HO CHI MINH CITY UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

OFFICE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDY PROGRAMS

FLUID MECHANICS EXPERIMENTS

REPORT
 EXPERIMENT 1: HYDROSTATICS
I. Purpose
The experiment help students to understand the basic equation or hydrostatics and apply to
some problems associated with compressed fluid in at static state.

II. Theory

The state of static and compressed fluid is described by this equation:

p
z+
γ
= const (1.1)

With z is the elevation of any point in the static fluid mass, constant specific weight γ , and p
p
is hydrostatic pressure, the value of z + is also called the water pressure measurement in
γ
meter. From this equation, we can have some applications:
1. Isobaric surface
Isobaric surface is a surface on which the pressure is the same. A specific image of isobaric
surface which we can see is atmospheric surface. When pressure at points on the atmospheric
surface is equal, the height of them is either equal, then.
2. Fluid manometer
Applying basic equation for calculating the pressure at any point in the static fluid mass. If a
point has the elevation z0 and pressure p0, the pressure at the point having the elevation z is:
p = p0 + γ (z0 – z) = p0 + γ h (1.2)
Whereas, surface 0-0 is a standard surface for comparision.
By measuring the height h, we can determine the pressure p.
 3. Calculating the specific gravity of fluid
If we have p0, p, both z0 and z, from (1.2) we can measure the specific weight of fluid:
p− p 0
γ=
z 0−z
The basic equation (1.1) is established when neglecting the affect of capillary. In the case
when the fluid inside a small tube having diameter equal to less than 3mm, equation (1.1) is
no more accurate. If the fluid is water, alcohol, oil… fluid level in the tube, having small
diameter, will be higher than the tube with large diameter. If the fluid is mercury, fluid level
in the tube, having large diameter, will be higher than the tube with small diameter.

III. Experiment equipment:

 The experiment fluid equipment:

The manometer contains a group of tube numbered from 1 to 10 are set on the board with an
elevated ruler, accurate to millimeter. The diameter of tubes di is 5mm (except group of tubes
2 with the diameter equal to less than 3mm). In these tubes:
- Tube 1 and 3 are used as fluid manometers to measure the atmospheric pressure in
vessel T
- Group of tubes 2 containing tube 21, 22, 23 with diameters 1mm, 2mm, 3mm
respectively are used to observe the capillary phenomenon.
- 3 U-shaped tubes are couple tubes 4-5, 6-7, 8-9, containing fluids needed to determine
its specific gravity.
Tube 10 and 3 are used to observe equipressure surface. The atmospheric pressure of tube 1,
4, 6, 8 is the atmospheric pressure in vessel T. The elevation of fluid level in tubes is Li.
Creating pressure part contains static closed vessel T and un-static opened vessel Đ, which is
hang on block 12, have water. Due to crank 11, we can change the height of vessel Đ to differ
the atmospheric pressure in vessel T.

IV. Experiment steps

 1. Check the standard figure of the ruler (in millimeter), whether the rulers are in the
horizontal plane by reading the water level in tube 3 and tube 10. These 2 tube need to
have the same water level.
2.
- Using the crank 11 to lift the vessel Đ to the pitch (the free surface of vessel Đ
have to be higher than the free surface of vessel T about z0 - zr = 15  20cm)
- Start to measure the water level of tube 1 to 10 and record the result (also the
group tube 2)
- Lower the vessel Đ to the average position (z0 – zr = 5  7 cm) and to the low
position (z0 – zr = -15  -20cm). Start to measure like above and record the result
to the table.
V. Computational instruction
1. Calculate the pressure of the air in vessel T
From (1.2), the pressure in vessel T can be calculated by:
pt = pa +γ H 2 O (L3 −L1) (1.4a)

The specific weight of water γ H 2 O tank can be determined depend on the temperature of the
environment. If we assume pa = 0, we can calculate the error pressure:
pT =γ H 2 O ( L3 −L1)
d
(1.4b)

In 3 position of vessel Đ, we can calculate 3 figures of atmospheric the pressure of the vessel.
2. Determine the specific gravity of the liquid in U-shaped tubes
Consider liquid has specific weight . In the static state, 2 branch I and i+1 of U-shaped tube,
the pressure in vessel T can be calculated by:
pT = pa +γ (Li+1 −Li ) (1.5)

Compare with (1.4a), we have the equation to calculate the specific weight of this liquid:
( L3−L1)
γ=γ H 20 (1.6)
( Li+1 −Li)

