e n t c onditi o ns T h e b endin g moment— like other
.
m om ents—must always b e ex p resse d in terms of a

length and a forc e .
E xa mp l e 1 A c antilever c arries a lo ad o f 6 tons at

r
.
r
it s o ut e end w h i c h is 5 ft fr o m t h e s u pportin g wall
o
. .
,
D ete mine the m aximu m b endin g m oment a nd also th e ,
b endin g moment at 2 ft from the w a ll . .
F ig . 57 .
Th e greatest tenden cy t o b endin g w ill b e at t h e point

o f support i e at a d istan ce of 5 ft fro m the l o ad
,
. . . .
M aximu m b endin g mome n t 5 >< 6r3 0 f t tons z z .

-
.
Bendin g moment a t 2 ft from the wall (i e 3 ft . . . .
fr o m t h e l oad ) 3 X 6 1 8 f t tons : : .
-
.
The b endin g m o ment at any distanc e from th e l o ad

may b e determine d graphically by dr a wing as in Fi g ,
.
5 7 a vertic al line A B 30 units lon g (res pe c tin g t h e

,
maximum b endin g m o m ent ) under t h e p o int of sup p ort

A (i e t h e p o int w h ere t h e b endin g m o ment is a maxi
. .
mum ) and j oinin g B C T h en t h e b endin g m o ment at

,
.
t h e p o int a will b e represented by the length of a b

’
drawn para l lel t o A B .

E xa mp l e A c antile ve r p roj e cts 4 ft and c arrie s a .
uniformly dist rib u ted lo a d of 8 cwts alon g the upper .
ed ge D etermin e the ma x im u m b endin g moment and

.
,
also dr a w a di a gr a m from which th e b endin g moment

at any se ction a lon g th e len gth of the c an tilever may
b e determine d .
A lo ad arran ged as shown in Fi g 5 8 is e q u ivalent .
to a con centrated lo a d o f 8 cwts actin g in t h e middle

.
o f th e len gth i e 2 ft from the point o f supp ort

,
. . . T he .
m a xim u m b endin g mo m ent will t h erefo re b e

8 X2: 16 ft .
-
cwts .
Fi g 5 8 i s the dia gr a m from w h i c h t h e

. b endin g mo
m ent at any section may b e determined . The l o a d i s
s u p p osed divided into 4 e qual p arts and ,
th e b endin g
m oment d u e t o e a ch p art is drawn t o s cale on the verti
ca T h e w eigh t o f
l l ine A E a c ts at 3 6 from A
. Z ’
and th e m axi mum b endin g m o ment due to

7 f t cwts Draw A B 7 units l o n g S i m ilarly t h e
.
-
. .
,
maxi mum b endin g m om ent due to ft .
c wts and is represented by B C ; max imum b endin g

.
,
F ig . 59 . F ig . 60 .
F ig . 62 . F ig . 63 .
m o m ent d u e t o f t cwts , represente d by .

-
.
C D ; maxi mum b endin g m o m ent due t o

ft cwt represented by D E T h e m aximu m b endin g
.
-
.
, .
m om ent due t o t h e t o tal lo ad is t h eref o re

2 1 6 f t cwts and is represented by A E
.
-
.
,
Draw a ver .
ti c al l ine thro u gh t h e centre o f e ach p art o f t h e l o ad

and c omplete t h e triangles A a B B b C C c D D d E , , ,
.
Draw an even c urve t o uching the lines E d D c C b , , ,
B a T h is c urve is a parab ola The b endin g moment

. .
re ct an gular w o o den b eam is direct l y prop o rtional to
t h e bre a dt h in inc h e s multiplied by t h e square o f t h e
d ept h in i n c h es and inversely proportion al to t h e
,
len gt h in feet O f c ourse t h e n ature of t h e material

.
i s a l so an important factor sinc e ti mb er , even o f t h e ,
s a m e kind varies in strength to a c o nsiderable extent

, ,
.
E a c h b e a m t h erefore h as wh at is c alled a natural con

s t a n t whi ch must b e consi dered in the c alculation o f
,
its c arryin g c apac ity To obtain t h is constant it is .

,
usual t o take a b ar of similar wo od 1 inc h square in ,
se ction and l o n g enough to al l ow o f its b ein g placed

,
on supp o rts 1 fo o t a p art T h e c onstant is the wei g h t .
o f t h e Central lo ad whic h is j ust su fficient to break

.
the b ar Th e c o nst a nt may b e e x pressed in lbs cwts

. .
,
.
,
tons etc and th e c arryin g c apa c ity will alw ays b e in

,
.
,
t h e same terms T h e fol l owin g c onstants (in cwts )

. . .
m a y b e adopted for t h e purposes of c a l cu l ati o n : oak ,
as h and p itc h pine 5 ; red de al red p in e and b eech 4 ;

, , ,
r
white and ye l l o w p ine 3 ,
.
Anot h er i mpo tant c onsideration i s t h e rati o w h i ch

“ ”
t h e b re akin g load of a b e a m b ears t o th e safe l o ad
r
.
T h is rati o is c alled t h e f a c t o of s af ety and it s value ,
depends upon wheth er the load is a live— a c onstantly “
,
r
movin g— l o ad o a de ad (i e a stati on ary ) l o ad The . .
, .
factor o f safety for a dead load is usua ll y t aken at 5 ,
whi c h me ans t h at t h e safe l o ad upon a b e am must n o t

ex c eed o n e fi f th o f t h e breakin g l o ad ; t h e fact o r o f
r
-
safety f o a live lo ad i s often taken at 1 0 .
For b ea m s supp orted at b ot h ends t h e f o r mula
u sed for the pu r

z
bd
W :
c
ma y b e p oses of c a l cu l a
tion when
M E C H AN I C S OF C ARP E NT RY 35 1
W z b rk i ea n g r
w ei ght o m axi m um c arryin g c ap acity
o f a c entrally lo ade d b e a m expresse d in the ,
same t erms a s t h e c onstant

r
,
bz b e a d th of t h e b e am in inche s ,
dz d e p t h of the b eam in inc h es ,
L : l e n g t h of the b eam in fe et ,
cz t h e c onst ant found by experiment as describe d

r
,
ab ove and expressed in terms of lb s o cwts

,
. .
Toill u strate the ab o ve form u la t ak e two p ie ce s o f ,
the same kind of wo od say 7 ft l o n g 6 in wide and 2 .

,
.
in thick Pl a c e one of t h ese piec e s flat a nd the ot h er

. .
,
on on e ed ge th e dist anc e b etween the s upp orts in e a c h

,
c ase b ein g 6 ft As t h e c onstant is th e sa m e in b o th

.
(say 5 the c arryin g c apa city of e ach w ill b e

Z
bd C
th e W=
.
ex pre s s e d by form u l a
L
fo r
th e fl a t b ea m , W
fo r
th e on e on e dg e ,
W= 2 X 6X 6X 5
6
and t h e relative stren gt h s wi ll b e a s o as r

When it i s ne c essary to find o t h er ter m s t h an W
r
,
b 2
g
0
th e e quati o n W _
m a y b e exp essed as f o ll ows
b d zc WL WL y li
w
. z
0
z ’ ’ 2
d o bc bd
T h e v a lue of W fo ra d i tr
ib t s u ed l oa d i s twi c e th at
ra c onc entrate d 2b
f}
2
C
fo l o ad i ,
. e .
,
W Wh en the
ends are fix ed t h e c arryin g c apa city is inc rea se d by
ab out on e h a lf -
.
3 52 M O D ER N CARP E NTRY
Fo r
safe c entral lo ads the form u la W is u sed
F b ein g t h e fact o r of safety .
E xa m p le 1 Find t h e m axi m u m c arryin g c ap acity

.
o f a c entral l y lo ade d w o oden b eam o f pitc h pine 13 ,
ft l o n g (1 2 ft b etween t h e supports ) 1 0 in wide

. .
,
.
,
and 6 in t h i c k (1 ) when placed on edge ; (2 ) when

.
,
p lac ed fl at Assu m e a constant of 5 cwts

. .
Applyin g t h e for mula

b d zc 6X 1 0X 1 0X 5
1 O>( 6X 6X 5
E xa mp l e 2 . Wh at would b e t h e m aximum safe lo ad

t o w h ic h
. t h e b eam in E x 1 m a y b e subj ected (1 ) as a
.
c entral lo ad ; (2 ) as a unif o r mly distribute d l o ad ?

