EARTH SCIENCE – SPHERES

1. Earth
• Existing for 4,543 billion years
• In the early formation of the earth, life was
not possible cause of the environment
• Then, life flourished from microorganisms
into a more complex organism
2. Temperature
• Influences how quickly atoms, molecules
and organisms move
• Temperature is just right to support life
3. Water
• One of the important ingredients in different
biological functions
• Absence will influence reactions necessary
for life
4. Atmosphere
• Greenhouse gases trap heat and protect the
planet from freezing
• Ozone shields the surface
• Provides chemical needed for life (N, Co2)
• Earth has right size and distance from the
sun that permits it to have right atmosphere.
5. Energy
• Rich sunlight to support life
• Living organisms use energy to live
6. Nutrients
• Builds and maintains organism body
structure
• Processes that recycle nutrients (water cycle,
volcanic activity)
• Includes water, carbon, oxygen, phosphate
and nitrogen
 EARTH SCIENCE – SPHERES
Earth • Examples are soil, mineral, rocks as well as
other land forms
• Complex system made up of 4 systems to
form a while Earth System Science
• Earth is a closed system since energy only
• Study of how the 4 spheres of the earth
flows
interact
1. Atmosphere
System interactions
• “Atmos” meaning Vapor
• Volcanoes ( geo ) erupt, sending gas and
• Thin gaseous layer that envelopes the
ashes into the air ( Atmos ) and also sending
lithosphere
lava into the forest ( biosphere ) and also in
• Protects us from UV rays
the water
• Constant exchange of heat and moisture
• Hurricanes ( Atmos ) go across the ocean
between atmosphere and hydrosphere
( hydro ) and onto land forms ( geo )
through the water cycle
damaging people ( Bio )
• Composed of 78 % nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9 % argon, and 0.1 %other gases.
• Layers:
o Troposphere
o Stratosphere
o Mesosphere
o Thermosphere
o Exosphere
2. Hydrosphere
• Hydro meaning water
• 70% of earth is covered with water
• 3% of earth’s water is fresh
• 2/3 are in the form of ice
• 1/3 of it are streams, lakes and ground water
3. Biosphere
• Encompasses all life on earth
• “Life Zone”
• Includes all organisms and all organic matter
that has not yet decomposed
4. Lithosphere/Geosphere
• “Lithos” meaning stone and rocks
• Solid earth that includes the continental and
oceanic crust as well as layers of earth’s
interior
• 94% is composed of oxygen, silicon and
magnesium
• Constantly changes due to the moving of
faults
 EARTH SCIENCE – MINERALS

Minerals 6. Fracture
• Tendency of materials to break
• Naturally occurring inorganic solid that has
irregularly
a crystal structure and a definite composition
• Can be described as splintery, uneven or
Common Characteristics conchoidal
7. Specific Gravity
1. Naturally occurring
• Weight or heaviness of materials
• Formed by natural processes
• Expressed on the ratio of the minerals
2. Inorganic
weight to the volume of water
• Was never alive
• Didn’t come from a living organism Special Properties
3. Solid
1. Fluorescence
4. Unique / Definite composition
2. Magnetism
5. Crystalline Structure
3. Radioactivity
• Particles of a mineral line up in a pattern 4. Taste
that repeats forming a crystal 5. Chemical Reaction
Physical Properties
1. Color Types of Minerals
• Determines how a crystal absorbs and 1. Silicates
reflect light
• Composed of silicon-oxygen
• Easy to recognize but very misleading tetrahedrons (SIO4-2)
(should never be used as a major
• Comprises the majority of minerals in
identifying characteristic)
the earth’s crust
2. Luster
2. Native Elements
• Refers to the way a mineral reflects light • Composed of a single element
from its surface
• These are very rare. Only a few can be
3. Streak
found on the earth’s surface
• Color of a mineral from a powdered
• Example: Gold, Silicon, Copper, iron,
form left behind after it is
Diamond and Graphite
struck/rubbed/scraped across a streak
3. Halides
plate.
• Consist of halogen elements forming
4. Hardness / Mohs Hardness
strong ionic bonds with alkali and alkali
• Refers to how easily a mineral scratches
earth metals
materials
• Halides: Chlorine(Cl), Bromine(Br),
• Ability of a mineral to resist scratches
Fluorine(F), Iodine(I)
• Created by Federick Mohs 4. Carbonates
• 1 softest – 10 hardest (Talc – • Anionic groups of carbon and oxygen
Gypsum – Calcite – Fluorite – Apatite –
• Commonly found in sedimentary rocks
Feldspar – Quartz – Topaz – Corundum
5. Oxides
– Diamond)
• Include one or more metal cations
5. Cleavage
bonded to oxygen or hydroxyl anions
• Tendency of materials to break smoothly
• Example: Hematite(Fe2O3) and
• Has several directions/angles
Magnetite (Fe3O4)
 EARTH SCIENCE – MINERALS

