WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Business Mathematics
3. Maxima and minima of functions of one variable, monotonicity
intervals, concavity, convexity, points of in‡ection

De…nition 1 A function f has at the point x0 2 R a local minimum if

9 8 f (x) > f (x0 ) :

>0 x2(x0 ;x0 )[(x0 ;x0 + )

De…nition 2 A function f has at the point x0 2 R a local maximum if

9 8 f (x) < f (x0 ) :

>0 x2(x0 ;x0 )[(x0 ;x0 + )

Local minima and maxima of a given function are called extreme points of this
function.

Theorem 1 (Necessary condition for a local maximum or minimum) If a func-

tion f has an extreme point at x0 , then

f 0 (x0 ) = 0: (1)

For a given function f the point x0 which satis…es the condition (1) is called a
critical point or a stationary point of f:

A function f may have extreme points only at points x0 where the derivative
of this function equals zero.

1
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Example 1 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x2 which has a min-
imum value at the point x = 0.

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x2

Notice that f 0 (x) = 2x. Then we have

f 0 (x) = 0
2x = 0
x = 0:
Example 2 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x3 .

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x3

Notice that f 0 (x) = 3x2 . Then we have

f 0 (x) = 0
3x2 = 0
x2 = 0
x = 0;
but x = 0 is not an extreme value of the function f .

2
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

The condition (1) can be thought as a rule of …nding ’candidates’for the extreme
points.

Example 3 The most frequent use of the derivative occurs in problem where
we have to …nd the ’best’ value of some quantity. Such problems belong to the
part of mathematics known as optimisation.
Suppose that a …rm has cost function C, so that it costs C(q) to produce q units
of its product. Suppose also that the product can be sold at a price P (q) per unit,
depending on the quantity produced. Then the …rm’s revenue from producing q
units is
R(q) = qP (q);
and it pro…t is
(q) = R(q) C(q) = qP (q) C(q):
Clearly, the ’best’ value of q, from the …rm’s point of view, is that which max-
imises the pro…t. For example, suppose that the cost function is

C(q) = 9 + 5q

and the price function is

P (q) = 6 0:01q:
Then the pro…t function is

(q) = q(6 0:01q) (9 + 5q) = 0:01q 2 + q 9:

Let us note that

0
(q) = 0:02q + 1:
Then by Theorem 1 we have
0
(q) = 0
0:02q + 1 = 0
0:02q = 1
q = 50:
Since the parabola (q) = 0:01q 2 + q 9 opens downwards then one can con-
clude that the …rm’s pro…t will be the biggest for q = 50.

Theorem 2 (Su¢ cient condition for a local maximum) If a function f satis…es

the following conditions:
(i) f 0 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) if there exists a constant > 0 such that f 0 (x) > 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 ),
and f 0 (x) < 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ),
then f has a local maximum at the point x0 .

3
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

If the sign of derivative of a given function f changes at the point x0 from

positive to negative then x0 is a local maximum of the function f .

Theorem 3 (Su¢ cient condition for a local minimum) If a function f satis…es

the following conditions:
(i) f 0 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) if there exists a constant > 0 such that f 0 (x) < 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 ),
and f 0 (x) > 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ),
then f has a local minimum at the point x0 .

If the sign of derivative of a given function f changes at the point x0 from

negative to positive then x0 is a local minimum of the function f .

Example 4 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x3 3x2 + 4. Then

we have
f 0 (x) = 3x2 6x
f 0 (x) = 0
3x2 6x = 0
3x(x 2) = 0
3x = 0 or x 2=0
x = 0 or x = 2 - candidates for local maxima/minima

sign of f '(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

4
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

f 0 (x) > 0 for x 2 ( 1; 0) [ (2; +1)

f 0 (x) < 0 for x 2 (0; 2)
Since f 0 (x) at x = 0 changes sign from to then f (x) has a local maximum
at x = 0.
fmax (0) = 03 3 02 + 4 = 4:
Since f 0 (x) at x = 2 changes sign from to then f (x) has a local minimum
at x = 2.
fmin (2) = 23 3 22 + 4 = 0:

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x3 3x2 + 4

x
Example 5 Let us consider the following function f (x) = 1+x2 .