r
F o r mul a f o safe c entral lo ad usin g a fa c tor o f safety
o f 5 is ,
S a fe e tra l
c n l oa d
6X 1 0X 1 0>< 5
1 2X 5
6X 6X 5
1 2X 5
3 0 c wt s . fo r
be a m p l a ce d fl a t .
r
F o r m u l a f o safe centra l load usin g a fa c t o r of safety
usin g fa c to r of safety o f 5 is ,
Sa fe d i s tr
ibut d e l oa d =
2 X 6X 1 0X 1 0>< 5
1 2X 5
—1 00 cw s t . fo r
b ea m on e dge ,
2 X 1 0>< 6X 6>< 5
1 2X 5
7WL F
_
400
5X5
‘
5c
r
=n ea ly 8
5X
—
;
88
i n ch e s
'
Th e stren gth o f fl it c h e d girders m a y b e c alculated

by c onsiderin g t h e w o oden b ea m and ir o n fl it c h sep a
r a t e ly The t h i ckness o f t h e fl it ch is us u al l y ab out
r
.
1 1 2 t h at of t h e wo o den b ea m T h e c onstant f o
r
-
.
'
wr o ug h t i on is 2 5 cwts .
D e fl e ctio n
. I n arran gin g b eams it is ne c essary t o
c o nsider not merely t h e stren gth of th e b e am b u t als o
r
,
its liab ility or otherwise t o b e b ent out of sha p e— o

d e fl e c t e d —by t h e l o ad pla c ed up on it ; sinc e a b e am
w h ic h is overl o aded and b ent to a large extent h as the
fib res strained and theref o re p ermanently weakened .
T h e resist an ce which a b eam o ff ers to defle ction is

c a l l e d its sti ff n ess. I t S h o u ld b e n oticed that the
“ ” “
str o n gest b eam is not ne cessarily th e sti ff e st nor ,
t h e stiffest b e am the stron gest .
I t is o f i mportan c e to b e ab le t o determine t h e cross

se c ti ons of t h e stron gest and t h e sti ff est b ea ms e s pe c r
t iv e ly whi c h c a n b e c u t fro m a given lo g .
S uppose th e l o g is o f c ircular cross se c tio n -
(a ) T o find t h e cross section of t h e str on gest b eam

-
Draw a diameter A B (F ig 64 ) a nd divide it into 3

r
.
equa l parts at 1 and 2 Fr o m 1 and 2 draw p e p e n

r
.
d ic ul a s t o AB cuttin g the c irc u mferen ce at C and D

respective l y Join ACBD Th e rect a ngle ACB D is the
. .
s ection re qu ir e d .
M E C HAN I C S OF C AR P E N TRY 3 55
r
(b ) To fi n d t h e c oss se ction of the stiffest b e am
-
D ivide the diameter AB (Fi g 65 ) into 4 e q u al p a rts .

.
at 1 2 3 and draw 1 0 and 3D per p endic u lar to AB

, , , ,
and cuttin g th e c ir cumferen c e in C and D re sp ectively .
Th e rectan gle ACBD is the secti on re q u ired .
S inc e the stren gt h of a b e a m is proportioned to

b
g
2
and t h e val u e of th i s fract i o n I n cre ases as d
incre ases when b d (i . e .

,
th e se ction a l a re a ) rem a ins
F ig . 64 . F ig . 65 .
c o nstant the str o ngest b e am o f any given se ctional

,
are a would b e th at of gre ate st depth if the tenden c y

t o b ucklin g c o u ld b e avo ided I n the c ase of floo r
r
.
j o ists the ratio of depth to bre a dth is often a s o
even and th e tendency to b ucklin g is overc o me by

struttin g The stron gest b e a m is th a t which h a s th e
.
de p th to th e br e a dth a s
P u ll e ys . It
is nec essary t o c onsider o n e o t w o s im r
p l e arran gements by w h i c h pu l l eys are use d for h o ist
ing purposes I n the f o llowin g exa mp l es the fri c tion

r
.
will f o the s a ke o f si mplic ity b e ne glecte d alt h o ug h,
in pra c tic e it mu st b e taken into a c c ount Fi g 66 . .
ill u strates t h e simplest a pplic ation of t h e p u l l ey I t is.
F ig . 66 . F ig . 67 .
plain t h at w h en the forc e s actin g o n t h e pu ll ey are in

equi l ibrium they are equal and th e only advantage
r
,
gained is in th e ch a n ge o f directi on o f the f o rc e e

q u ired to b alanc e W Therefore in this exa mple P W
.
z .
I n Fi g 67 th e force b a lancin g P is th e tension o f

.
th e c ord A which is e qua l to th a t of B The s u m of

, .
r
S p e c i fi c G a v ity Th e s p e cifi c
r rr
.
g a v ity, o e l a t iv e d e n s it y, of a
r
b ody is th e a t io of th e we igh t of
t h a b dy
t w i h
t o th e g t of a n qua l
f w a t rT h us
o e e
vo lu me O e . a b lock o f
wo od weighin g 40 lb s per cub ic foot
.
40
h as a sp ec ific gr a vity of
(since a cub ic fo o t of water w ei ghs
Wh en a b ody fl o a ts in water and ,
is therefore in equilibrium th e ,
wei ght o f the b ody is b alan ce d by

a n eq u al upward reac tion t h e ,
we ight of the w ater displa ce d b ein g

equal to t h e total wei ght of t h e
flo ating b o dy .
Ex a m p le A blo ck of wo od 9 x 9
.
x9 fl o ats in water with its u pp er

surface ab o ve t h e surfa c e o f the
water Find its spec ific gr avity
.
? 12
6
of t h e b l o ck is submerged .
By definition t h e spec ifi c gravity

,
of t h e w o o d is t h e rati o o f t h e
F ig 7 0
:
weight o f any p ortion o f t h e b l o ck
t o t h e we ig h t of a n equal volume o f water Consider .
the part of t h e b l o ck b e low th e surfac e of t h e water .
Wei ght of submer ged p art of wo od

Wei g h t of disp l ac ed wate r
Wei ght of submerged p art o f wood
Wei g h t of who l e b lo c k
V o lume o f subm er ged p art of wo od

V o l u me of wh ole b lo ck
13
18
In a ddition t o th e f o re go in g
h a ve tho u ght it e s
I
r
s e n t ia l t o add th e foll o win g speci al note s which are
t h e esults o f a c tual exp eriments and which will I

am sure app e al to the Am eri can w orkmen e s p ecially
, ,
, ,
t h o se wh o are lo c ate d in t h e We st w h ere timb er is yet

,
often employe d in he avy str u ct u res .
S TR E N GTH O F TIM B E R .
P rp o t io n I T h e stren gth s of the di ff erent p ie c e s

os i .
o f ti m b er e ac h of t h e sam e len gth and th ickness are

, ,
in p rop o rtion t o t h e sq u are of th e depth ; b u t if the

t h ickness and dept h are b oth t o b e c o n s id e e d then
'
r ,
t h e stren gth wi l l b e in pro p orti on t o the sq ua re of th e

dept h multipli ed into t h e th ickness ; an d if all th e
,
t h re e dimensions are t ak en j o intly t h en t h e wei ghts ,
t h at wil l b re ak e ach w ill b e in p r o portion to the square

o f the depth multiplied int o the thickne s s and divide d ,
by t h e len gth ; this i s p roved by th e do ctrine of me

c h a n ics H en c e a true rule w ill appe ar f o p roportion
. r
in g t he stren g th o f timb ers t o on e anot h er .
Ru le M ultiply t h e square of the dept h of e ac h pi e c e

.
o f ti mb er int o t h e thickness ; and e ach p roduct b e i n g
d ivided by t h e respe c t ive len gths wi l l give t h e pro

,
p o rtion al stren gth o f e ach .
E xa m p l e S upp ose t h ree pi e c es o f timb er of th e

.
,
f o ll o win g dimensi o ns
T h e first 6 inch es de ep , 3 inches thick a nd 1 2 fe et
, ,
lon g .
T h e se cond 5 inche s deep 4 inche s thick a nd 8 feet
, , ,
lon g .
T h e third 9 inc h es deep 8 inch es thi ck a nd 1 5 fee t

, , ,
lon g T h e co mp arative wei ght t h at will bre a k e a ch

.
p iec e is re quired .
An s . 9 and 43 1 5
, .
Theref o re t h e w e ig h ts that will break e a ch are

nearly in pr o portion t o the n u mb ers 9 1 2 and 43 , , ,
leavin g ou t t h e fractions in w h ic h y o u will ob serve

, ,
t h at t h e nu mber 43 is alm o st 5 t imes the n u mb er 9 ;

t h eref o re the t h ird p iec e o f timb er wil l al m o st b ear 5
times as muc h wei g h t as t h e first and th e se c o nd pi ece ,
ne arly onc e and a t h ird the wei ght o f the first piece ; .
b ec ause the nu mb er 1 2 is o nc e and a t h ird gre a ter

than t h e numb er 9 .
T h e ti mb er is su p p osed t o b e everyw h ere of t h e same

texture o therwise these c alculati ons c ann o t h old tr u e
,
.
P ro p osition I I Give t h e length bre a dth and de p th