6. Sulfates
• Includes SO4 anionic groups
• Can be Anhydrous (no water) or
Hydrous (has water)
• Example: Barium Sulfate (baso4)
7. Sulfide
• Composed of one or more metal cations
combined with sulfur
• Example: Pyrite, Molybdenum
8. Phosphates
• Naturally occurring inorganic salts of
phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
• Example: Apatite
 EARTH SCIENCE – ROCKS

Rocks ❖ Types based on Composition

➢ Mafic
• Any naturally occurring solid mass or ▪ Are magmas associated with crystal
aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter spreading
• Categorized by minerals included and its ▪ Derived from magnesium and Iron
chemical composition ▪ Dark in Color
• Changes overtime ➢ Felsic
• Example of Rock Formations: ( Nakabuang ▪ Are magmas associated with crystal
Arc, Kapupurawan, Biri Island, Limestone compression
rock formations ) ▪ Derived from Feldspar and Silica
Rock Cycle ▪ Light in Color
❖ General Types
• Transformational processes that change ➢ Intrusive Igneous Rock (Plutonic
rocks from one kind to another Igneous)
▪ Formed from magma
▪ Is inside the earth
▪ Rough Texture
▪ Has large crystals
▪ Cools slow
▪ Forms coarse grained rocks
▪ Has presence of crystal growth
▪ Examples:
• Granite, Gabbro, Diorite
Classification of Rocks ➢ Extrusive Igneous Rock ( Volcanic
1) Igneous Rocks Igneous )
 Comes from the latin word “Ignis” ▪ Formed from lava
which means fire ▪ Comes from the surface
 Parent material of igneous rocks are ▪ Cools Quickly
usually magma ▪ Has small crystals
▪ Fine Texture
 Formed from magma and molten
▪ Forms fine Grained rocks
rock/lava
▪ Lack of crystal growth
▪ Examples:
❖ Types Based on texture
➢ Fine Grained Igneous Rock (Aphantic) • Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice
▪ Has smaller crystal due to the faster rate ) G
of cooling of the magma 1) F
▪ Examples: 2) Sedimentary Rocks
• Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite  Formed by compaction and cementing
➢ Coarse Grained Igneous Rock together of sediments
(Phaneritic)  Broken pieces of rock like gravel, slit or
▪ Larger crystal due to the slower rate of clay
cooling of the magma  Make up of 75% of the rocks
▪ Examples:  Has a process called WEDCC
• Granite, Gabbro, Diorite (1) Weathering – breaking down of the
rocks
(2) Erosion – Transportation of the rocks
from one place to another
 EARTH SCIENCE – ROCKS

(3) Deposition – The sediments are ❖ Two types of Metamorphic rocks

deposited based on their size
(4) Compaction – The deposited
sediments that are layered will make
it compact and will proceed to
(5) Cementation – wherein the
compacted minerals will form a solid
rock with the minerals acting as a
glue.
❖ 3 Main Types of Sedimentary Rocks
➢ Clastic
▪ Formed by chemical weathering debris
▪ made up of pieces (clasts) of pre-existing
rocks
▪ Their names are based on their clast or
grain size
▪ Example:
• Conglomerate – composed of pieces
that are pebble sized
• Sandstone – sand sized piece
• Shale – pieces smaller than sand
➢ Chemical
▪ created when minerals that are present in
rock forms undergo a chemical reaction
that causes them to cool as precipitates
over time before changing back to rock
form.
▪ Example:
• Limestone, dolomite, halite, and
gypsum
➢ Foliation
▪ - When a rock with flat or elongated
minerals is put under immense pressure,
the minerals line up in layers
▪ Example: Granite, when enough
pressure is added, turns into flat sheets
that turns into Gneiss
➢ Non-Foliated
▪ are formed the same way, but they do
not contain the minerals that tend to line
up under pressure and thus do not have
the layered appearance of foliated rocks.
▪ Example: bituminous coal, limestone,
and sandstone, given enough heat and
pressure, can turn into nonfoliated
metamorphic rocks like anthracite coal,
marble, and quartzite
▪ Nonfoliated rocks can also form by
metamorphism, which happens when
magma comes in contact with the
surrounding rock.