3. Calculate the error of this method

Using the error theory, from equation (1.4b), we can determine the relative error p:
∆( p T ) ∆ [ γ H 20 ( L3−L1 ) ]
δ p= =
pT ∆ γ H 2 O ∆ L3−∆ L1
γ H 20∨L3−L1∨¿= + ¿
γ H 2O ¿ L3−L1∨¿ ¿

So the relative error of this method equal to the total of 2 relative error:
- Relative error while calculating the density of water:
∆γ
δ H 2 O= H 2O
γ H 2O
- Relative error when reading the elevation in the scale
 ∆ L3−∆ L1
δL = 3−1
¿ L3−L1 ∨¿ ¿

In conclusion: δ p=δ γ +δ L H2O 3−1

Usually, we use δ γ =0.12% and∆ L1=∆ L3=0.5 mm

H2O

4. Calculate the error when determine  of the liquid in U-shaped tube

From equation (1.6), we can determine the relative error of this equation in U-shaped tube.

∆ γ ∆ γ H 2O ∆ L3−∆ L1
δγ= = +
γ γ H 2O ∆ γ H 2 O ∆ Li+ 1−∆ Li
¿ L3−L1∨¿+ + ¿
γ H 2 O ¿ Li+1−Li ∨¿ ¿

Or: δ p=δ γ +δ L + δ L
H2O 3−1 (i+ 1)−i

Also we use δ γ =0.12% and ∆ L1=∆ L3=∆ Li+ 1=∆ Li=0.5 mm

H2O

EXPERIMENT REPORT:
The atmospheric pressure and the air temperature:
Pa = 760mmHg ; tᴼ = 35ᴼC
The water specific gravity:
YH2O = 9.749 x 103 N/m3

I. MEASUREMENTS

Table 1a: The measured results (Unit: cm)

No L1 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 L9 L10 NOTE

1 24.3 38.3 22.6 37.0 15.7 31.9 13.8 14.9 38.3

2 24.2 28.7 27.6 32.4 20.9 26.5 14.1 14.4 28.7

3 24.1 8.7 37.6 22.4 32.9 14.9 14.8 13.9 8.7

Table
1b: The measured results in tube 2

No L21 L22 L23 NOTE

1 41.1 39.4 38.8
2 32.1 29.9 29.3
3 11.8 9.7 9.1

II. CALCULATION AND PRESENTATION OF THE EXPERIMENT RESULTS

 1. In the hydrostatic experiment set, the water level in which tubes are equal? Why?
Ans: Tube 3 and 10 have the equal water level in the hydrostatic experiment. Because the
surface pressure of tube 10 and 3 are atmospheric pressure.
2. In the hydrostatic experiment set, the water level in which tubes does not follow the
hydrostatic rule? Why?
Ans: The water level in tube 2 does not follow the hydrostatic rule. Because tube 2 has small
value of diameter which is almost equal or less than 3mm.
Table 2: The calculated results

Pt Pd Gp Y4-5 Y6-7 Y8-9 Gy4-5 Gy6-7 Gy8-9

No
103N/m2 % 103N/m3 %
1 102.690 1.365 0.127 9.478 8.425 124.078 0.134 0.133 0.218
2 101.764 0.439 0.142 9.140 7.834 146.235 0.163 0.160 0.476
3 99.824 -1.501 0.126 9.877 8.341 166.816 0.133 0.132 0.238
 EXPERIMENT 3A: ENERGY EQUATION
PURPOSE: To investigate energy equation in current, having changeable cross section
THEORY: The energy of one weight unit of fluid at a section is determined by 3 parts:

V i2
- Kinetic energy α
2g
pi
- Force
γ
- The elevation zi
With zi, pi, Vi alternately are elevation, pressure and average velocity of the water current at
cross-section i, α is kinetic fixing coefficient, α appears in the component of …. Is due to
unsteady velocity distribution (by friction in the current) above the section.