.
, ,
o f a piec e of ti mb er ; t o find t h e dept h of another pi ece
wh o se len gt h a nd bre adth are given so that it sh all ,
b ear t h e sa m e we ig h t as the first pie ce or any n u mb er ,
o f times more .
R u le M ultiply th e square of the de p th of the fi rst

.
pie c e i n t o its b re adt h and divide t h at pr o duct by its

,
len gth : multiply th e quotient by th e n u mb er of time s

as y o u wou l d h ave t h e o t h er piec e to c arry more wei g h t
t h an t h e first and m ultiply t h at by t h e l en gt h of th e
,
“
l ast pie ce and divide it by it s widt h ; o u t o f this last

,
quotient extract the sq u are root w h i ch is the de p th ,
req u ired .
E xamp l e I S uppose a p iec e o f ti mb er 1 2 fee t lon g

. ,
6 inches de ep 4 in c h es t h ick ; another piece 2 0 fe et

,
fe et lon g 6 inche s deep ; re quired t h e t h ickness s o
, ,
t ha t the last p iec e may b ear fo u r times as m u ch w ei ght

a s the first piec e .
An s inches
r
. .
P op os iti on I V I f the stress do es not lie in th e

.
midd l e o f the ti mb er but ne a rer t o o n e end t h an the

,
o the r t h e stren gth in the m iddle wil l b e t o t h e stren gth

,
in any other p art o f t h e ti mb er a s 1 divided by t h e ,
square of half t h e l en gt h i s t o 1 divided by t h e re c t

an g le o f the t wo se g ments whic h are parted by t h e
.
we ight .
E xa m p l e 1 S uppose a p iec e o f ti mb e r 2 0 feet l on g

.
,
t h e depth and w idt h is i mm aterial ; suppose t h e stress

o r wei g h t to lie five feet distant fr o m on e o f its ends ,
c onseq u ently fro m t h e other end 1 5 fe et then th e ab ove ,
1 1 1 1
p ort i o n Wi l l be as the
10 X 10 1 00 5 X 15 75
stren gt h at five feet from t h e end is to t h e stren gt h
at t h e m i ddl e ,
o rten feet ras ,
o
100
1 00
1 00
75
1
1
5
.
H enc e it appe ars t h at a piec e ti mb er 2 0 feet l o n g of
is o n e t h ird stron ger at 5 feet dist a n c e f o t h e b e arin g

-
r ,
t h an it is in t h e m iddle w h ich is 1 0 fe et w h en cut in , ,
t h e ab o ve pr o porti on .
Ex a m p l e II S upp o se a pie ce o f ti mb er 3 0 feet l o n g ;

.
let t h e weig h t b e app l ied 4 feet distant fr o m o n e end

o r m o re properly from th e plac e w h ere it takes its
b earin g then from t h e other end it wi l l b e 2 6 feet
, ,
1 1
“
15 X 15 2 25 4 x 26
o r
as 1
2 25
15 11
2
17
16 4
o r
ne arly 2
H en c e it appe ars that a p ie c e tim b er 30 fe et l on g of

-
will b e ar d o u b le the wei ght and o n e sixt h m o e at ,

-
r
,
f o ur feet dist anc e from on e end th a n it wil l do in t h e ,
middle whi ch i s 1 5 fe et distant

,
.
E xa mp l e I II Allow in g t h at 2 66 p o unds will b re ak

.
a b e a m 2 6 inches lon g re quireth the wei ght t ha t will

,
break the same b e am wh en it lies at 5 inc h es from

eith er end ; then th e dist a nc e to th e other end i s 2 1
inches ; 21 X 5 1 05 the h alf of 2 6 inche s is
:
,
: 1 69 ; therefore th e stren gth at t h e m iddle o f th e

p iec e i s to the stren gth a t 5 inch es from the end a s ,
1 69
16 9
:
69
1—
1 03
o ras 1
1 69
1 05
the p r
o rt on
po i 18 stated thus 1
—
—
1 69
1 05
: Ans .
From t h is c alculati on it a pp e a rs th a t r a ther more ,
than 42 8 p ounds will break the b eam at 5 inc h es dis

t a nc e from on e of its ends if 266 p o u nds wi l l b re ak ,
th e s a me b e a m in th e middle .
By similar p ro p o sitions t h e sc antlin gs of any t imb er

m ay b e c om pu ted s o th at th ey shall sust a in any given
r
,
wei ght ; f o if th e w ei g h t on e piec e w ill sust ain b e

known with its dim ensions the w ei g h t that another
, ,
p ie ce will sust ain of a fiy given di m ensions may also

, ,
b e comp u ted Th e re a der must ob serve t ha t althou gh

.
,
th e fore goin g r u les a re m a th ematic ally tru e yet it is ,
imp ossib le to a c c o un t for knots cross grained w oo d ,

-
& c s u ch p ie ces b ein g n ot s o stron g as t h ose w h ich are

.
,
s trai ght in th e gr a in ; and if c are i s not t aken in

cho osin g the timb e r for a b ui ldin g so th at the grain ,
o f the timb ers r u n n e a rly eq u al to on e another all ,
ru les wh ich c a n b e laid dow n will b e b affle d a nd c on ,

3 64 MOD E R N CARP E N TRY
se quently all r u les for ju st p ro p ortion will b e u seless
in resp e ct t o its strengt h I t will b e impossible h ow
r
.
,
ever to esti m ate t h e stren gth of t imb e r fi t f o any

r
,
buildin g o t o h ave any tr u e knowled ge of its p ro p or

,
ti o ns wit h out so m e rule ; as w ithout a r u le everythin g

r
,
must b e d one by mere c onj ect u e .
T i mb er is much we akene d by its o wn wei ght ex cept ,
it stands perpendicular which will b e s h own in th e ,
foll o win g pr o blems ; if a mortice is t o b e c u t in t h e

side of a p ie c e o f timb er it will b e m u c h less weak ,
en ed when cut ne ar t h e t o p t h an it wi l l b e if c u t at ,
t h e b o tt om pr o vided t h e tenon is driven hard in t o

,
fi ll up th e m o rtic e .
The b endin g o f timb er w il l b e n e arly in p rop o rti o n

to th e wei g h t t h at is laid on it ; n o b eam ou g h t to b e
r
truste d f o any l o n g time with ab ove on e t h ird or one -
fo u rt h p art of t h e weight it will ab sol u tely c arry

for experi ment proves that a far less w ei g h t will
,
b re a k a pie ce o f timbe r w h en h u n g t o it for any c on

r
s id e a b l e time t ha n wh at is s u ffi c ient t o bre ak it w h en
,
first applied .
P rob l e m I . H avin g t h e l en gth and wei ght

a b eam of
that c an j u st s u pport a given weig h t to find the l en gth ,
of another b e am of the sa m e s c antling t ha t shall j u st

break with its own wei ght .
L et l z th e len gth o f the first b e a m ,
t he lengt h of t h e se c ond ;
a z th e w ei ght of t h e first b eam ,
wz t h e a dditional wei ght that will b reak it .
And b ec au se the wei ghts th a t will bre a k b e a ms of

s a me sc a ntlin g are re ci p ro c ally a s their len gths ,
And b e c ause t h e w ei g h ts that wi l l bre ak similar b ea ms

are as the sq u ares of t h eir len gths ,
2w+ a 2
2 x >< w -
ax
2
2
2d
the w e i ghts of similar b e a m s are as the c ub es of t h eir

correspondin g sides
H en c e d 3
x
3
a
a x 2x w+ x
2
a
2
a x = 2 wd + a d
2d 3
2d
a : a +2w d x = th e depth re qu ired .
As t h e wei g h t of th e lesser be a m is to th e we ig h t o f
the lesser b e am to gether w ith the additional wei ght ,
so is the de p th o f the lesser b eam to the de p th of the

greater b e a m .
Not e —An y other c orre s p o ndin g sides will a nswer

’
the s a me p ur p ose for they are all pro p ortione d to one

,
a nother .
E xa mp l e S up p ose a b eam whose weight I s on e

.
pound and its len gth 1 0 feet t o carry a wei ght o f

, ,
pounds re quire d the len gth o f a b eam similar

,
t o the f o r m er of th e same m atter s o th at it shall bre ak

, ,
with its own we ight .
here a l z
a nd W: 3 99 5 .
then a + 2 w : 8 00 _
Then by the last p rob lem it will b e

x for the len g th of a b e a m th a t will b re a k by its own
w ei g h t
.
M E C HAN I C S OF CAR P E NTRY 367
P rbl m III
o Th e wei ght and length of a p iec e of
e .
t imb er b ein g given and additi on al weight th a t will ,
b reak it to find the len gth of a pie c e o f timb er similar