➢ Organic
▪ Formed by accumulated sedimentary
debris caused by organic processes
(plant or animal)
▪ mainly comprises coal and limestones
▪ Examples:
• Lignite, Peat, Anthracite, Coal,
Limestone

3) Metamorphic rocks
 Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have
been changed from their original form
by immense heat or pressure.
 EARTH SCIENCE – MINING
Mineral Resources
• Used for different applications
• Example for cellphones (Silicon,
arsenopyrite, etc.)
Can be in:
Quarries – Sand, Gravel, Rocks
Mining – Silver, Iron, Gold
Metallic Mineral Resources – Contains metal
Non-Metallic Resources – Doesn’t contain metal
(talc, fluorite, sulfur, sand, gravel
Terms:
Mineral Resources–
• Could be rocks or mineral
Mineral Occurrence (Locality)
• Concentration of a mineral that is of
scientific or technical interest
Mineral Deposit
• Mineral occurrence of sufficient size / grade
and concentration to enable extraction
Ore Deposit
• Tested and known to be economically
profitable to mine
Types Of Mining
Mining
• Process of extracting mineral resources from
earth.
Stages of Mining:
1. Exploration - Searching of areas that
contain mineral resources viable for mining
a. Prospecting
i. Evaluation of land’s geology.
ii. Identifies Geohazards
iii. Analyzing Chemical
properties of soil and water
iv. Airborne and ground physical
survery
v. Identify Electric Currents
b. Drilling
i. Evaluate type and grade of
minerals
c. Modelling
2. Development and Design
a. Determine whether the site can be
operated in an environmentally safe,
economically sound and socially
responsible manner
b. Involves scoping, feasibility studies,
procurement of necessary facilities
3. Construction
a. Builds roads, processing facilities,
environmental management system
4. Production
a. Stage where actual mining and
processing of minerals are done
b. Gangue – Unwanted impurities like
sand and rocky minerals
5. Closure and Reclamation
a. Process of closing the mine and
returning the land to its original state
b. Ensuring public health
c. Establish new landform and
vegetation
d. Stabilize land against erosion
1. Surface Mining – Extract ore near the
earth’s surface
a. Open Pit Mining – means big hole
or pit in the group created by
blasting with explosives or drilling.
b. Dredging – Mining from the bottom
of a body of water
c. Strip Mining – Involves removal of
a thin strip of overburden above
desired deposit
 EARTH SCIENCE – MINING

d. Placer Mining – Mining of stream

bed deposits of mineral. uses water
to separate valuable ore from the
surrounding sediment

2. Underground Mining – Utilized to extract

ore minerals from the orebody deep under
the earth’s surface
 EARTH SCIENCE – ENERGY SOURCES

Renewable Energy Resources – Continuous • Penstock

production of heat o Channels water from reservoir to the
turbines
Geothermal Energy
o To make sure that the pressure of
• Heat from the Earth – came from decay of water will be enough for the power
radioactive elements underground and the turbine
residual heat produced when the planet • Powerhouse
forms o Houses turbines as well the generator
• 45% is generated by geothermal energy
Types:
• Top 2 produces of geothermal energy
• Covers all techniques used to recover heat in • Impounded Facility
earth’s surface particularly in aquifiers o Uses dam to store water, then
o Aquifers are rock reservoir that releases it to generate electricity
contains ground water • Diversion / Run of River Faciltiy
o Can only become geothermal energy o Redirecting river water through a
if there is a heat source • Pumped Storage
• Geothermal Gradient configuration of two water reservoirs
o Heat tends to increase as you go at different elevations that can
deeper into the ground generate power as water moves
o 3 celsius per 100 meters down from one to the other
(discharge), passing through a
Types:
turbine.
• Binary cycle Powerplant
o Hot water from underground was
pumped
• Dry Steam Powerplant
o Hot steam from underground to be
piped directly
• Flash Steam
o Hot water from underground is
pumped into a solid tank.
o Sudden change in temperature makes
the steam that moves the generator
Hydroelectric Energy
• 40% is generated by hydroelectric energy
• Use of water to produce energy
• Hydropower plants are world’s leading
renewable nergy source, producing 83% of
renewable power
Components
• Dam
o Generates large waterfall and stores
enough water supply to the plant at
all times
 EARTH SCIENCE – SOIL

Soil
• The unconsolidated organic and mineral material on the earth’s surface that can support plants.
• A dynamic natural body, in which plants grow, that is composed of mineral and organic materials and
living things.