1 + x2 6= 0

x2 6= 1
Df = R
Then we have 0
0
(x) 1 + x2 x 1 + x2
f 0 (x) = 2
(1 + x2 )
1 1 + x2 x 2x 1 + x2 2x2 1 x2
= 2 = 2 = 2
(1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 ) (1 + x2 )
f 0 (x) = 0
1 x2
2 =0
(1 + x2 )
1 x2 = 0
(1 x)(1 + x) = 0
1 x = 0 or 1 + x = 0
x= 1 or x = 1
x = 1 or x = 1 - candidates for local maxima/minima

5
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

sign of f '(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f 0 (x) > 0 for x 2 ( 1; 1)

f 0 (x) < 0 for x 2 ( 1; 1) [ (1; +1)
Since f 0 (x) at x = 1 changes sign from to then f (x) has a local minimum
at x = 1.
1 1
fmin ( 1) = = :
1 + ( 1)2 2
Since f 0 (x) at x = 1 changes sign from to then f (x) has a local maximum
at x = 0.
1 1
fmax (1) = 2
= :
1+1 2

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

x
f (x) = 1+x2

Theorem 4 Let f be a given function and let I denotes an interval contained

in Df . If f 0 (x) > 0 for every x 2 I, then the function f is increasing on I. If
f 0 (x) < 0 for every x 2 I, then the function f is decreasing on I.
x3
Example 6 Let us consider the following function f (x) = 1 x2 .

1 x2 6= 0

6
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

(1 x)(1 + x) 6= 0
1 x 6= 0 and 1 + x 6= 0
x 6= 1 and x 6= 1
Df = R n f 1; 1g
Then we have 0 0
0 x3 1 x2 x3 1 x2
f (x) = 2
(1 x2 )
3x2 1 x2 x3 ( 2x) 3x2 3x4 + 2x4
= 2 = 2
(1 x2 ) (1 x2 )
3x2 x4 x2 3 x2
= 2 = 2
(1 x2 ) (1 x2 )
f 0 (x) > 0
x2 3 x2
2 >0
(1 x2 )
2
x2 = 0 or 3 x2 = 0 or 1 x2 = 0
p p
x = 0 or 3 x 3 + x = 0 or 1 x2 = 0
p p
x = 0 or 3 x = 0 or 3 + x = 0 or x = 1 or x = 1
p p
x = 0 or x = 3 or x = 3 or x = 1 or x = 1

sign of f '(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

p p
f 0 (x) > 0 for x 2 3; 1 [ ( 1; 0) [ (0; 1) [ 1; 3
p p
f 0 (x) < 0 for x 2 1; 3 [ 3; +1

Then by Theorem 4 we get

p p
f is increasing for x 2 3; 1 [ ( 1; 0) [ (0; 1) [ 1; 3 ;
p p
f is decreasing for x 2 1; 3 [ 3; +1 :

7
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

x3
f (x) = 1 x2

Since f is increasing for x 2 ( 1; 0) [ (0; 1) and 0 2 Df , then this situation

can be interpreted as follows: the function f is increasing on interval ( 1; 0),
at x = 0 the function f stops increasing (but only for a moment), and then (for
x 2 (0; 1)) the function f is also increasing. If we compare this consideration
3
with graph of f (x) = 1 x x2 then we can conclude that
p p
f is increasing for x 2 3; 1 [ ( 1; 1) [ 1; 3 :

Theorem 5 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:

(i) f 0 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) = ::: = f (n 1) (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (n) (x0 ) < 0,
(iii) n 2 is an even number,
then f has a local maximum at the point x0 .

Example 7 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x6 . Then

f 0 (x) = 6x5

f 0 (x) = 0
6x5 = 0
x5 = 0
x = 0 - a candidate for local maxima/minima
f 00 (x) = 30x4 , f 00 (0) = 30 04 = 0
f (3) (x) = 120x3 , f (3) (0) = 120 03 = 0
f (4) (x) = 360x2 , f (4) (0) = 360 02 = 0
f (5) (x) = 720x, f (5) (0) = 720 0 = 0
(6) (6)
f (x) = 720, f (0) = 720 < 0

8
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Then by Theorem 5 we obtain: x = 0 is a local maximum of f .

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x6

Remark 1 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:

(i) f 0 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f 00 (x0 ) < 0,
then f has a local maximum at the point x0 .

Theorem 6 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:

(i) f 0 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) = ::: = f (n 1) (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (n) (x0 ) > 0,
(iii) n 2 is an even number,
then f has a local minimum at the point x0 .