,
to the f o rmer so t h at t h is last pi e c e of t imb er shall b e

,
the stron gest p ossib le

Put l: th elen gth of the p ie c e given
wz h a lf its w e i ght ,
W z t h e wei ght th at will b re ak it ;

x z t h e len gth re quired .
Then b e c ause t h e wei ghts t h at wi l l b re ak si milar p ie ce s

,
o f timb er are in proportion to the squares of t h eir
len gths ,
l 2
x
2
W+ w th e whole weight that
b reaks t h e b eam ;
an d b ec a u se the w ei ghts of similar b e a ms a re a s th e
c ub es o f their lengths or any other c orres p ondin g ,
s id es ,
3
3 3
then 1 x w the weight of the beam ;
WX 2
WX 3
; Xv
c o nsequently
g s the we i g ht t h at breaks
.
th e be a m z a m aximu m ; therefore its fl e x ion i s n o t h in g .
that is ,
2 Wx x + 2 wx x n o thin g .
2W 2w
3 vvx
l
th e r
f rx
e o e ,
1X
W
H enc e it a pp e a rs from the fore goin g prob lems that
lar ge ti mb er is we akened in a m u ch gre ater prop o r
tion than sm a l l ti mb er, e v e n in s imil a r p ie ce s ther e ,
fore a prop er a llowanc e m u st b e m a de for th e we ight
o f t h e piece s as I sh a ll here show by an
r
,
E x a mp l e
. S upp ose a b e a m 1 2 fe e t l on g a n d a foot ,.
square whose weight is t h ee hundred po u nds to b e

, ,
c ap ab l e o f s u pportin g 2 0 h un dred wei ght what w ei ght ,
wi ll a b eam 2 0 feet l on g 15 inc h es dee p and 1 2 th ick

, , ,
b e able t o s u pp ort ?
12 square inch es
12
1 2 ) 1 728
B ut th e wei ghts of both b e a ms a re a s thei so lid r con
t ents
therefore 12 inc h es square

12
1 44
1 44 inc h es : 12 feet lon g
207 3 6 so lid c ontents of the 1 s t b e am

by prop . 1 .
21 cwt 5 6 lb s i s t h e wei ght that will bre ak t h e first

. .
b e am and 2 0 cwt 1 7 lb 8 o z t h e weig h t t h at will

,
. . .
bre ak the se c ond b e am ; de duct out of t h ese h a l f t h eir

own wei ght .
20 : : 1 7 : 8
h alf
N ow 2 0 cwt is t h e additional wei ght that will bre ak

.
th e first b e am ; and 1 7 cwt 3 l b 8 oz th e wei g h t th at

. . .
will bre ak t h e se cond : in w h i c h t h e e ader will o b

serve that has a much l ess pro p ortion to 2 0
r
, ,
t h an 2 0 cwt 1 7 lb 8 oz h as t o
. . From these
.
examples th e reade r may see that a proper allowanc e

,
o u g h t to b e m a de for all horizontal b e ams ; t h at is half ,
th e w e i ghts of b e ams o u g h t to b e dedu c ted o u t of t h e

whole w eig h t that t h ey will c arry and th a t will give ,
the wei g h t t h at e ac h piec e wil l b e ar .
I f several p ie c es o f timb er o f the same sc antlin g and

len gth are applied one ab ove anot h er and supported ,
by pr op s at e a c h end t h ey wi l l b e no str o n ger than if

r
,
t h ey were laid side by side ; o t h is whi c h is t h e same ,
t h in g the p iec es that are applie d on e ab ove an o ther

,
are n o stron ger than on e single p ie c e wh o se width is

t h e width of t h e several pi ec es c o lle c ted into on e a n d ,
its dept h t h e dept h of on e of t h e pi e c es ; it is there

f o re useless to cut a pie c e of timb er lengthways and ,
app l y t h e p ie c es s o c ut one ab ove an o t h er for th ese ,
p iec es are n ot so stron g as b efore even if b olted , .
E xamp l e . S upp o se
a girder 1 6 inches deep 1 2 in ,
ches t h ick t h e len gt h is i mm ateri a l and l e t t h e depth

, ,
b e cut len gt h ways in two e qual p ie c es ; then wil l e ach

p iec e b e 8 inc h es deep and 1 2 in c hes thick Now
,
“
.
,
a cc o rdin g t o t h e rule o f prop o rtionin g ti mb er th e ,
square of 1 6 inc h es th at is th e dept h b ef o re it was

, ,
c ut
,
is 2 5 6 and t h e square of 8 inche s is 64 ; but twic e
,
.
64 i s only 1 2 8 therefore it appe ars t h at the t w o pi e c es

,
app lied on e ab ove anoth er are b ut h alf the stren gth ,
o f t h e s o lid p ie c e b e c ause 2 5 6 is doub le 1 2 8

,
.
I f a girder b e cut len gthways in a p e rp endi c ular

dire c tion, th e ends turn ed c ontrary and t h en b olte d ,
to gether it will b e b u t very little stron g er th a n b e for e

,
-
r
it was c u t ; f o alt h ou g h th e ends b ein g turned give to
t h e girder an equal strength t h roughout yet wherever ,
a b olt is t h ere it will b e we aker and it is very doub t

r
, ,
ful whether t h e girder wi l l b e any stron ger f o this

pro c ess o f sawin g and b o l tin g ; and I s ay t h is from ex
r
p e ie n ce .
If there are two p iec es o f ti mb er of an e qual scant

lin g t h e on e Iyin g h o rizontal and t h e ot h er inc l ined
, , ,
t h e horizontal pie c e b ein g supp orte d at t h e po ints

e and f and t h e inc line d pie c e at c and d p e p e n d i r
r
, ,
c u l a l y over e and f a cc ordin g t o t h e princip l es of

,
me c h anic s t h ese p iec es wil l b e e qual l y str o n g But

,
.
,
to re ason a little o n t h is m atter let it b e c o nsidered , ,
that alt h o ug h t h e inclined piec e D is l o nger yet t h e ,
w eig h t h as l ess e ff ect upon it w h en pla c ed in th e

midd l e than t h e wei g h t at h h as up o n t h e h o rizontal
,
p ie c e C t h e wei g h ts bein g t h e sa m e ; it is t h erefore

,
reasonab l e t o con clude t h at in t h ese p ositi o ns t h e on e

,
will b ear e qual t o t h e ot h er .
T h e f o re goin g ru l es wil l b e f o un d o f exc e l l ent u se

w h en timber is wanted t o supp ort a gre at w eig h t ; f o r
,
by knowin g t h e superincu mb ent wei gh t t h e stren gth ,
m ay b e c o mpute d t o a gre at de gre e o f exa c tness s o

.
,
t h at it s h all b e ab le t o supp o rt t h e wei g h t re quired .
T h e c o nsequenc e is as b ad w h en t h ere is t oo mu c h tim

b er as w h en t h ere is to o l ittle f o not h in g is m ore
, ,
r
re quisit e t h an a j ust proportion t h r o ug h o ut t h e w h ole
b uildin g s o t h at t h e stren gth o f every p art s h a l l a i
,
w ays b e ih prop o rtion t o t h e stress ; for w h en t h ere is

m ore strengt h given to s o m e p iece s t h an ot h ers it ,
e nc u mb ers t h e b uildin g and c o nsequent ly t h e f o un d a

,
tions a re less c ap ab le of s upp ortin g th e su p erstr u cture .