( ) dA
3
1 u
α=
A
∬ V
(3.1)

With u, V alternately are point velocity and average velocity above wet cross-section with
area A.
With the inside current, when moving layers, α = 2, during the tangled motion,  = 1.05 –
1.15. To determine  more accurate, we need to know the rule for distributing velocity u in
section A and using formula (3.1) to find. Normally, for fluctuated flow, we use  = 1 to
make the calculation easier.
So at section (i) the energy of a liquid weight is equal to:

ai V 2i pi
H i= + +z
2g γ i
With Hi is the total water column (m)
Consider the flow is stable from section 1-1 to section 2-2, it can be described as an energy
equation:
2 2
p1 a1 V 1 p2 a2 V 2
z 1+ + =z 2+ + +hf (3.2)
γ 2g γ 2g 1−2

With h f 1−2 is the energy loss of the flow from section 1-1 to section 2-2
If neglecting the energy loss, equation (3.1)is:

p aV2
z+ + =const (3.3)
γ 2g
Equation (3.3) show us the derive of potential energy z + p/ and kinetic energy V2/2g
of the flow. From section with small area to section have big area, the kinetic energy
decrease and the potential energy increase.
It is usually called that the potential energy z + p/ as the water column and the kinetic
energy V2/2g as the velocity water column and the total of these 2 are the total energy of
the flow or total water column.
I. Experiment tool

 Water from tank (6) is pumped into tank (1) flow into glass channel through valve (2) (to
change discharge).
 The horizontal section of the glass channel (3) is rectangle, in which bottom width B=78mm.
 Broad crested – weir (4) has a trapezoidal cross – section, with the sides angle is 45 o. Height is
a = 33.1.

 The water level after broad crested weir is changed by the valve (5) located at the end of the
channel. Then the water is poured into the tank (6) through the rectangular overflow.
 Point gauge and Vernier (7) are mounted on the glass channel (3) to determine channel bottom
level and water level in the glass channel.

II. Experiment step

1- Determine the location of the section in the cannel to the point from 1 to 6 according
from the upstream to the downstream in which the middle is point at trail 40 cm in the
 cannel, the position of the section in the cannel accumulated to the picture below. The
distance between the section is:
L1−2=L2−3=L4 −5 =L5−6=20 cm ; L3− 4=3.7 cm
2- Measure the depth of the bottom of the cannel Zđi correspond with section 1 to 6.
Record the measurement to the table 1.
3- Use the valve (5) to adjust the flow and water level in the cannel so that the water
level in the downstream is higher than the upstream.
4- Wait for the flow remain stable, use the needle (7) to measure the height of the free
surface zi from section 1 to 6. Record the measurement to the table 1
5- Remain the flow unchanged, adjust the water level in the upstream by using valve (5)
(this time the downstream is lower than the upstream, see the black mark in the
cannel). Wait for the flow remain stable, start to measure like step 4. Record to the
table 1.
III. Instruction
1. Calculate the velocity
The average velocity at section I equal to:
Q
V i= (3.4)
Ai

Q = 0.25 L/s
With Ai is the area of section Ai = Bhi
The width of cannel B = 78mm;
The water level from the bottom of the cannel: hi = |Zđi – Zi|; Zi and Zđi are the water surface
elevation and the depth of the cannel in each section.
Attention:
- Check all the system to make sure it work safely
- Turn on the switch
- Before bumping the water, check the water level in the cannel to avoid the water
spill out.
2. Calculate the water column velocity
The average water column velocity at section i:
2
Vi
hV =
i
2g
(3.5)
3. Determine the energy lost
The energy lost between section i and j are determined by using Bernoulli equation (3.1)
between 2 sections:

( )
2 2
pi aV i pj aV j
hV = z i + + −( z j + + )=( zi +h Vi )−( z j +hVj )
ij
γ 2g γ 2g
 pi p j
With zi and zj are the elevation of water level from section I to j; = =0
γ γ
We also have  = 1 and the average water column velocity is calculated like (3.5)
Apply (3.6) to calculate energy loss of the flow from section 1 to 2 (hf1-2), from section 2 to 3
(hf2-3), from section 3 to 4 (h3-4), from section 4 to 5 (hf4-5), from section 5 to 6 (hf5-6).
Determine for both cases.
4. Determine the change of water surface
If neglecting the energy loss of the flow from section 1 to I randomly (i=26), and if we
assume that the flow of all section are stable or hardly changed:

V 21 V2
z 1+ = z i+ i (3.7)
2g 2g
Choose a standard plane at the bottom of the cannel (in the experiment, the bottom of the
cannel is a horizontal plane):
zi= hi if i before and after the step
zi = hi + a if I on the step (3.8)
Use Vi from (3.4), zi from (3.7) to place at equationg 3.8:
If i before and after the step

Q2 Q2
h1 + =hi + (3.9)
2 g B2 h21 2 g B 2 hi2

If i on the step:

Q2 Q2
h1 + −a=h i + (3.10)
2 g B2 h21 2 g B 2 h2i

In equation (3.9) and (3.10), if we know the figure in the left side, we can find hi is a result of
a third order equation. Solving this equation by using trial-and-error method to find hi.
Attention: By using the trial-and-error method, we have the original hi (smaller or bigger
than hi we measure), replace to the right side of the equation (3.9) or (3.10), if the result in
right side is higher than the left side, decreasing the value of hi and calculate again to
compare the result with the left side until it is equal we can take hi.
5. Draw the water surface line in the cannel
Draw in the same diagram with the bottom of the cannel and the water surface line calculate
from (3.10) and hi. Give out the conclusion that the water level in downstream is higher than
that in the upstream

EXPERIMENT REPORT
 I. Preparation
1. How to measure the water level and the bottom coordinate?
Ans: A measuring needle (7) is used to measure the water level and the bottom coordinate
2. How to adjust the water level in the channel? How many water level modes in the
downstream for the experiment?
Ans: A valve (5) is used to adjust the water level in the channel. There are two water level
modes in the downstream:
+ The water level in the downstream is higher than that on the ladder
+ The water level in the downstream is lower than that on the ladder
3. How many kinds of energy loss in the experiment?
Ans: There is one main kind of energy loss which is losses along the wa
Table 1: The coordinates of bottom and free surface

No Section 1 2 3 4 5 6
Bottom height
2.9 2.9 6.1 6.0 2.9 2.9
Zd,cm
1 Water level 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.9 9.0
2 Zi, cm 8.5 8.5 7.8 7.1 3.5 3.5
Distance from section i to section i+1,cm 20 18.2 3.6 18.2 20
Accrual distance from section 1 to section
20 38.2 41.8 60 80
i+1,cm

I. Calculation and results

1. Calculate the current velocity and water column at each section based one equation
(3.4) and (3.5). Calculate for 2 attempt. Write the result into table 2
2. With 2 attempt, calculate the energy lost among each section based one equation (3.6)
3. Based on the water level at section 1. Calculate the water column h, at sections I with
equation (3.9) and (3.10) by testing method. Calculate for the first attempt. Write the
results into table 2.
4. In figure 1, draw the bottom of the channel:
a. Based on the results measure zi in Table 3, draw on Figure 1 a “measuring” waterline
(draw for the first water level).
b. Based on the results calculate hi by testing method in Table 3, drawing on Figure 1 an
“ideal” waterline (drawing for the first water level).
c. Discussing two “measuring” waterlines and “ideal” waterlines.
_Though out the graph, we can see the line from testing method which mean the ideal line
and the actual measurement line are both fluctuate at the same level, the water level is
decrease a lot at 175 cm and 200 cm sections.
 5. Discussing the water level between section 5 and section 6?
_The water level at section 5 and section 6 is almost nearly the same.
6. Please comment, compare and explain the energy loss calculations power between the
sections in Table 2.
Table 2: The results of calculated velocity and energy losses
No Average Velocity Vi, cm/s Average Velocity head hv1, cm

Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec Sec2 Sec Sec Sec Sec
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 3 4 5 6
1 5.43 5.43 11.8 11.45 5.34 5.25 0.015 0.015 0.072 0.067 0.015 0.014
7
2 5.72 5.72 18.8 29.14 53.4 53.42 0.017 0.017 0.181 0.433 1.454 1.454
5 2
Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy
Losses Losses Losses Losses Losses
hf1-2 cm hf2-3 cm hf3-4 cm hf4-5 cm hf5-6 cm
0.0 -0.057 0.005 -0.048 -0.1

0.0 0.536 0.448 2.578 0.0

Table 3: The results of calculated water level Z1 by testing method

No 1 Z1=8.8cm H1=5.9cm
Zi,cm Section
(zi=hi) 2 3 4 5 6
Calculated by the test
5.9 2.59 2.59 5.9 5.9
method
Measurement (from table1) 5.9 2.7 2.8 6.0 6.1
Accrual distance from
90 180 198 288 378
section I to I+1, cm

Testing - Actual water level ( Case 1)

7
6
Water level (cm)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Distance from section 1 (cm)

Testing Actual
method measurement
Polynomial (Actual
measurement)
 EXPERIMENT 3D: MEASURE THE VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE
I. PURPOSE
The experiment helps student:
_ Understand the method for measuring volumetric flow rate in pipes base on the
energy and momentum conservation condition.
_ Know how to use gauge pressure measuring tube and machine.
_ Calculate volumetric flow rate from difference pressure.
II. THEORY
Orifice plat (a) and venture nozzle (b) (Figure 1) are commonly used to measure volumetric
flow rate in pipes. The flow rate is marked form the difference of pressure before and after
using devices.