Example 8 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x4 . Then

f 0 (x) = 4x3

f 0 (x) = 0
4x3 = 0
x3 = 0
x = 0 - a candidate for local maxima/minima
f 00 (x) = 12x2 , f 00 (0) = 12 02 = 0
f (3) (x) = 24x, f (3) (0) = 24 0 = 0
f (4) (x) = 24, f (4) (0) = 24 > 0

9
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Then by Theorem 6 we obtain: x = 0 is a local minimum of f .

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x4

Remark 2 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:

(i) f 0 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f 00 (x0 ) > 0,
then f has a local minimum at the point x0 .
x
Example 9 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x2 +4 .

x2 + 4 6= 0

x2 6= 4
Df = R
Then 0
0
0 (x) x2 + 4 x x2 + 4
f (x) = 2
(x2 + 4)
1 x2 + 4 x 2x x2 + 4 2x2 4 x2
= 2 = 2 = 2
(x2 + 4) (x2 + 4) (x2 + 4)
f 0 (x) = 0
4 x2
2 =0
(x2 + 4)
4 x2 = 0
(2 x) (2 + x) = 0
2 x = 0 or 2 + x = 0
x = 2 or x = 2 - candidates for local maxima/minima
!0
2
4 x
f 00 (x) = 2
(x2 + 4)

10
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

h i
0 2 2 0
4 x2 x2 + 4 4 x2 x2 + 4
= 4
(x2 + 4)
2 0
2x x2 + 4 4 x2 2 x2 + 4 x2 + 4
= 4
(x2 + 4)
2
2x x2 + 4 4 x2 2 x2 + 4 2x
= 4
(x2 + 4)
2 2
x +4 2x x +4 4 x2 2 2x
= 4
(x2 + 4)
2x x2 + 4 4 x2 4x
= 3
(x2 + 4)
2x 3
8x 16x + 4x 3
2x3 24x 2x x2 12
= 3 = 3 = 3
(x2 + 4) (x2 + 4) (x2 + 4)
2 ( 2) ( 2)2 12 4 ( 8) 4 4 1
f 00 ( 2) = 3 = = 2 = = > 0:
[( 2)2 + 4] 83 8 64 16
Thus, the function f has a local minimum at x = 2, i.e.
2 2 1
fmin ( 2) = = = :
( 2)2 +4 8 4

Furthermore
2 2 22 12 4 ( 8) 4 4 1
f 00 (2) = 3 = = = = < 0:
(22 + 4) 83 82 64 16

Thus, the function f has a local maximum at x = 2, i.e.

2 2 1
fmax (2) = = = :
22 + 4 8 4

1.0
f(x)
0.5

-4 -2 2 4
x
-0.5

-1.0
x
f (x) = x2 +4

11
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Theorem 7 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:

(i) f 0 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) = ::: = f (n 1) (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (n) (x0 ) 6= 0,
(iii) n 2 is an odd number,
then f does not have an extreme point at x0 .

Remark 3 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:

(i) f 0 (x0 ) = f 00 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (3) (x0 ) 6= 0,
then f does not have an extreme point at x0 .

Example 10 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x3 . Then

f 0 (x) = 3x2

f 0 (x) = 0
3x2 = 0
x2 = 0
x = 0 - a candidate for local maxima/minima
f 00 (x) = 6x; f 00 (0) = 6 0 = 0
f (3) (x) = 6; f (3) (0) = 6 6= 0
Then by Theorem 7 we obtain: f does not have an extreme point at x = 0.

De…nition 3 A number m 2 R is a global minimum of a function f on a set

A Df , if
9 f (x0 ) = m and 8 f (x) m:
x0 2A x2A

De…nition 4 A number M 2 R is a global maximum of a function f on a set

A Df , if
9 f (x0 ) = M and 8 f (x) M:
x0 2A x2A

Example 11 Let us consider the following graph:

20
f(x)
15

10

-1 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
f (x) = 0:75x4 + 7x3 21x2 + 24x; x 2 R

12
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

This function has one local minimum, but this local minimum is not a global
minimum. Moreover, this function has two local maxima, but only one of them
is a global maximum of this function.

Example 12 Let us consider the following graph:

800
f(x)
700

600

500

400

300
0 5 10 15
x
f (x) = 2x3 45x2 + 300x; x 2 R
This function has one local minimum and one local maximum, but a global
minimum and a global maximum of this function does not exist.