M O D ER N CARPEN TR Y
But th en ob serve th a t it is b est to truss girders whe n
,
they a re fresh s a wn ou t for by their drying and ,
shrink ing t h e trusses b ec o m e more a nd more ti ght

r r
.
,
Th a t all b eams o ties b e c u t o in framin g f o rced ,
t o a ro u ndness s u ch as an inch in twenty fe et in

r
,
l ength and t ha t princip a l rafters also b e cut o forc ed

,
in framin g as b efore ; b e c ause all j oists t h oug h ever

, ,
s o well framed by the s h rinkin g of the timb er and

,
weig h t of the coverin g wil l sw a g sometimes so much ,
a s not only t o b e visib le b u t to o ff end t h e eye : by

,
t h is pre c a u tion the truss w ill a lw a ys app e a r well .
ikewise ob serve th a t all case b a ys e ither in floors

~
L
r
-
, ,
o ro o fs do n o t ex ceed twelve feet if possib le ; that is

, ,
d o n ot let your j o ints in fl o ors e x cee d twe l ve feet nor ,
yo u r p u rlins in roofs & c b ut rather let their b earin g

r
.
, ,
be ei ght nine o ten fe et This sh o uld b e re garded

, ,
.
in formin g th e pl a n .
Also in b ridgin g fl o ors do not pl a c e yo u r b indin g

r
, ,
o stron g j oists ab ove t h ree four or five feet ap art , , ,
and take c are th a t yo u r bridgin g o f c o mmon j o ists are

n o t ab ove twelve o r
fourte en inches ap art t h at is b e , ,
tween on e j oist a nd another .
Also in fittin g down t ie b e a ms up on the w a ll p l a tes

,
-
never make yo u r c o ckin g t oo l a r ge nor yet to o near ,
t h e o u tside of th e wall plate for t h e grain of the wo od ,
b ein g cut a cross in th e tie b eam t h e pi ec e that remains

-
up o n its end will b e apt to spl it o ff but keep in g it ,
n e ar the inside will tend t o se c u re it .
L ikewise Ob serve n ever t o make doub le tenons for

r
,
b e ar in g uses suc h as b indin g j oists co mmo n j oists o

r
, , ,
pu rlins ; f o in the first plac e it very mu c h weakens

, ,
wh a tever y ou fr a me it into a nd in t h e sec ond p l a ce , ,

it i sa r a rity to h a ve a dra u ght to b oth tenons th a t i s

,
, ,
to dr a w b oth j oists clo s e ; for the p in in p assin g thro u gh

;
b oth tenons if th er e is a dr au ght in each will b end

, ,
s o m u ch th at u nless it b e a s tough a s wire it m u st

, ,
n ee ds bre a k in drivin g a nd c onse q u ently do more h u rt

,
than go o d .
Roots w ill b e much stron ger if the pu rlins a re

notche d ab ove the p rinci p al r a fters tha n if they are
r
,
frame d int o th e side of th e princi p als ; f o by this

m e ans when any w ei ght is app lie d in the middle o f
,
.
the purlin it c annot b end b ein g c onfine d by the other

, ,
r afters ; and if it do t h e side s of the oth er r a fters must

,
needs b end alon g with it ; c onsequently it ha s th e

stren gth of a ll the Other r afters sideways added to it .
This vo lume wil l b e followe d by at le ast three m ore

rr
,
o n the s u b j e ct of Ca p e nt y a n d J oin in g on e vol u me
r
,
o f which wi ll b e devoted to F a mi n g and He a v y Tim
r r
b e ed Wo k r
The other tw o o more vol u mes will b e
.
d evoted to fine j oinin g a nd c a b inet work s o far as the ,
latter a rt c om es w ithin th e pu rvi ew o f th e j oiners ’
work .
E ach vol u m e will o f co u rse b e ill u strated with d ia

, ,
grams and w o rkin g details Th e m atter wi l l b e t ak en

.
from e x ec u ted works a nd from every avail a b le so u rce .

M O D E RN CARP E NTRY .
V OL . II .
AD V ANC E D S E R IE S .
The st u dent wi ll b e expected to read caref ully these

p apers before doing any work H is name and address
.
will require to be given on ea c h p age H e wi l l be ex .
p e ct e d to write u p the questions in a neat and in t e l l i

gent manner u sing his own langu age and style rep
, ,
resenting the answers in such a manner as wi ll b e in

t e ll ig ibl e , make a ll drawings as c lear as possib l e and ,
w h erever it c a n b e done render them in I ndia ink L e t

r
.
each answer be original d o not c opy ot h e s from t h e

r
,
instr u ction p aper n o fr om any other source

,
The .
p aper used may be of any kind p rovided t h at it is clean

,
and durable D o n ot attempt an answer un til you have

.
t h oroughl y grasped the subj e c t .
QU E S T I O N S .
1 . Give de fi niti on of the term S olid Geometry .
2 . To what pur p oses may a knowledge of S olid

Geometry be applied ?
3 . E xp lain what is meant by the horizontal p oj e c r
tion Of a n obj ect
r
.
4 S how by sketch a nd describe the vertical p oj e c

r r
.
ti on (o el evation ) and h orizontal proj ection (o p lan )

o f a tab l e in t h e midd l e o f an ob l ong room .
376
3 78 M O D E RN CAR P E NT RY
17 Wh en the traces of two intersecting planes are
given s h ow by sketches and des c ribe h ow to find the
,
angl e which the planes make between th e m .
18 . S h ow by s ketches and des c ribe h ow t h rough a

given point t o draw a per p endicu l ar to a given p l ane .
19 . S h ow by sket ches and describe how t h rough a

given point to draw a p l ane p erpendicular to a given
right line .
20 . Wh e h a right l ine is given in p roj ection and al so

the traces of a given p l ane s h ow by sket c h e s and des c ribe
,
h ow to fin d the angle w h ich the line m akes with t h e

p l a ne .
21 . S how by sket ch and describe h ow to fin d the

vertical p roj ection of a regular tetrahedron when the
horizontal proj ection is given .
22 . When a point is given in on e of the p roj ections of

a tetrahedron s h ow by sketc h and describe how t o fin d
,
the p oint on t h e ot h er proj ecti on ,
23 . When a tetrahedron and the tr a ce of a p l ane

,
(p er p endic u l ar to on e o f t h e p l anes of proj ecti on ) c ut

ting it by which it is trun c ated are given s h ow by
, , ,
sketch and describe h ow to find the p roj ection of the

section .
24 . When the p roj ections of a tetrahedron a re given ,
show by sketch and des c ribe h ow t o find the pr oj e cti ons

when inclined t o t h e h orizonta l plane in any degree .
25 . S h ow by sketch and describe how to construct

th e verti c al and h orizontal projections of a c ube t h e
r
,
axes of which a e perpendicul a r to the horizontal p l ane .
26 . S how by sk e tc h and describe how to c onstru c t

t h e p roj ections o f a regu l ar octahedron when on e of its
,
axes is p erpendicular to eit h er p l a ne of p roj ection .
27 . Wh en on e of the faces of an octahedron is given

coincident with the horizont a l p lane of p roj ection show ,
QU E S T I O N S 3 79
by sketch and describe h ow to constr u ct the p roj ections

o f the solid .
28
. When the p roj ection of on e of the f a ces of a
dodec a hedron is given in the horizontal p l ane sh ow by ,
sketches and describe h ow to constr u ct its p roj ections .
29
. When one of the faces of a dodecahedron is
given show by sketches and describe h ow to constr u c t
,
the p roj ections of t h e solid so that its a xis may b e ,
p er pendic u l a r to the horizontal p lane .
30 S how by sketches and describe h ow to in scribe

r
.
a tetr ahedron a hexahedr on o cube and a dodec a

r
, ,
h e d on in a given sphere
,
.
31
. S how by sketches and describe how to find the
vertic a l p roj ection of the cy l inder w h en t h e h orizontal ,
p roj ection the axis of whic h is p erp endic u l ar to the

,
horizontal p lane i s g i ven ,

.
32
. When the traces o f on e obliq u e pl a ne are g iven ,
s how by sketch an d describe h ow to determine t h e in
c l in a t ion of the plane to both the h o rizontal p osition
an d the verti c al p os ition .
33
. S how by sketches and describe how to c on
stru ct the p roj ections of t h e cy l inder w h en the b ase ,
and also the angl es whic h the b a s e makes with the

planes of p roj ection are given ,
.
34
. When a p oint in one o f the p roj e c tions of a cone
is gi v en show by sketches and describe h ow t o find it
,
in the other proj ection .
35
. S how by ske tc h and d e scribe a helix on a given
cyli nder .
36
. S how by sketch an d describ e a he l ix on a give n
cone.
37 When the p oint in one o f the p roj ections of the

s p here is given show by sket ches and describe how to
,
fin d it in the other p ro j ection .

