PN-Junction Under Forward Bias

• Under Forward bias, the internal electric field is

reduced and the built-in voltage barrier is reduced
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
But how does current flow?
Qualitatively
• Internal voltage barrier is reduced  drift current is
reduced and the diffusion current dominates
• P-holes diffuse from the “p” region into the “n” region
(minority carriers are injected in the “n” region. Similarly,
minority electrons are injected in the “p” region
• The injected holes travel (continue to diffuse) inside the
“n” region and all eventually re-combine (long-diode)
with majority carriers (free electrons). Those free
electrons that recombined with the holes are
replenished from the battery and current flows.
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
But how does current flow?
Qualitatively
• Similarly, the injected electrons travel (continue to
diffuse) inside the “p” region and all eventually re-
combine (long-diode) with majority carriers (free holes).
Those holes that recombined with the electrons are
replenished from the battery and current flows.

• Notice how the majority carriers are only responding to

the minority carriers. The flow of the minority carriers is
what determines the current.
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
But how does current flow?
Quantitative Analysis
• The minority carriers will be injected in the opposite
type due to lower voltage barrier.
• In order to obtain the magnitude of the current, we ask:
what are the equations that govern carriers in
semiconductors?
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Equations Governing Semiconductors
1. Poisson’s Equation as mentioned prior
Wherever there is a space charge, there is an electric field
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Equations Governing Semiconductors
2. Current equation (as given prior)
An electric field gives rise to a drift current; A concentration
profile gives rise to a diffusion current
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Equations Governing Semiconductors
3. Current continuity equation
Current out = current in, unless there is a buildup in carrier
profile or there is recombination

𝜕n 1 𝜕𝐽(𝑥)
= − (𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺𝑛 )
𝜕t 𝑞 𝜕𝑥

Net recombination
𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑝𝑜
=
𝜏𝑛
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Equations Governing Semiconductors
1. Poisson’s Equation
2. Current equation
3. Continuity equation

To analyze the flow of the minority carriers in the

semiconductor, we solve the above equations.
But first, we must obtain the boundary conditions
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Boundary conditions
For a zero-bias junction, we have shown that
𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷 𝑝𝑝𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑜
𝜓𝑜 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 2
= 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑖 2
and
𝑛𝑖 2 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜 𝑛𝑝𝑜 =𝑛𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑛𝑜
so 𝑛𝑛𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑜
𝜓𝑜 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑝𝑛𝑜

𝑛𝑝𝑜 = 𝑛𝑛𝑜 𝑒 −𝜓𝑜 𝑉𝑇

𝑝𝑛𝑜 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜 𝑒 −𝜓𝑜 𝑉𝑇
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Boundary conditions
For a forward-bias junction, the boundary condition
can be obtained by simply substituting o with o-V

𝑛𝑝 = 𝑛𝑛𝑜 𝑒 −(𝜓𝑜 −𝑉) 𝑉𝑇

𝑝𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑜 𝑒 −(𝜓𝑜 −𝑉) 𝑉𝑇

and 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑝𝑜 = 𝑛𝑝𝑜 (𝑒 𝑉 𝑉𝑇

− 1)
𝑝𝑛 − 𝑝𝑛𝑜 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 (𝑒 𝑉 𝑉𝑇
− 1)
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Let us now solve the equations for electrons injected in p-region

• First, we must realize that there is no space-charge

in the p-region outside the depletion region (neutral
region)
– Even though the minority carriers can take a profile, the
majority carriers are attracted to them and the space
maintains its neutrality.
– Thus there is no electric field and there is no drift current
component in the neutral region
– This is true to low-level injection
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Let us now solve the equations for electrons injected in p-region

• Thus the continuity equation reduces to

Diffusion current only

zero at SS
𝜕n 1 𝜕𝐽(𝑥) 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑝𝑜
= −
𝜕t 𝑞 𝜕𝑥 𝜏𝑛

2
𝜕 n 𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑝𝑜
− = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Let us now solve the equations for electrons injected in p-region

• Solving this equation, the space profile of the

minority carriers is

𝑛𝑝 − 𝑛𝑝𝑜 = 𝑛𝑝𝑜 (𝑒 𝑉 𝑉𝑇
− 1)𝑒 (𝑥+𝑥𝑝) 𝐿𝑛

𝑝𝑛 − 𝑝𝑛𝑜 = 𝑝𝑛𝑜 (𝑒 𝑉 𝑉𝑇
− 1)𝑒 −(𝑥−𝑥𝑛) 𝐿𝑝

where
𝐿𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛 𝜏𝑛 𝐿𝑝 = 𝐷𝑝 𝜏𝑝
PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
Let us now solve the equations for electrons injected in p-region

• Since we know the concentration profile of minority

carriers, we can obtain the diffusion current

𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑉 𝑉𝑇
𝐽𝑛 (𝑥) = (𝑒 − 1)𝑒 −𝑥 𝐿𝑛
𝐿𝑛
And at the boundary
𝑞𝐷𝑛 𝑛𝑝𝑜 𝑉 𝑉𝑇
𝐽𝑛 (0) = (𝑒 − 1)
𝐿𝑛
𝑞𝐷𝑝 𝑝𝑛𝑜 𝑉 𝑉𝑇
𝐽𝑝 (0) = (𝑒 − 1)
𝐿𝑝
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias

Notice that current in depletion region is flat

 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias

• Total Current in diode is the summation of the

currents in the depletion region
 PN-Junction Under Forward Bias
• The equation obtained describes the d.c.
characteristics of the diode under forward bias
• But what is the equivalent of the diode if excited by a
small a.c. signal on top of it’s bias operating point?
• By using the same equation derived for d.c. C/Cs, we
can show that the diode behaves as a resistor with
value VT/I
• It also exhibits a capacitance parallel to the resistance
representing the time needed for the minority carriers
to take a new profile every time the bias voltage
changes (diffusion capacitance)
𝜏𝑝 𝐼
𝐶𝐷 =
2𝑉𝑇
 PN-Junction Under Reverse Bias

• Under Reverse bias, the previous equation is valid. Clearly,

since V is negative, the current reduces to the small
saturation current for any reverse voltage
PN-Junction Under Reverse Bias
PN-Junction Under Reverse Bias
PN-Junction Under Reverse Bias
 PN-Junction Under Reverse Bias
Breakdown: Avalanch breakdown
• If a stray hole enters the depletion region, it acquires
great kinetic energy due to the large electric field. It
may collide with the lattice and produce another
electron-hole pair, which may in turn collide with the
lattice and produce other pairs, etc
 PN-Junction Under Reverse Bias
Breakdown: Zener breakdown
• If we make the depletion region
very thin and when the electric
field is very large, electrons
attached to the ions in the
depletion region may ‘tunnel’
through the depletion region by
means of ‘quantum mechanical
tunneling’ producing a large
reverse electric current
• This happens at a certain voltage
and produces a ‘sharp’
breakdown curve  useful for
reference generation