Example 13 Let us consider the following function

f (x) = 2x3 3x2 36x 8 for x 2 [ 3; 6] :

Below we will …nd the global minimum and the global maximum of f . Let us
note that

f ( 3) = 2 ( 3)3 3 ( 3)2 36 ( 3) 8
= 2 ( 27) 3 9 + 108 8
= 54 27 + 100 = 81 + 100 = 19;

f (6) = 2 63 3 62 36 6 8
= 2 216 3 36 216 8
= 432 108 216 8 = 100;

i.e. x = 3 and x = 6 are candidates for the global minimum and the global
maximum of f . Now we will …nd extreme points of f for x 2 ( 3; 6).

f 0 (x) = 6x2 6x 36

f 0 (x) = 0
6x2 6x 36 = 0
x2 x 6=0
2
= ( 1) 4 1 ( 6) = 25 > 0 (two solutions)
p
=5

13
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

5 1 4
x1 = = = 2 2 ( 3; 6)
2 2
1+5 6
x2 = = = 3 2 ( 3; 6)
2 2
x1 ; x2 - candidates for local maxima/minima
0
f 00 (x) = 6x2 6x 36 = 12x 6
00
f ( 2) = 12 ( 2) 6= 24 6= 30 < 0
f has a local maximum at x = 2

3 2
fmax ( 2) = 2 ( 2) 3 ( 2) 36 ( 2) 8
= 2 ( 8) 3 4 + 72 8
= 16 12 + 64 = 36

f 00 (3) = 12 3 6 = 36 6 = 30 > 0
f has a local minimum at x = 3

fmin (3) = 2 33 3 32 36 3 8
= 2 27 3 9 108 8
= 54 27 116 = 89:

Thus
f ( 3) = 19;
f (6) = 100;
fmax ( 2) = 36;
fmin (3) = 89
are candidates for the global minimum and the global maximum of f , but only

fmin (3) = 89 is the global minimum of f

and
f (6) = 100 is the global maximum of f:

100
y

50

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x
-50

f (x) = 2x3 3x2 36x 8

14
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

De…nition 5 A function f is (strictly) convex on the interval (a; b) ; where

1 a < b 1, if

8 8 f ( x1 + (1 ) x2 ) < f (x1 ) + (1 ) f (x2 ) :

a<x1 <x2 <b 0< <1

A function is (strictly) convex on an interval of x if for any two points in the

interval the function lies below the stright line connecting the corresponding
points on the graph.

A function f is convex if its graph is ’hollow from above’.

De…nition 6 A function f is (strictly) concave on the interval (a; b), where

1 a < b 1, if

8 8 f ( x1 + (1 ) x2 ) > f (x1 ) + (1 ) f (x2 ) :

a<x1 <x2 <b 0< <1

A function is (strictly) concave on an interval of x if for any two points in the

interval the function lies above the stright line connecting the corresponding
points on the graph.

A function f is concave if its graph is ’hollow from below’.

Theorem 8 (Su¢ cient condition for a (strictly) convexity) If f 00 (x) > 0 for
every x 2 (a; b), then f is convex on (a; b).

A (strictly) convex function on [a; b] has the unique global minimum on this
interval.
We will say that a function in convex if this function is convex for every x 2 Df :

15
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Theorem 9 (Su¢ cient condition for a (strictly) concavity) If f 00 (x) < 0 for
every x 2 (a; b), then f is concave on (a; b).

A (strictly) concave function on [a; b] has the unique global maximum on this
interval.
We will say that a function in concave if this function is concave for every
x 2 Df :
3
Example 14 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x2x+12 . Below we
will …nd intervals on which this function is convex and intervals on which this
function is concave.
x2 + 12 6= 0
x2 6= 12
Df = R
3 0 0
0 x x2 + 12 x3 x2 + 12
f (x) = 2
(x2 + 12)
3x2 x2 + 12 x3 2x 3x4 + 36x2 2x4
= 2 = 2
(x2 + 12) (x2 + 12)
x4 + 36x2
= 2
(x2 + 12)
!0
00 x4 + 36x2
f (x) = 2
(x2 + 12)
h i
0 2 2 0
x4 + 36x2 x2 + 12 x4 + 36x2 x2 + 12
= 4
(x2 + 12)
2 0
4x3 + 72x x2 + 12 x4 + 36x2 2 x2 + 12 x2 + 12
= 4
(x2 + 12)
2
4x3 + 72x x2 + 12 x4 + 36x2 2 x2 + 12 2x
= 4
(x2 + 12)
x2 + 12 4x3 + 72x x2 + 12 x4 + 36x2 2 2x
= 4
(x2 + 12)
4x3 + 72x x2 + 12 x4 + 36x2 4x
= 3
(x2 + 12)
5 3 3
4x + 48x + 72x + 864x 4x5 144x3
= 3
(x2 + 12)
24x3 + 864x 24x x2 36
= 3 = 3
(x2 + 12) (x2 + 12)
f 00 (x) > 0