38 . When the proj ections of
regul ar tetrahedron
a
are given show by sketches and describe how t o draw

r
,
t h e secti on made by a plane perpendicul a to t h e

vertical p l ane and in clined to the horizontal plane .
39 When t h e proj ecti ons of a hexagonal pyramid

r
.
a e given show by sketches and describe how to draw

,
t h e section made by a plane p erpendicular t o the verti

c a l p l ane and inclined t o the horizontal p lane .
40 . \Vhen the p roj ecti ons of an o ctagonal pyramid

are given show by sketches a n d describe h ow to draw
,
the section m ade by a vertical plane .
41. S h ow by sketches and des c rib e how to draw the

section of a cy l inder by a p l ane ob l ique t o the axis .
42 . I n how m a ny di ff erent ways may a cone be c u t

by a plane a nd describe eac h separatel y, i l lustrated by
,
sket c h .
43 . Give sketch and d e scribe how to dr aw the

s ection o f a cone made by a p l ane c utt ing both its
sides 1 e an el l ipse
,
. .
,
.
44 . Give sket ch and describe h ow to draw the secti on

o f a c one made by a plane p arallel to on e Of its sides ,
a hyperb ol a .
45 . Give sketch and describe how to dr aw the sec

tio n of a cone made by a p l an e pa r a llel to the axis i e ,
. .
,
a h ype rbol a .
46 . Give sketches and describe how to dr aw the sec

tion of a cun e oid made by a p l ane c u tting b ot h its sides .
47. Give sketches and s h ow h ow to describe the s e c

ti o n o f a cyl inder made by a c u rve c u tting the cylinder .
48. Gi v e sket c hes and show how t o describe the sec

t ion o f a s p here .
49 . S h ow h ow t o describ e the section of a n e ll ip

s oid w h en a section t h r ough t h e fi xed axis and th e ,
p osition of the l ine of the req uired section are given ,

.
382 M O D E RN CARP E NT RY
67 . S how how to fin d the covering of a right cy l in
de r .
68 S how
how to fin d the edge of th e cover ing o f a
.
cylinder wh en it is ob l iq u e in regard to the sides .
69 S how h ow to fin d the covering of a cylinder con

.
t a in e d between two ob l ique p ar all el planes .
70 S h ow h ow to find t h e covering of a semi cy l in

.
-
dric surface b o unded by two c u rved lines .
71 S h ow h ow t o find the covering of the frust um o f

.
a cone the section being made by a p lane perpendi c u l ar

,
.
t o the axis .
72 S how how t o find the c overing o f a segmental

.
dome :
73 S how h ow to find t h e covering of a semi circu l a r
.
-
dome .
74 S how h ow to find t h e covering of a semi circular

.
-
dome w h en it is required to c over t h e dome hori z onta lly

75 S how h ow to find t h e covering of an e ll iptic
.
dome .
76 S how h ow to find t h e covering boards of an

.
e ll ipsoida l dome .
77 S how how t o find the covering o f an e l li p soidal

.
dome in gores .
78 S h ow how to describe the c overing Of a n e ll ip

.
s oid a l dome with h o rizonta l boards o f equ a l wi dth .
79 S h ow h ow to find the covering o f a n annul ar

"
vault .
8 0 S how h ow t o find the covering o f an ogee dome

.
hexagonal in p l an
r
.
81 S how h ow to find the exact stre t ch out o length

r
.
o f a straig h t line that shall equal t h e q u adrant o a

sem i circ l e
-
.
82 S h ow h ow to fi n d the miters for inters e ctin g

r
.
s tr a i ght a nd circ u l a moul din gs .

QU E S T I O N S 383
83 . S how h ow
to find the f o rm of a spring o solid r
mo u lding on a ny rake without the u se of either ordi
r
n ates o centers .
84 S how by sketch and describe what is meant by

.
the p roj ection of a solid

r
.
85 . sides of a sq u are ba wh ich ma y be

G iven t h e
any lengt h the bar to stand perpendicular and p ass
,
t h rough an inclined plank sh ow on the s u rface o f ,
plank the sha p e of a m ortise that shall exactly fit the

b ar .
86 S how
by sketch and describe the mode of con
r
.
r
s t u ct in g a bracketing ceiling under a r o of .
8 7 Give sketch of a six p aneled c ei l ing and desc ibe -
the best way of makin g p anelled ce i l ings

r
.
88 S how p l a n and section for a c enter suitable f o

.
a p anel l ed cei l ing and des c ribe met h od o f f o rming smal l

ven t il ator for same .
89 S how
by s ketch and describe how to find the
r
.
a ngle bracket of a c ornice f o interior and exterior

r
,
otherwise e entr a nt and s a lient a ngles

-
,
.
90 . S how
by sket c h and d es cribe how to find the
angle bracket at t h e meeting of a c onc ave wall with a
-
straight wall .
91 . S how
by sketch and describe the method of fi n d
ing the angle bracket at the meeting of coves of equal
-
height but u neq u al p roj ection .
92 . S how by sketch and describe the curb a nd ribs

o f a circ u lar o p ening cutting in on a slo p ed c eiling
’
, .
93 . S how by sketch and detail h ow t o describe a

s p heric a l niche on a semi circ u lar p lan -
.
94 . S how by sketch and detail h ow to des c ribe a

niche of which both the p lan and elev a tion a re seg
ments Of a circle .
,
95 . S how
by sketch and describe how to fin d the
l en gt hs and bevel o f the ribs .
96 S how by sketch and describe a niche semi elliptic

.
-
in p l an and ele vation .
97 S how by sketch and describe how to draw the

.
ribs o f an irregu lar oct a gonal niche .
99 S h ow by sketch in do u b l e c u rvat u re work and

.
d escribe h ow to Obtain to s offit moul d for m arking the

veneer .
1 00 S how by sketch and describe how to form the

.
h ead
r
.
1 01 S how by sketch and d e s c ibe how t o obtain a

‘
developed face mould .
1 02 S how by sketch and d es cribe how to fin d the

r
.
mou l d f o t h e cot bar .
1 03 S how by sketch and describe how to fi n d th e

r
.
m o u l d f o t h e radial bars .
1 04 S h ow by sketch and describe how to m ake a

.
frame splayed lining with c ircu l ar s offi t

-
.
1 05 S h ow by sketc h and describe h ow to Obtain the

r
.
face mo u lds f o t h e s offi t stiles .
1 06 S how by sketch and des c ribe how to apply the

.
m ou l d s .
1 07 S how by sketch and describe a window Wi t h a

.
splayed soffit and sp l a yed j ambs .
1 08 S ho w by sketches and give des c ri p tion of how

.
to enlarge and di minish mou l dings .
1 09 S how by sketc h and describe method of finding

.
the tru e secti on of an incl ined mou l ding t h at is req u ired

to miter with a simi l ar horizontal moulding at its lower
end as in p e di ments o f doors and windows
,
.
“
1 10 What is meant by s p r u ng moul dings ?
.
”
111 S h ow by sketch and describe t h e m itering of

.
straight and c u rved mo u ldings togeth e r .

1 28 Describe what is meant by a sing l e h ung sash
.
-
”
and fra me window .
129 Give de s c ription of a V enetian window

. .
1 30 .G ive descri p tion o f t h e h a nging o f verti c al

sliding sashes .
1 31 Give descripti on o f a
. bay W ind ow al s o s h ow
,
sket ches of el evati on and verti c a l secti on of same .
1 32 Give des c ription of a wind ow wit h c urved h ead

.
als o ske t c h showing t h e outside and inside e l evati ons .
1 33 Give des c ripti ons of t h e t h ree ways h ow t h e

.
arch may be formed when t h e h ead of the frame has

to be c u rved .
1 34 .Give description of t h e c onstru ction of store

”
windows .
1 35 . Give sketches showing the front elevation al so

vertical and h ori z onta l s e ctio n s of a store wind ow -
.
1 36 .Give sket ch o f part o f a sash a n d frame win

dow showing panel l ed and m oulded j amb l ining etc
, ,
.
“ ”
1 37 Give description of t h e window l inin g s of
r
.
,
“ ” “ ”
the Arc h itrave o B and M ou l ding of the Grounds
“
a nd Wind ow Board ”
.
1 38 G ive des c ription of

. wind o w s h utters .
“
1 39 Give details of t h e c onstru cti on of box shut
ters .
1 40 .Give detai l s o f the c onstruction of s l iding

shutters .
141 .Give detai l s as t o the fitting of hinged sky

lights .
142 Give detai l s in the c onstruction o f

. Dormer
”
Windows .
143 .Give det a ils in the constr u ction of l a rge

skyl ights .
1 44 Give det a ils in the constr u ction of

. l a n te m
”
li ghts .
QU E S T I O N S 387
14 5 . Give details in the construction of L a y

lights .
1 46 Give des c r i ption of h ow

. Greenhouses and
Conservatories are c onstructed .
1 47 Give description of the construction of a B ay

.
window wit h so l id frame and c as e ment l ights al so , ,
sketches showing plan se c tions and elevations of same

,
.
1 48 Give description of t h e c onstruction of a cased

.
fram e b ay window al so sketc h es s h owing hal f p l an

, ,
hal f inside elevation and central vertical section of

,
same .
1 49 Give description o f a pivoted l ight and its

.
constr u c tion also sketch es of ele v ation and section o f a

,
p ivot h un g sash
-
.
1 50 . Give details of how to h ang the s a sh of a

p ivot -
l igh
151 D escribe how t o find the p osition to c u t the
r
.
“ ”
beads f o a p ivot light -
.
1 52 D escribe t h e constr u ction o f a

. b u ll s eye ’
fr a me with a p ivoted sash and give sketches of plan , ,
and section of same .
1 53 Describe the c onstru c tion and laying o u t of

.
a circu l ar louvre and give sket c hes il l ustrating same .
1 54 Give the names applied t o the di fferent kinds o f

.
doors .
1 55 What are th e e ssential qualities in the design

.
and c onstr u ction of doors ?