Apply Bernoulli equation for the flow between cross-section before and after using devices
like Figure 1 (neglecting energy loss)
p 1 V 12 p 2 V 22
Z1 + + = z2 + + (3-1)
γk 2g γk 2 g
Q Q
Let the pipe horizontal (z1 = z2), velocity V1 = , V2 = .
A1 A2

Flow rate Q is found according to the difference pressure p1 – p2:

( ) √ ρ2 ( p − p )
2
1 πd
Q= . (3 – 2)
√ 1−β 4
4 1 2
k

With d is diameter of orifice plat or venture nozzle; D is diameter of tube; β = d/D.

When calculate to energy loss, the coefficient of flow rate C is add to the formula (3 – 2):

Q=
C
.
√ 1−β 4 4( ) √ ρ2 ( p − p )
π d2
k
1 2 (3 – 3)

C is called coefficient of flow rate, C ≤ 1.

Coefficient C depends on the shape of orifice plat or venture nozzle and Reynolds number of
flow.

III. EXPERIMENTAL DESCRIPTION

1. Orifice plat
2. Venture nozzle
3. Fans and electric motors
4. Inverter
5. Measuring tubes
6. Pressure gauges
7. Silicon tubes
1, 2, 3 and 4: order number of the measuring tubes.

The fans make flow in pipe. Inverter is used to control the fans velocity and change the
volumetric flow rate in pipe. Two devices for measuring flow rate: orifice plat and venture
nozzle are installed inside the pipes. Pressure before and after using each device are led to
gauge pressure measuring tube. The differences of pressure before and after are shown in two
ways: on two gauge pressure measuring tubes which contain water and on the gauge pressure
measuring clock.

IV. PROCEDURE
i. Carefully check the in and out mouth of the tubes.
ii. Turn on the fans switch.
iii. Adjust the inverter to about 400 – 450 turns/ min.
 iv. Read the water level in tubes 1 and 2, fill in Table 1, the first row under “gauge
pressure measuring tubes 1 and 2” column. Read the number in the manometer on
the left, fill in Table 1, the first row under “manometer” column.
v. Read the water level in tubes 3 and 4, fill in Table 2, the first row under “gauge
pressure measuring tubes 3 and 4” column. Read the number in the manometer on
the right, fill in Table 2, the first row under “manometer” column.
Repeat from step iii to v for three values of turns on the inverter: 650 – 700 turns/
min, 900 – 950 turns/ min and 1150 – 1200 turns/ min. Fill in Tables 1 and 2.
V. REPORT INTRODUCTION
 Read the temperature of atmosphere.
 Found in the appendix with specific weight ρ k of atmosphere, ρn of water and
kinematic viscosity v of atmosphere.
a. Measure the difference of pressure:
 For Orifice plat: p1− p2= ρn g( h2−h 1) (3 – 4)
With h2 and h1 are height of water level in tubes 1 and 2, calculate in meter.

 For Venture nozzle: p3− p 4=ρ n g(h 3−h 4) (3 – 5)

With h3 and h4 are height of water level in tubes 1 and 2, calculate in meter.\
b. Calculate the coefficient C:
 For Orifice plat:
o Diameter D = 149 mm, d = 65 mm
o Β = d/D = 0.436
Reynolds number:
VD
Re = (3 – 6)
v
o Coefficient C is calculates by the formula:

( )
6 0.73
10 −1
C=0.5959+0.312 β 2.1−0.1840 β 2+ 0.0029 β2.5 + 0.00390 β 4 ( 1−β 4 ) −0.0158 β3
ℜ
(3 – 7)
Because C depends on the Reynolds, so it depends on velocity V and flow rate Q.
Therefore, C must be calculated by repeat method in the table below:

V = Q/A = 4Q/ π D 2 Re Calculate C by (3 – Calculate Q by (3 –

7) 3)
Guess Q    New Q
calculated by (3
– 2)
New Q   
The process is repeated until Q value converging.
Fill the results of C and Q correspond to each frequency in to Table 1.
 For Venture nozzle:
o Diameter D = 149 mm, d = 65 mm.
o Β = d/D = 0.436
o Coefficient C is calculates by the formula:
 o C=0.9858−0.196 β 4.5
o Flow rate Q is calculated by formula (3 – 3).
Fill the results of C and Q correspond to each frequency in to Table 2.
c. Compare the difference pressure values measured by gauge pressure
measuring tube and manometer.
d. Compare the values p1 – p2, p3 – p4 and the corresponding number in the
manometer. Compute the differences:
( p1− p2 ) −¿ ¿
And
¿
( p3− p 4 )−¿ ¿ manometer on the¿
¿(% )