16
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

24x x2 36
3 >0
(x2 + 12)
3
24x = 0 or x2 36 = 0 or x2 + 12 =0
2
x = 0 or (x 6) (x + 6) = 0 or x + 12 = 0
x = 0 or x 6 = 0 or x + 6 = 0 or x2 = 12
x = 0 or x = 6 or x = 6

40
sign of f ''(x)
20

-40 -30 -20 -10 10 20 30 40

x
-20

-40

f 00 (x) > 0 for x 2 ( 1; 6) [ (0; 6)

f 00 (x) < 0 for x 2 ( 6; 0) [ (6; +1)
Then by Theorem 8 and 9 we have
f is convex for x 2 ( 1; 6) [ (0; 6) ;
f is concave for x 2 ( 6; 0) [ (6; +1) :

10
f(x)
5

-12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10 12
x
-5

-10
x3
f (x) = x2 +12

De…nition 7 A point x0 2 R is called a point of in‡ection of a given function

f , if there exists a constant > 0 such that f is (strictly) convex on (x0 ; x0 )
and (strictly) concave on (x0 ; x0 + ) or f is (strictly) concave on (x0 ; x0 )
and (strictly) convex on (x0 ; x0 + ).

17
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

A point x0 where a given function changes from (strictly) concave to (strictly)

convex or from (strictly) convex to (strictly) concave is called a point of in‡ection
of f .

Example 15 Below we will present graphs of functions which have a point of

in‡ection.

f(x) 4
f(x) 4

2 2

-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
x x
-2 -2

-4 -4

f(x) 4
f(x) 4

2 2

-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
x x
-2 -2

-4 -4

Example 16 Below we will present graphs of functions which don’t have a point
of in‡ection.

f(x) 4
f(x) 4

2 2

-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
x x
-2 -2

-4 -4

18
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

f(x) 4
f(x) 4

2 2

-4 -2 2 4 -4 -2 2 4
x x
-2 -2

-4 -4

Theorem 10 (Necessary condition for a point of in‡ection) If x0 is a point of

in‡ection of a given function f , then

f 00 (x0 ) = 0: (2)

A function may have a point of in‡ection only at point which satis…es condition
(2). Condition (2) can be thought as a rule for …nding ’candidates’for points
of in‡ection.
1
Example 17 Let us consider the following function f (x) = 1 x2 .

1 x2 6= 0

(1 x) (1 + x) 6= 0
1 x 6= 0 and 1 + x 6= 0
x 6= 1 and x 6= 1
Df = R n f 1; 1g
0
10 1 x2 1 1 x2
f 0 (x) = 2
(1 x2 )
0 1 x2 1 ( 2x) 2x
= 2 = 2
(1 x2 ) (1 x2 )
!0
2x
f 00 (x) = 2
(1 x2 )
h i
0 2 2 0
(2x) 1 x2 2x 1 x2
= h i2
2
(1 x2 )
2 0
2 1 x2 2x 2 1 x2 1 x2
= 4
(1 x2 )

19
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

2
2 1 x2 2x 2 1 x2 ( 2x)
= 4
(1 x2 )
2
1 x 2 1 x2 2x 2 ( 2x)
= 4
(1 x2 )
2 1 x2 + 8x2 2 2x2 + 8x2 6x2 + 2
= 3 = 3 = 3
(1 x2 ) (1 x2 ) (1 x2 )
Then by Theorem 10 we have
f 00 (x) = 0
6x2 + 2
3 =0
(1 x2 )
6x2 + 2 = 0
6x2 = 2
1
x2 =
3
no solutions
no candidates for a point of in‡ection

Theorem 11 (Su¢ cient condition for a point of in‡ection) If a function f sat-

is…es the following conditions:
(i) f 00 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) if there exists a constant > 0 such that f 00 (x) < 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 ),
and f 00 (x) > 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ),
then x0 is a point of in‡ection of the function f .

Theorem 12 (Su¢ cient condition for a point of in‡ection) If a function f sat-

is…es the following conditions:
(i) f 00 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) if there exists a constant > 0 such that f 00 (x) > 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 ),
and f 00 (x) < 0 for every x 2 (x0 ; x0 + ),
then x0 is a point of in‡ection of the function f .