“
156 Describe b attened and b attened frames and
.
”
bra c ed d oo rs and give sketc h es illustrating same
1 57 Describe the construction of the p l ain b at
.
” ”
tened doo r and give sketches of the b a ck elev a tion
”
a nd vertical section of same
r
.
15 8 D escribe th e constr u ction of th e

. f a me d ba t
1 59 H ow a e
.
“
”
r
r
tened and braced d oo r and give sket c hes o f the ba ck
“
e l evation and ve tical se cti on o f sam e
r
framed o p anel l ed d oors distin
.
g u is h e d ?
1 60 .
”
What is meant by t h e term square and sunk ?
“
1 61 . What is meant by t h e term mou l ded and
”
sq u are ?
1 62 . Wh at is m eant by t h e term bead fl us h ?
-
”
1 63 . Wh at —
is m eant by t h e term bead butt ?”
“
1 64 . Wh at ”
is meant by t h e ter m raised p ane l ?
“
1 65 . Wh at is meant by t h e term t h e c h amfered
”
p anel ?
1 66 . What is meant by t h e ter m raised and flat or
”
raised and fie l de d ?
1 67 What is meant by t h e term raised sunk and
.
, ,
”
fi elded ?
1 68 Wh a t is meant by the term raised sunk and
.
,
”
moulded ?
1 69 Wh a t is meant by the term stop chamfered
.
-
“
1 70 Wh at is meant by the term bol ection mo u ld
.
”
ed ?
171 What is meant by the term double bolection
.
”
mo u lded ?
172 Give the c onstructive memoranda for doors
.
1 73 Give sketch of a p ane ll ed d oor sh owing t op and

r
.
bottom rails midd l e o l ock rail t op and bott om mun t

, ,
ing sti l e and t op p anels (on e bead and flus h ) and (one
, ,
squ a re and sunk ) and bott om pane l s (on e mou l ded and
sq u are ) and (on e bead butt ) also vertical secti o n of
d oor .
1 74 Give sket ches and describe how be a d flush

.
p anels are comm on ly made .
1 75 Describe constr uc tion of bead butt p anels

. .
1 76 D escribe constr u ction of bol e ctio n mo u ldin gs

. .
I ND E X
An Ann u l a r Va u lt 1 28
An O ge e D o m e 1 29
An gle Brack ets for Core 1 53
r
An gle Bracke t f o Curve d and S trai ght Wal l s 1 55
An g l e Br acket on a Rak e 157
A Fra m e S played L inin g 1 75
A Window with S p laye d S offi t . 1 78
An gle S as h Bars 1 87
Ax le Pulleys 21 3
A L antern L i g h t 2 33
A Bay Win d o w 23 7
A Case d Frame B ay Windo w 2 40
A Rivete d L i ght 243
A Bull s E y e Frame
’
-
247
A S e g m ent H eade d Fram e . 2 86
A S emi H e aded Fr a me
-
287
A S o lid Fram e 2 88
Arc h itrave Gro u nds 294
Arc h itr aves 2 95
A V ariety of P a nel D o ors 299 3 03
-
Br a cketin g for C ornic e s

B rackets for R e e n tr a nt An gles
-
3 92 I ND E X
B racket for Curved Cornic e

B ox in g S hutters
B alancin g S hutters
B ay Windows
B ox S h u tters
B arge Boards
B attered D oors
r
B a s e d Do ors
Be ad F l us h D o o rs
B e ad and B u tt D o ors
Bolection M oulded Do o rs .
Be ad Flush Panels
B e ad B utt Panels
B o l e c ti on M o uldings
B ed ro om D oors
-
B lind S crewin g
B lind Na ilin g
B endin g O rnaments
C ub e
Cub e Proj ection
Cub e and O ct a gon
C o ne S phere and Cy l inder
, ,
Cy l inder Con e and S phere

,
C onic S e ctions
C o nes fro m Parab o las
C o nes and Hyperb olas
C un e o id s
Cylinder S e ctions
Cylindric a l Rin gs
Cylinde r a nd S phere
394 I ND E X
D odec a h edron S olids

Devel o p men t of Coverin gs
r
Dia gram f o O b lique Cuts
D o ub l e S emi Circular M itre
-
D oub le Curvature Work

Devel o pment o f Coni c al S urfac es .
Diminis h ing o f M ou l din gs

D o ub le T en ons
D o ub le S unk Rails
Doub le H un g S as h es
D oub l e B o l ecti on M o u l de d D o ors
D ouble M argined D o ors
D o o r and Wind o w Gr o unds
D o or and Ja mb s C omp l ete
D eflection of Bea ms and Girders .
E llips o ids
E llips o i d a l
C o verin gs
E l l ipti cal D om e Coverings 2
E ll ipti c al Nic h e
E nlargin g o f M o uldings
E ntran c e Doors
E xterna l D o o rs
E xterna l D oo r Frames
Findin g Pr o j ecti on P o ints in a C o ne .
Findin g P o int o f Pr o j ecti on in S p h er e .
Findin g an E l l ips o id
rr
F us t um o f C ones
I ND E X 3 95
r
Findin g t h e S t e t ch o u t o f Curves .
Framed S played Circ u lar S offi t . .
F o ldin g S hutters
Frankin g S as h Bars
Fi x in g Window Frames
Fin i a ls
Frame d a nd Br a ced D oors
Fr a med P a neled D oors
Fr a med Grounds
r
Fo c es which Balanc e E a c h O ther . .
Given Po ints in Plane s

Gener a tin g C u rves
Gable M itres
Grounds
Greenho u ses a nd Conservator i es
r
Gro u nds f o B a se
Hor i zonta l Traces

H orizont al Proj e ction
H eli x in Cylinder
H eli x in a Cone
H elic a l Curve on S ph ere
H ex a gonal Pyramid
H ow to Cut O b lique S p outs etc,
.
H o ok Point
Hin ged S kyli ghts
Heavy Architraves
3 96
.
I ND E X
I nterse ctin g L ines

Interse c ti o n o f Curved S urfac es
Interse c t io n of Cylinders
I nterse c tin g a S p h ere and Cylinder
I nterse c ti on o f C ones
I rre gu l ar M itres
I nteri o r S h utters
I nc l ined Forc es
Joints of S a shes
L anc et Curves
L r
arge Panels f o Ceilin gs
L on g S h utters
L iftin g S hutters
L i n ings
L arge S k y L i g h ts
-
L antern L ig h ts
L ayin g O ut a Circ u lar L o uvre
L o u vre Bo ar ds
L o uvre Gains
L o aded B e ams
M itres f o rI rre gular Forms

M itres on a Rak e
M itring I rre gular M o uldin gs
M itrin g S prun g M ou l din gs
3 98 I ND E X
Proj ection o f Cylinde r

Pyramid
Prisms
r
Py am ids D evelope d
Practic al S o l u tions
Proj e ction of S o l ids
r
Paneled C eilin gs Wo od o S tuc c o
,
Partin g S trip s
Po cket Pi ec e
Position t o Cut B e ads .
Planted M o ulded D o ors

Proj ections o f D o ors
Plain J a mb L inin gs
P l inth Blo cks
Panel D o ors in V ario u s S tyles
Poly gon of Forc es
P aralle l Forc e s
P u lleys
Right L ine s
Re gular Po l y h edr o ns
Raking M o u l din g M itres
r
Rakin g Bracket f o C o rner
r
Rib s f o Circul a r Ar c h and Ce ilin g .
Ribs fo r O cta g o nal Ni c h e.
Re g u lar O cta gonal Ni c h e

Rib s for Irre gular O cta gona l N i c h e .
Radi al S ash B ars

Rakin g M o u ldin gs
Rakin g S as h B ars
Rolling S h u tters
I ND E X 399
R aised Pane l D o or
R aised and Flat D o o r
Raise d S unk and M o u l ded D oor
,
Raise d S u nk a nd M o u l ded
,
.
Rec eption Room D o ors

r
R esistant of Two o M ore Forces
Rec ipro c al D ia grams
R evolv in g D oors
S olid Geometry
S trai ght S ided S olids
-
S phere a nd T etrahedron
S phere C one and Cylinder
,
S ections of S olids
S ections o f C one s
S e ct ions of Cones from Parab olas . .
S e c tions of Cones from Hyperb ol a s .
S ections o f Cun e o id s
S ections of Cylinder
S olids of Revol u ti o n
S phere a nd Cylinder
S emi Cylindri c C overin gs
-
S pheres and E lli p soids