Soil forming factors

• Parent material (rock that is slowly broken down by biological, chemical, and physical weathering
process in nature)
• Climate (when temperatures are below freezing decomposition of organic matter and water movement
are slow, soil development in the humid tropics is accelerated by the rapid weathering of rock and soul
minerals, the leaching or nutrients, and the decomposition of organic detritus.) precipitation and
temperature changes.
• Topography (presence or absence of mountains and valleys, steep slopes have little or no soil on them
because soil and rock are continually transported down the slopes by gravity; moderate slopes and
valleys, may encourage the formation of deep soils)
• Organisms (plant roots, lichens produce acids, animals that burrow or tunnel, such as earthworms,
voles, mix the soil, distributing organic and mineral matter.

Soil composition
• 45% mineral particles (broken down pieces of rock)
• 5% organic matter (humus-form dead organism. Worm castings, leaf litter)
• 25% water (precipitation)
• 25% air (more with sandy soil, less with clay soil)

Lesson 5B.2. Importance of soil resources

Soils are essential for life, in the sense that they provide the medium for plant growth, habitat for many insects
and other organisms, act as a filtration system for surface water, carbon store and maintenance of atmospheric
gases. Let us take a closer look at each of these:
Medium for plant growth:
• Soil support roots and keep them upright for growth.
• Soil provide plants with essential minerals and nutrients.
• Soil provide air for gaseous exchange between roots and atmosphere.
• Soil protect plants from erosion and other destructive physical, biological, and chemical activity.
• Soil hold water (moisture) and maintain adequate aeration.
Habitat for many insects and other organisms
• Insects and microbes (very tiny single-cell organisms) live in the soils and depend on soils for food and
air.
 EARTH SCIENCE – SOIL

• Soils are homes to a diverse range of organisms such as worms and termites. They provide the needed
moisture and air for the breakdown of organic matter.
• They provide a home for many organisms such as insects to lay and hatch eggs and rodents to give birth
to new off springs
A Filtration system for surface water
• After rainfall and snowmelts, water flows on the earth’s surface to water bodies, but much of it soaks
and gets infiltrated into the ground. As it continues its way downwards through the many layers in the
ground, it is filtered from dust, chemicals, and other contaminants. Therefore, aquifers (underground
water) are one of the purest sources of water. Filtered water also provides plants with clean, unpolluted
water needed for growth.
Carbon store and maintenance of atmospheric gases
• Soils help regulate atmospheric Carbon dioxide (co2) by acting as a carbon store. During humification (a
process where soil organisms form complex and stable organic matter) some organic matter breakdown
does not occur completely, especially in soils like peat, owing to its high acid and water content.
• This results in the accumulation of organic matter in the soil which is high in carbon content. Nitrogen,
phosphorus, and many other nutrients are stored, transformed, and cycled in the soil.
 EARTH SCIENCE – SOIL

The O-Horizon
• The O horizon is very common in many surfaces with lots of vegetative cover.
• It is the layer made up of organic materials such as dead leaves and surface organisms, twigs and fallen
trees.
• It has about 20% organic matter.
• It is possible to see various levels of decomposition occurring here (minimal, moderately, highly and
completely decomposed organic matter).
• This horizon is often black or dark brown in color, because of its organic content.
• It is the layer in which the roots of small grass are found.
The A-Horizon
• The A horizon may be seen in the absence of the O horizon, usually known as the topsoil.
• It is the top layer soils for many grasslands and agricultural lands.
• Typically, they are made of sand, silt and clay with high amounts of organic matter.
• This layer is most vulnerable to wind and water erosion. It is also known as the root zone.
The E-Horizon
• The E horizon is usually lighter in color, often below the O and A horizons.
• It is often rich in nutrients that are leached from the top A and O horizons.
• It has a lower clay content and is common in forested lands or areas with high quality O and A horizons.
The B-Horizon
• The B-horizon has some similarities with the E-horizon.
• This horizon is formed below the O, A and E horizons and may contain high concentrations of silicate
clay, iron, aluminum, and carbonates.
• It is also called the illuviation zone because of the accumulation of minerals.
• It is the layer in which the roots of big trees end.
The C-Horizon
• The C horizon lacks all the properties of the layers above it.
• It is mainly made up of broken bedrock and no organic material.
• It has cemented sediment and geologic material.
• There is little activity here although additions and losses of soluble materials may occur.
• The C horizon is also known as saprolite.
 EARTH SCIENCE – SOIL

The R-Horizon
• The R horizon is bedrock, material, compacted and cemented by the weight of the overlying horizons.
• Rock types found here include granite, basalt and limestone