If the sign of second derivative of a given function f changes at the point x0 from
positive to negative or from negative to positive then x0 is a point of in‡ection

20
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

of the function f .

Example 18 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x4 12x3 + 48x2 .

Notice that
f 0 (x) = 4x3 36x2 + 96x
f 00 (x) = 12x2 72x + 96
00
f (x) = 0
2
12x 72x + 96 = 0
2
x 6x + 8 = 0
2
= ( 6) 4 1 8 = 36 32 = 4
p
=2
6 2 4
x1 = = =2
2 2
6+2 8
x2 = = =4
2 2
x1 = 2; x2 = 4 - candidates for point of in‡ection

sign of f ''(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

21
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Since f 00 (x) at x = 2 changes sign then f (x) has a point of in‡ection at x = 2.

Since f 00 (x) at x = 4 changes sign then f (x) has a point of in‡ection at x = 4.

400
f(x)
300

200

100

-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x
f (x) = x4 12x3 + 48x2

Theorem 13 (Su¢ cient condition for a point of in‡ection) If a function f

satis…es the following conditions:
(i) f 00 (x0 ) = f (3) (x0 ) = ::: = f (n 1) (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (n) (x0 ) 6= 0,
(iii) n 3 is an odd number,
then x0 is a point of in‡ection of the function f .

Example 19 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x5 .

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x5

Then
f 0 (x) = 5x4
f 00 (x) = 20x3
f 00 (x) = 0
20x3 = 0

22
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

x3 = 0
x = 0 - a candidate for point of in‡ection
f (3) (x) = 60x2 , f (3) (0) = 60 02 = 0
f (4) (x) = 120x, f (4) (0) = 120 0 = 0
f (5) (x) = 120, f (5) (0) = 120 6= 0
x = 0 is a point of in‡ection of the function f
Remark 4 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:
(i) f 00 (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (3) (x0 ) 6= 0,
then x0 is a point of in‡ection of the function f .
Example 20 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x99 + x3 . Then
f 0 (x) = 99x98 + 3x2
f 00 (x) = 99 98 x97 + 6x
f 00 (x) = 0
99 98 x97 + 6x = 0
x 99 98 x96 + 6 = 0
x = 0 or 99 98 x96 + 6 = 0
x = 0 or 99 98 x96 = 6
6
x = 0 or x96 = < 0 (no solutions)
99 98
x = 0 - a candidate for point of in‡ection
f (3) (x) = 99 98 97 x96 + 6, f (3) (0) = 6 6= 0
x = 0 is a point of in‡ection of the function f

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
-2 x
-4

f (x) = x99 + x3

Theorem 14 (Su¢ cient condition for a point of in‡ection) If a function f

satis…es the following conditions:
(i) f 00 (x0 ) = f (3) (x0 ) = ::: = f (n 1) (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (n) (x0 ) 6= 0,
(iii) n 3 is an even number,
then x0 is not a point of in‡ection of the function f .

23
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Example 21 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x6 .

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x6

Then
f 0 (x) = 6x5
f 00 (x) = 30x4
f 00 (x) = 0
30x4 = 0
x4 = 0
x = 0 - a candidate for point of in‡ection
f (3) (x) = 120x3 ; f (3) (0) = 120 03 = 0
f (4) (x) = 360x2 ; f (4) (0) = 360 02 = 0
f (5) (x) = 720x; f (5) (0) = 720 0 = 0
f (6) (x) = 720; f (6) (0) = 720 6= 0
x = 0 is not a point of in‡ection of the function f:

Remark 5 If a function f satis…es the following conditions:

(i) f 00 (x0 ) = f (3) (x0 ) = 0,
(ii) f (4) (x0 ) 6= 0,
then x0 is not a point of in‡ection of the function f .

24
WSB University in Poznań Business Mathematics, Poznań 2019

Example 22 Let us consider the following function f (x) = x4 .

f(x) 4

-4 -2 2 4
x
-2

-4

f (x) = x4

Then
f 0 (x) = 4x3
f 00 (x) = 12x2
f 00 (x) = 0
12x2 = 0
x2 = 0
x = 0 - a candidate for point of in‡ection
f (3) (x) = 24x; f (3) (0) = 24 0 = 0
f (4) (x) = 24; f (4) (0) = 24 6= 0
x = 0 is not a point of in‡ection of the function f:

25