Bacterial Cell Anatomy, Morphology and Reproduction
Eukaryotic Cells VS Prokaryotic Cells: CELL ENVELOPE
Eukaryotic Cells:
 notable characteristics of Eukaryotes are the presence of
the membrane enclosed cell organelles that specific
cellular function. Such as:
Nucleus-provide membrane closure for chromosomes
Lysosomes- provide environment for controlled enzymatic
degradation of intracellular substances.
Mitochondria- generate energy (ATP)
Golgi Bodies-processes substances for transport outside the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum – process and transport proteins
Prokaryotic Cells
 They do not have organelles. All functions take place in
the cytoplasmic membrane of the cell.
 Cell walls of most prokaryotic cells are made up of
peptidoglycan layer.
Bacterial Morphology
 most clinically relevant species range in a size of 0.25 to
1 um in width and 1 to 3 um in height.
 differences in the cell wall provide the basis for the Gram
Stain, which is the most fundamental test used in bacterial
identification schemes.
Gram Stain - The staining procedure separates almost all bacteria
that are medically important bacteria into two different types:
Gram-positive: deep blue to purple color
Gram-negative: pink to red color
Common bacterial morphology:
cocci (round), coccobacilli (round), bacillus (rod-shaped), fusiform
(pointed end)
Bacterial Cell Components:
comprises of: I. Outer Membrane
 mostly found in Gram-negative bacteria
 function: cell’s initial barrier to the environment; serve as
permeability barriers to
 hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds.
 it is a membrane bi-layered structure composed of
lipopolysaccharide –gives a surface of a Gram negative
bacteria a net negative charge.
 plays a significant role in a certain ability of the bacteria to
cause a disease.
 Porins are water-filled protein structures that are scattered
throughout the lipopolysaccharide that control the passage
of nutrients and other solutes including antibiotics through
the outer membrane.
CELL WALL
 Also referred to the Peptidoglycan layer or Murein layer.
 Gives the bacteria cell shape and strength to withstand
changes in the environmental osmotic pressure that would
otherwise result in cell lysis and also protects the cell against
mechanical disruption.
 This feature has been the primary target for the development
and design of antibiotics.
 The structure of the cell is composed of disaccharide
pentapeptide subunits.
The notable difference between the cell walls of gram-positive
versus gram negative cell wall is that peptidoglycan layer of the
gram-positive bacteria is thicker.
Gram positive cell wall also contain Techoic acids. some Gram
positive bacteria like the Mycobacterium is rich in mycolic acid
that make their cells refractory to toxic acids.
PERIPLASMIC SPACE
 Only found in Gram negative bacteria
 It is bounded by the internal surface of the outer membrane
and the external surface of the cellular membrane.
 It consists of gel-like substances that help secure nutrients
from the environment and also contain enzymes that
degrade macromolecules and detoxify environmental solutes
including antibiotics that enter through the outer membrane.
CYTOPLASMIC INNER MEMBRANE
 Present in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
and is the deepest layer of the cell envelope. And the
structure of the cell membrane for both are similar.
 It is functionally similar to that of a Eukaryotic cell’s
organelles.
Functions include:
 Transport solutes into and out of the cell.
 Housing enzymes involved in the outer membrane
synthesis, cell wall synthesis, and the assembly and
secretion of extracytoplasmic and extracellular
substances
 Generation of chemical energy (like the ATP).
 Cell motility
  Mediation of chromosomal segregation during the
replication.
 Housing molecular sensors that monitor chemical and
physical changes in the environment.
CELLULAR APPENDAGES
-play a role in causing infections and in laboratory identification,
varies among bacterial species and even among strains of the
same species.
Capsule- Immediately exterior to the peptidoglycan/murein layer
of gram-positive bacteria and outer membrane of the gram-
negative bacteria.
 Often referred to as the slime layer
 Composed of high molecular weight polysaccharides
whose production may depend on the environment and
growth conditions surrounding the bacterial cell.
 It does not function as an effective permeability
membrane barrier or add strength to the cell envelope
but only protects the bacterial from attack by cells of the
human defense system. (Immune system)
Fimbriae or Pili- It is a hair-like, proteinaceous structures that
extend from the cell membrane into the external environment.
some may be up to 2 um in length.
Fimbriae- Bristle-like. Present in multiple numbers, Adhere to hot
tissues
Pili- Bristle-like, Longer, Present singly on pairs
There are two general types:
a. Common Pili- are adhesins that help bacteria attach to animal
host cell surfaces., often as the first step in establishing infection.
b. Sex Pili- serves as the conduit for the passage of DNA from
donor to recipient during conjugation.
Bacterial conjugation- this process occurs between two living
cells, involves cell-to-cell contact and requires mobilization of the
donor bacterium’s chromosome.
Flagella- They are complex structures, mostly composed of the
protein flagellin, intricately embedded in the cell envelope.
 These structures are responsible for bacterial motility.
 Although not all bacteria are motile, motility plays an
important role in survival and the ability of certain
bacteria to cause disease.
 Depending on the bacterial species,
a flagella may be:
Monotrichous flagella –located at one end of the cell
Lophotrichous flagella- located at both ends of the cell
Peritrichous flagella- entire cell is covered with flagella
Cytosol - It is where nearly all the other functions not conducted
by the cell membrane occur.
 It contains thousands of enzymes and is the site of
protein synthesis.
 It has granular appearance caused by the presence of
many polysomes (messenger RNA complexed with
several ribosomes during translation and protein
synthesis).
Inclusions- It includes storage reserve granules.
Two common types of granules:
a. Glycogen- storage form of glucose.
b. Polyphosphate granules- a storage form of inorganic
phosphates that are microscopically visible in certain bacteria
stained with specific dyes.
 Unlike eukaryotic chromosomes, bacterial chromosomes
exist as a nucleoid- highly coiled
 DNA intermixed with RNA, polyamines, and various
protein that lend structural support
 Depending on the stage of cell division, there may be
more than one chromosome per bacterial cell.
Plasmids- are the other genetic elements that exist
independently in the cytosol and their numbers vary from
none to several per bacterial cell.
Endospore- Under adverse physical and chemical conditions,
or when nutrients are scarce some bacterial genera are able
to form spores (sporulate).
Sporulation involves substantial metabolic and structural
changes in the bacterial cell.
 The spore state is maintained until favorable
conditions for growth are again encountered.
 This survival tactic is demonstrated by a number of
clinically relevant bacteria and frequently
challenges our ability to sterilize materials and food
for human use.
BACTERIAL REPRODUCTION
Binary Fission- Most bacteria rely on binary fission for
propagation.
 Conceptually this is a simple process; a cell just needs to
grow to twice its starting size and then split in two. But,
to remain viable and competitive, a bacterium must
divide at the right time, in the right place, and must
provide each offspring with a complete copy of its
essential genetic material.
 Understanding the mechanics of this process is of great
interest because it may allow for the design of new
chemicals or novel antibiotics that specifically target and
interfere with cell division in bacteria.
Morphologic changes during growth:
In cell division:
 Most bacteria divide by binary fission into two equal
progeny cells. In a growing culture of a rod-shaped
bacterium such as E coli, cells elongate and then form a
partition that eventually separates the cell into two
daughter cells.
 The partition is referred to as a septum and is a result of
the inward growth of the cytoplasmic membrane and
cell wall from opposing directions until the two daughter
cells are pinched off.
 The chromosomes, which have doubled in number
preceding the division, are distributed equally to the two
daughter cells.
  Although bacteria lack a mitotic spindle, the septum is
formed in such a way as to separate the two sister
chromosomes formed by chromosomal replication. be the only way to reproduce. Intracellular offspring
 This is accomplished by the attachment of the development in these bacteria shares characteristics
chromosome to the cell membrane.
 According to one model, completion of a cycle of DNA with endospore formation in Bacillus subtilis.
replication triggers active membrane synthesis between
the sites of attachment of the two sister chromosomes.  Instead of placing the FtsZ ring at the center of the cell,
The chromosomes are then pushed apart by the inward as in binary fission, (A) Z rings are placed near both cell
growth of the septum, one copy going to each daughter poles in Epulopiscium. (B) Division forms a large mother
cell. cell and two small offspring cells. (C) The smaller cells
contain DNA and become fully engulfed by the larger
In cell groupings: mother cell. (D) The internal offspring grow within the
cytoplasm of the mother cell. (E) Once offspring
 If the cells remain temporarily attached after division, development is complete the mother cell dies and
certain characteristic groupings result. releases the offspring.
 Depending on the plane of division and the number of
divisions through which the cells remain attached, the
following may occur in the coccal forms: chains
(streptococci), pairs (diplococci), cubical bundles
(sarcinae), or flat plates. Rods may form pairs or chains.
 After fission of some bacteria, characteristic post-
division movements occur. For example, a “whipping”
motion can bring the cells into parallel positions;
repeated division and whipping result in the “palisade”
arrangement characteristic of diphtheria bacilli.