Sandy Soils
• Sandy soils are free draining, with the largest, but fine and hard particles.
• Sandy soils are very low in nutrients, as they are usually washed away. Its degree of aeration depends on
the sizes of the particles, which vary a lot in size.
• It is usually formed from the weathering or disintegration of bedrock such as shale, limestone, granite,
and quartz.
Silty Soils
• This kind is finer, smoother in texture and holds water better than sandy soils.
• It also holds up nutrients and makes it better for crop cultivation.
• are heavier than sandy soils, and almost midway between the properties of sandy and clay soils.
• formed when fine sediments (dust, organic matter, and debris) are carried by water or ice and deposited.
When silt is deposited and cemented with time, it forms siltstone. Silt particles are so small and not
easily seen by the eyes. It leaves a bit of residue after you touch them.
Clay
• The particles that make up clay are the finest and they bind very well.
• It has very little air spaces. Clay very sticky when wet and can be molded into any shape and form.
When they dry, they are rock hard. Clay soils do not drain very well.
• Example, sediments on sea or lake bottoms may become clay soils with time.
Loamy
• This soil is a mixture of sand, clay and silt particles and has the ability to retain water.
• It is high in calcium, aeration and ideal for most crops and vegetables.
• It is the soil all farmers dream of, as it is full of nutrients from decomposed organic material. It is soft
and easy to cultivate.
Peaty
• Peaty soils are acidic and as a result, does not support decomposition very well.
• It is dark in color, rich in organic material, although contains less nutrients than loamy soils. It retains
water very well.
Chalky
• Chalky soils are alkaline with a pH of about 7.5. It is not acidic and often stony with chalk or limestone
bedrock.
• It is free draining because of its coarse and stony nature. Not the best for crops to grow in as they lack
manganese and iron.
 EARTH SCIENCE – SOIL

Soil is especially vulnerable to erosion if it is bare or exposed. Plants therefore serve a tremendous role in
preventing soil erosion. If the soil is covered with plants, erosion is slowed down. But when soil is bare, the rate
of erosion speeds up tremendously. Here are some human activities that leave the soil exposed and speed up
erosion. We speed up erosion through the following actions.

Agricultural Depletion
Farming can degrade the topsoil and lead to an increase in erosion. To plant a field, a farmer must first till the
soil, breaking it up and loosening it so the new plants can take root.
Once the plants are harvested, the loose soil remains, and wind or rain can easily wash it away. Planting cover
crops in the fall can help maintain the soil through the winter months, reducing the amount of erosion.
In addition, rotating the crops planted can help return nutrients to the soil to prevent its degradation.

Overgrazing Animals
Grazing animals are animals that live on large areas of grassland. They wander over the area and eat grasses and
shrubs.
They can remove large amounts of the plant cover for an area.
If too many animals graze the same land area, once the tips of grasses and shrubs have been eaten, they will use
their hooves to pull plants out by their roots

Deforestation
Deforestation is another practice that can greatly increase the rate of erosion in a region. One of the most
important barriers to erosion is plant life, as long-lived trees and other species put down roots that literally help
hold the soil together.
Logging kills these plants, and even if the operation plants new trees to replace the old ones, the younger plants
require years to put down the kind of root system that once protected the soil.
Timber companies utilize a variety of different techniques, such as partial clearing and replanting, to prevent
soil degradation and erosion in their work zones.

Mining operations
Mining operations are major contributors to erosion, especially on a local level. Many mining techniques
involve shifting large amounts of earth, such as strip mining or mountaintop removal.
These operations leave large amounts of loose soil exposed to the elements, and they often require large
amounts of water, which can exacerbate the erosion process.
Even once the mining operation is completed and the company replaces the earth, it lacks the established
vegetation that helped it maintain its coherency before removal, and until plants can reestablish themselves,
erosion will continue to be a problem.
 EARTH SCIENCE – SOIL

Development and Expansion

Urban and suburban development can also exacerbate erosion, especially if the developers ignore the natural
state of the land.
Construction of a building often begins by clearing the area of any plants or other natural defenses against soil
erosion.
some landscapers replace natural ground cover with plant species unsuited to the climate, and these plants may
not be as effective at preventing erosion.
Recreational activities
Recreational activities like driving vehicles off-road or hiking - Humans also cause erosion through recreational
activities, like hiking and riding off-road vehicles.
An even greater amount of erosion occurs when people drive off-road vehicles over an area. The area eventually
develops bare spots where no plants can grow