S pheric a l Nich e
S emi Circ u lar Nich e
-
S e g m ental Niche
S emi E l lipti c al Ni che
-
S e gment H eads
r
S tavin g f o Circular H e ads
r
S as h B ars f o C ircular
rr
s p l a y e d W o k Ci cu l a r s
400 I ND E X
S prun g M o u ldings
S hutters
S l iding S h utters
S prin g S hutters
S ize and Position o f Windows
S ashes
S as h es O penin g I n w ard
S as h e s O p ening O utward
S ash and Fra m e Wind ow
S a s hes and Window Frames
S as h es of V arious Kinds
S ingle Hun g S as h es
S lidin g S as h es
S li O p Wind o ws
S lidin g S h utters
S as h Fra m e
S ide L i ghts
-
S quare and S unk D oors

S to p Chamfered D oors
S olid M o u lded Do ors
S up erio r Intern a l D oors
S quare S houlder Rail
S u peri or D o ors
S ecret Fastenin g
S o lid D o or Fra es m
S emi Circular Frame
-
S keleton Frame
S e t o f L inings
r
S tress D ia gra m s f o Trusses .
S tren gth o f Wo oden B eams

r
.
S t iff n e s o f B ea m s .
S pe c ific Gravity
S trength of T imb e r .
402 I ND E X
Trian gle o f Forces

Tr a n s ver s e S tren gth of Wo oden Be a ms .
Vertic a l a nd H orizontal Proj ections

Vertic a l Proj e ction
V ertic al Proj e ct ion o f D o de cah edr o n
Veneerin g S offi t s
V enetian Windows
Vertic a l S a shes
Windows Generally
Window Frames
Window and S as h Fram es
-
Windows wit h Curved

Wind o ws for S h o p s
Wed ges
Window L inin gs
Window S hutters
Window Gro u nds
! uestions for
S tu dents
yo u th e t h in g s wa n t
yo u to k n o w, a n d in
r
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r
.
sim p le , p a c tic a l w a y t h a t yo u ca n un d e s t a n d
r r
O u illus t a te d ca ta logue ,which will be se n t you f e e upo n r
r r
e que s t te lls a ll a bo ut the P a c ti ca l M e c ha n ic a l B o o k s fo
,
r
Home Study tha t we publish
rr rr
.
The e a e popula p ic e d
boo ks on the O pe a tion o f r
r
t a in s a n d s ta tion wo k p a c rr
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,
tic a l me cha n i ca l d a win g a n d

ma c hin e de si gn in g pa tte n r
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ma kin g e le ct ic a l a il o a din g
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po we s ta tion s a uto mo bile s

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an ep on , ca a n
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a mus e me n ts e tc e tc
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NO ma tte wha t you a mbi

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tio n o de s i e fo kn owle dge
r r
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ma y be we publish books w itt e n b y a u t h o itie s in
r
.
t h e i d if f e e n t lin e s tha t will give yo u jus t the t a in in g a n d

r
in fo ma tion tha t you wa n t a n d n e e d .
Wr
it e t o d fo rh
t is u p t o da t e a n d c o m p l e t e illu s
rd y
rr r
a - -
t a te ca ta l o g u e a n d p o p u l a p ic e l is t It is f e e . .
FR ED ERICK J D RA KE . CO .
P UB L IS HERS O F S EL F ED UCA TIO NA L

-
B O O KS
1 3 2 5 M ic h ig a n A v e n ue C H IC A G O
P ic tu rM k in g fo r
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P le e a n d P o f it
a s u
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S T l T H B A L D WIN
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Th e k i h
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M o e n f Ph phy
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A s a te x t b oo k f r r d d m rd
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r r
-
mo s t t h o o ugh a n d pl e a s in g ma n n e
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q u i e s n e c e s s a y in f o m a t io n o f t h e A ppa
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qu i e d , t h e c o m pa a t iv e v a l u e o f
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Ko d a k s H a n d C a me a s a n d V ie w in g C a m
r r r
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e as T h e c h o ic e o f d y pl a t e s o fi l ms
.
L ik e w is e a k n o w l e d ge o f t h e C o mpo s it io n ,
L igh t in g a n d E x po s in g in L a n d s c a pe , I n
rr
t e io , H o m e P o t a it u e a n d F l a s h L igh t r
rr
P h o to gr a ph
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t ion o f t h e N e g a t iv e , a n d T o n in g F ix in g
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a n d F in is h in g o f p in t s o n m is c e ll a n e o us
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T h a n d P o f e s s io n a l
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c a e d fo in c h a p t e s o n C o e c t L ig h t in g in S t u d io P o
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t a it u e C o py in g E n l a g in g a n d R e d uc in g ; S t e e o s co pic
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P h o t o g a ph y X R a y s a n d t h e i U s e s M o v in g P ic t u e M a
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r r
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M a k in g B o m id e E n l a ge m e n t s a n d t h e S a l t in g a n d S e n s it iz
r
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in g o f pl a in pa pe s
r r
.
T o ge t h e wit h t h e s e is g iv e n a m a s s o f u s e f u l F o m ul a a n d
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T h e b o o k is m os t b e a u t it u l ly ill us t a t e d b y mo e t h a n o n e
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Z C h wi h
I M lot t S p ec ia l D e s ig n s i n G o l d , i n c l u d in g b e a u t if u l
gr r r r r
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P h ot o a v u e on o u t s id e c o v e in g o l d f a m e ; P ic e ,
S e n t p os t p a id t o a n y a dd r e s s up on ri
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, P u b l is h e rs
C H IC A G O , IL L .
A L L T E C H N IC A L TER M S A V O ID E D
r
P a ctica l Telephone Ha nd Book - a
a nd
Guide to Telephonic Excha nge
HO W TO C O N S TR U C T A ND M A IN TA IN TE L E P HO N E L IN E S
By T S . . B AL D WIN , M . A . Ill us t rd
a te .
C o n t a in in g c h a p te r Th e Us e
S r r
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e c tio n of F a ul ts in In s t ume n t s
d L in
r
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Th is is t h e b e s t b o o k p ub lis h e d
r
eve
Fa m Te l e p h o n e s
r
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th e t io n of th e pa st in
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require d and if t h ey peruse the ﬁrst volu m e of this

re ached t h e li mit T h is o f c o urse is a gre at m istake as

will readi ly b e discovere d by a gl an c e o ver t h e matter

now t h at even t h e present v o lu m e d o es n o t by any

mean s c o ver t h e w h o le subj e c t f o at le ast a h a l f d ozen

o ther vol um e s c ould b e written with out touchin g on

the other t wo a l re ady in t h e m arket and the s u bj ec t ,

It is not n ecessary for me t o quote the a ut horitie s

importanc e a s t o de m and spe cia l re c o gnition I may .

s a y however t h at in very few b ooks wri t ten durin g

th e last 25 ye ars o n t h e subj e c t of c arpentry t h ere h a s ,

b een but very litt l e presented t h at h ad n o t b een pub

i mpr o ved m o re o l ess ; and t h e present b o o k does not

s u ited t o 20th c ent u ry re quirem e n t s .

goe s out t o th e p u b lic under my n am e as auth o r I d o

n ot c l aim a utho rs h ip f o re ally it is mor e o f a c o m

p il a t ion th a n a n ori ginal work b ut I do clai m t ha t t h e

sele ctions a nd c o mpilat ions m a de a re b etter and more

c an b e found in a n y other simila work pu b lis h ed in

second introdu ction to a well known bo ok which h a s e -

ce n t ly h a d very im p ortant im p rovements a nd a nnexe s

added to the original work ; a n d the au thor ﬁnds it d ifﬁ

and the recent a dditi ons are hardly bulky eno u gh to

as being in the s a me class a s the gene al contents o f

and equal if n ot s u perior t o anything of the kind oﬁ e e d

to American workmen The most reliable indication of

the merits of a book of this kind is the o p inio n s of t h e

practic a l men who b uy s u ch books f o p ro ﬁ t a ble u se ;

take up as m u ch space a s the contents of the vol u me e

neces sa y b u t I m ay be p a rdoned for off ering a few

wh ich may p erh ap s p rove as effective a s a thou sand

I a m wel l pleased wit h your book V ol 2 ,

Carpentry I t is t h e best thing

I ever saw o f t h e kind ,

and h as h e l ped me wonderfu ll y . L O UI S D UP REY Win ,

We ﬁve of yo u r books in ou Trade Tea ch ing De r

p a t me n t an d ﬁnd M odern C ar pentry t h e most u seful

we h ave We m a ke it a text b ook

I bervill e College I bervi l le Quebec , ,

time a go and I found in it just wh at I w a nted and thi s

You r book M odern Car p entry second vol ume i s

a dandy I h ave got a l ot of good t h ings out of it I

wou l d n ot take f o it if I could not buy anot h er .

Good l u ck to y ou J A M E S E WEE K S S a n Francisco C al

As before st a ted I could ﬁll a volume with si mil a r ex