Cyanobacterium diptheriae - its characteristic "palisade

arrangement”

Other forms of Bacterial Reproduction:

Baeocyte Production:

 It starts out as a small, spherical cell approximately 1 to

2 µm in diameter. This cell is referred to as a baeocyte
(which literally means "small cell").
 The baeocyte begins to grow, eventually forming a
vegetative cell up to 30 µm in diameter. As it grows, the
cellular DNA is replicated over and over, and the cell
produces a thick extracellular matrix.
 The vegetative cell eventually transitions into a
reproductive phase where it undergoes a rapid
succession of cytoplasmic fissions to produce dozens or
even hundreds of baeocytes. The extracellular matrix
eventually tears open, releasing the baeocytes.
 Observed in cyanobacterium Staneria

Budding:

 Budding has been observed in some members of the

Planctomycetes, Cyanobacteria, Firmicutes (a.k.a. the
Low G+C Gram-Positive Bacteria) and the prosthecate
Proteobacteria.
 Although budding has been extensively studied in the
eukaryotic yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the
molecular mechanisms of bud formation in bacteria are
not known.
 A schematic representation of budding in a
Planctomyces species is shown:

Intracellular offspring production

 Epulopiscium spp., Metabacterium polyspora and the

Segmented Filamentous Bacteria (SFB) form multiple
intracellular offspring
 - or some of these bacteria, this process appears to