Fill the results to Tables 1 and 2.

e. Compare the flow rate measured by orifice plat or venture nozzle:
From the results of Q in Tables 1 and 2, draw two relating lines (Q – fans speed) for
two devices orifice plat or venture nozzle. Show the results in Graph 1. Name Graph 1.
f. Comment:
 Explain the differences between the pressure results by gauge pressure measuring
tube and manometer.
 Compare flow rate measured by two methods orifice plat or venture nozzle on Graph
1.
 Between two methods orifice plat or venture nozzle, which one more accurate? Why?

EXPERIMENT REPORT
ToC: 32.5oC
γair = 1.1649 kg/m3; νair = 1.6036*10^-2 m2/s
γwater = 995.7 kg/m3

Table 1: Orifice plat

Difference
Tube 1, Tube 2, h2-h1 Pressure (pressure gauge-
Frequency p2-p1 (Pa) C Q(m3/s)
h1 (m) h2 (m) (m) gauge (Pa) measuring tube)
(%)
428 0.273 0.281 0.008 79.656 150 46.896 0.571 2.257*10^-2

675 0.264 0.293 0.029 288.753 330 12.499 0.569 4.280*10^-2

925 0.250 0.313 0.063 627.291 620 1.176 0.568 6.298*10^-2

1175 0.232 0.328 0.096 995.872 970 1.456 0.568 7.769*10^-2

 Table 2: Ventury nozzle
Frequency Tube 3, Tube 4, h4-h3 p4-p3 (Pa) Pressure Difference C Q(m3/s)
h3 (m) h4 (m) (m) gauge (Pa) (pressure gauge-
measuring tube)
(%)
428 0.274 0.278 0.004 39.240 60 34.60 0.981 2.720*10^-2
675 0.269 0.285 0.016 156.96 140 12.114 0.981 5.441*10^-2
925 0.263 0.289 0.026 255.06 250 2.024 0.981 6.936*10^-2
1175 0.255 0.297 0.042 412.02 410 0.493 0.981 8.815*10^-2

Fan frequency - Flowrate relationship

1.000E-01
9.000E-02 8.815E-02
8.000E-02 7.769E-02
7.000E-02 6.936E-02
Flow rate (m3/s)

6.000E-02 6.298E-02
5.441E-02
5.000E-02
4.000E-02 4.280E-02
3.000E-02 2.720E-02
2.000E-02 2.257E-02
1.000E-02
0.000E+00
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Frequency (Hz)

Orifice Ventury
 EXPERIMENT 5: FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE
I. PURPOSE:
Investigate the variation of friction head along a circular pipe without pipe’s joints.
II. THEORY:
Energy equation applies for stable flow from cross-section (1 – 1) to (2 – 2) (Figure 5.1):
2 2
p1 α 1 V 1 p2 α 2 V 2
z 1+ + =z 2 + + +h f 12 (5.1)
γ 2g γ 2g
With z1, z2, p1, p2, V1, V2 is height, pressure and average velocity of the flow at two cross-
section (1 – 1) and (2 – 2); hf12 is the energy loss of the flow rate from cross-section (1 – 1) to
(2 – 2); α1 and α2 are coefficient of kinetic correction.

1. Mean of Energy
About the energy aspect z express energy of one unit liquid weight due to its position
compare to standard functional water measurement for gauge pressure; p/γ shows work due
to pressure caused by water measurement for gauge pressure; and αV 2/2g shows kinetic due
to flow velocity cause by water measurement for gauge pressure. People also call the sum z +
p/γ of stable water measurement for gauge pressure is potential of one unit liquid weight.
2. Survey the friction loss
Consider the cylindrical pipe without the joint, we have V1 = V2 and α1 = α2, formula 5.1
becomes:
 (
h f 12= z1 +
p1
γ )(
− z 2+
p2
γ ) (5.2)

Formula (5.2) shows potential of flow has reduced gradually. We can say that a part of
the flow energy has been converted to temperature due to the friction along the pipe from
cross-section (1 – 1) to (2 – 2) and loss forever. This friction loss energy we call the friction
loss along the way, hd, can be measure by using gauge pressure measuring tube to measure
the differences (figure 5.2). It principal give us the relationship:

(
h d = z1 +
12
p1
γ )(
− z 2+
p2
γ )
=h (5.3)

The problem is the friction loss along the way, hd depends on what, distance L
between two cross-section; diameter D; average velocity of flow V or others factors? All the
problems below have been solved thanks to Darcy formula:
2 2
L V L 1 Q
h s=λ =λ (5.4)
D 2g D 2 g A2

With λ is coefficient friction. Through practical, Nikuradse and Moody have shown the
graph determine λ of Reynolds function (Re), relative roughness, (ε /D ). With ε is absolute
roughness and Reynolds number: Re = VD/v, with v í the kinematic viscosity of liquid.
Then, instead of measure h to determine the friction loss along the way, in reality,
people use Darcy formula and Moody graph to calculate hd.
III. EQUIPMENT
1. Equips for experiment
 A pipe of 10.64cm diameter is supplied by water a centrifugal pump. Four test
sections with interval of 3m are connected to a bank of pressurized manometer tubes. Water
from the pipe flow into the concrete channel, and at the end of channel a vee-notch, is
installed to measure the flow rate in the channel, this flow rate is equal to the flow rate in the
pipe. Water level over the vee-notch is measured by a point gauge vernier mounted on a
small tank which is opened to the channel.
2. Other equips
The flow rate over the vee-notch is calculated by formula as follow:

Q=
8
15
tg ()
α
2
C D √ 2 g . h5/o 2

Where: α =90 o
C D =0.58
g=9.81 m/ s2
h o=ZCR −z

Where z is water level in channel, ZCR is the elevation of the crest of vee-notch, ZCR =
26.4cm.
The flow rate over the vee-notch is regulated by a control valve of pump, and an
ampere meter mounted on an electric box will show the current intensity of motor
corresponding to the flow rate in the pipe. The difference of pressure between the tests
sections in the pipe are measured by reading the water level in the tubes of manometer.
IV. PROCEDURE
 1. Before testing, check valves (2), (4) and lock (9). Make sure they are closed and
check the spindle of the pump and the motor by turning lightly to see whether it is
hard or not, if it moves are well.
2. On electric box, you press: POWER ON button and RUN/STOP button, ON button to
start the pump. Fully open the valve (4) by turning counter clockwise until it is no
longer rotatable. Note: If valve (4) does not open fully, when opening the valve (2)
will cause break the manometer tubes because of high pressure. Slowly open the valve
(2) and see the change in current intensity to the value that you need of the test. And
then close clocks (9).
3. Measurements are made twice.
4. Important note when you want to shutdown. Close valve (2), then switch off (press
the OFF button or RUN/STOP and power OFF button). Then close the valve (4)
immediately, to keep to water in the pipe.
a – The first measurement:
- Open the clock (9) of the manometer tubes at the section (1) and (2).
- Adjust the valve (2) to change the three flow rate levels corresponding to the current
of 21A < I < 26A (the first – the flow rate corresponding to I = 25A, the second flow
rate corresponding to I = 23.5A, the third flow rate corresponding to I = 22A)
- Wait for the water level in the channel to stabilize (the water level in point gauge (5)
is constant), read the following values:
 Water level in manometer tube (1)
 Water level in manometer tube (2)
 Elevation Z at point gauge and vernier (5).
- The measurement results are recorded in Table 1 of the report.
b – The second measurement:
- Adjust the valve (2) to change the five discharge levels corresponding to the current I
= 21.5A to 19.5A.
- Continue to open the locks of manometer tubes (3), (4)
- For each discharge level, wait for the water level in the channel to stabilize, taking the
following measurements:
 Reading water level from the manometer tube (1) to the manometer tube (4).
 Elevation Z at the point gauge (5).

The results are recorded in Table 1 of the report.

V. CALCULATION
1. Choose any 3 flow rate in the second time (I < 22 A), calculate the flow rate in the
pipe and energy loss between cross-section (4 – 3), (4 – 2), (4 – 1). Fill the results in
Table 2. Draw the relationship between the loss and the length for each flow rate.
Comment the shape of lines and explain.
2. With 8 flow rate measure in the second time. Calculate the flow rate Q in pipe, the
loss hd between two cross-section (1) and (2). Fill the results in Table 3. Draw the loss
hd line base on flow rate Q. Comment about the state of the function which show this
line and explain.
3. Base on all situation (8 times) in two measure, compute the flow rate, coefficient λ,
Reynolds number Re. Fill the results in Table 3.
4. Use Moody Graph to conclude about the flow state in pipe and determine significant
figures of roughness absolute values ∆.

EXPERIEMENT 5A: FRICTION LOSS IN PIPE

The water temperature toH2O = 30oC
The water kinematic viscosity v = 0.8x10-6 m2/s
I. MEASUREMENTS
Table 1

Manometer reading (cm) Water

I
No level (Z)
(Ampere) (1) (2) (3) (4)
(cm)
1 25.0 31.4 68.3 N.A N.A 7.10
2 23.5 33.7 58.7 N.A N.A 8.10
3 22.0 36.8 52.6 N.A N.A 10.50
4 21.5 30.5 43.1 56.0 68.8 12.20
5 21.0 34.3 45.7 53.7 63.7 13.50
6 20.5 37.0 46.0 52.5 60.1 14.10
7 20.0 41.1 47.9 51.2 57.3 15.00
8 19.5 42.5 48.5 50.6 53.8 16.30

II. REPORT

1. Select any three levels of flow rate at the second measurement (I<22A), calculate the
flow rate (Q) in the pipe and friction loss between the sections: 4-3, 4-2, 4-1, the
results are recorded in the Table 2. And then plot the head loss (hd) against length (L)
for each flow rate level.
I select No 4, No 6 and No 8:

Cross Length (L) Q = 0.0104 Q = 0.0073 Q = 0.0044

Section (m) hd (cm)
4-3 3 12.8 7.6 3.2
4-2 6 25.7 14.1 5.3
4-1 9 38.3 23.1 11.3
 L - H(d) Relationship
45.0

40.0
38.3
35.0

30.0
Head loss H(d) (cm)

25.0 25.7
23.1
20.0

15.0 14.1
12.8
11.3
10.0
7.6
5.0 5.3
3.2
0.0
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
Distance L (m )

H(d)4 H(d)6 H(d)8

2. With eight measured discharge levels, calculate the flow rate (Q), friction loses along
the pipe, hd, between two sections 1 and 2. The results are recorded in Table 3. And
then plot the friction loss (hd) against the flow rate (Q).

Table 3

No I (A) Q (l/s) Hd (cm) Re

1 25.0 22.422 36.9 0.0403 3.3556*10^5
2 23.5 19.629 25.0 0.0357 2.9377*10^5
3 22.0 13.812 15.8 0.0455 2.0671*10^5
4 21.5 10.411 12.6 0.0639 1.5581*10^5
5 21.0 8.189 11.4 0.0934 1.2256*10^5
6 20.5 7.270 9.0 0.0936 1.0880*10^5
7 20.0 6.012 6.8 0.1034 8.9978*10^4
8 19.5 4.442 6.0 0.1671 6.6478*10^4
 Q- H(D) Relationship
45.0
38.1
40.0
35.0
Head loss Hd (cm)

30.0 27.4
25.0
20.0 21.0
13.1
15.0 14.8
10.0
7.0
5.0 8.3
5.8
0.0 3.0
0.0040 0.0050 0.0060 0.0070 0.0080 0.0090 0.0100 0.0110 0.0120
DIscharge Q ( m3/s)

H(d)8 H(d)6 H(d)4

3. With eight measured discharge levels, calculating the Reynolds number (Re) and
friction coefficients ( ). The results are recorded in Table 3.
4. Use the Moody’s chart and mark the calculated points (value pairs and Re) on the
Moody’s chart to conclude about the flowing state in the pipe. Based on Moody’s
chart, approximate the absolute roughness value D.
 Answer:
The following state: Completely turbulence flow
/Daverage = 0.072
(absolute roughness) = /Daverage*D = 7.624 mm
Comment:

a) What is the relationship between hd and L? Is that reasonable? Why?

- The relationship between hd and L is a linear relationship.
L V2
- It is reasonable since hi , j=f , apparently hd is a linear function of L
D 2g

b) What is the relationship between hd and Q? Is that reasonable? Why?

- The relationship between hd and Q is a second- order polonomial relationship
L Q2
- It is reasonable since hi , j=f , apparently hd is a quadratic function of Q
D A2 2 g

c) Is the flowing state, relative roughness and absolute roughness reasonable? Why?
- The flowing state is normal, since complete turbulent flow is known as the most
common flow in pipe in real life.

/D = 0.072 and  = 7.624 (mm) is reasonable since the roughness is small
comparing to the diameter and large enough to create completely turbulent flow.
Besides,  appropximately equal 15 (mm) is match with the common absolute
roughness for rusty cast iron, which is the material that make the pipe