Semiconductor Devices Part1

DEPARTMENT OF FRESHMAN
ENGINEERING PROGRAM
Basic Electronics (Mechanical Sciences) Course code:15EECF101

Chapter 2: Semiconductor devices and Applications

This chapter discusses about the different types of semiconductor devices and
their applications.
The contents of the chapter are as follows:-
1. PN junction diode , Characteristics and parameters
2. Diode approximations, Half wave rectifier
3. Full wave rectifier
4. Full wave bridge rectifier
5. Rectifiers with capacitor filter
6. Zener diode
7. Voltage regulator design, numerical
8. BJT
9. UJT
10. MOSFET

Freshman Basic Electronics Team(2016‐17) 1

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2.1 P-N junction diode:
A P-N junction diode is a two terminal unidirectional device with a p-type

anode & n-type cathode.
Fig 1. Symbol of Diode(forward bias and reversed bias)
The symbol of the diode is shown in the figure 1. It is said to be forward biased
when its anode is kept at positive potential with respect to its cathode. Under
these conditions, it offers a low resistance to the flow of current, & acts a
closed switch. Current flowing in this condition is called forward current, IF.
On the other hand, It is said to be reverse biased when its anode is kept at
negative potential with respect to its cathode. Under these conditions, it offers a
very high resistance to the flow of current, & acts as a open switch. Current
flowing in this condition is called reverse current, IR.
It is clear that | IF| >> | IR|


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2.1.1 Characteristics Of Diode:
Forward and Reverse characteristics of a silicon diode:-
A diode conducts a large forward current, IF when forward biased with its anode
at +ve potential with respect to its cathode. It conducts a comparatively much
smaller reverse current, when reverse biased with its anode at a negative
potential with respect to its cathode.
Fig 2. Forward and reverse characteristics of a silicon diode
The forward and reverse characteristics of silicon diode is shown in the Figure
2. Observe that the forward current, IF remains very low until the forward –bias
voltage across the diode exceeds about 0.7 V, beyond which the current rapidly
increases and the diode is said to be ON.


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Summary:-
¾ Large change in forward current ∆IF corresponds to a very small change
in forward voltage ∆VF.
¾ This voltage of 0.7 V is called the cut-in voltage Vγ. Diode is ON when
VF > Vγ.
¾ Voltage of 75 V at which p-n junction breaks down is called reverse
breakdown voltage, | IR| << | IF|
2.1.2 Diode Parameters:-
1) Forward voltage drop:- It is the voltage drop across a diode when it

conducts. The forward bias voltage must exceed this voltage before the
diode begins to conduct large currents. It is also referred to as the cut-in
voltage Vy and is about 0.6 V to 0.7 V for Silicon diodes and about 0.2 V
to 0.3 V for Germanium diodes.
2) Maximum forward current:- It is the maximum current flowing

through a diode under forward bias condition, without permanent damage
to the p-n junction due to over heating. It is denoted as IF(max). Diode
circuits must be designed for currents well with in this value.
3) Reverse saturation current:- The reverse saturation current IR(sat) is the

nominal current, which flows through the diode when it is reverse biased.
It is in the order of nA for Silicon diodes and of the order of µA in case
of Germanium diodes.
4) Reverse breakdown voltage:- The reverse breakdown voltage, VBR is the

reverse bias voltage at which the p-n junction breaks down and
permanently damages the diode.


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Diodes which can recover after such breakdown are called Zener diodes
which have application in voltage regulation. The reverse breakdown
voltage is less than 50V for silicon diodes and about 100V for
Germanium diodes.
5) Dynamic resistance:- The dynamic resistance or ac resistance or

incremental resistance, rd of a diode is the reciprocal of the slope of the
forward characteristics beyond its knee(cut-in voltage).
Fig 3: Forward characteristics of the silicon diode
2.1.3 Characteristics Of Ideal diode:
The characteristics of the ideal diode are as follows
Ideally, It is said that

1) Forward resistance, Rf=0
2) Reverse resistance, Rr=∞
3) Forward Voltage drop, Vγ=0


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Note that Rf =0 represents a short circuit or a switch in closed condition, while

RR = ∞ represents a open circuit or a switch in open condition.
The ideal characteristics of a silicon diode is shown in the figure 4.With

reference to the figure 4 it can be said that Rf =0 implies, Slope of the forward
characteristics is infinite, represented by a vertical line. Rr =∞, implies that the
slope is zero ie., a horizontal line. VY=0 implies that current rapidly increases
for forward voltages just beyond 0V.
The practical diode characteristics of Silicon and Germanium diode is shown in

the figure 5.
Fig 4. Ideal characteristics of a silicon diode.


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Fig 5. Practical diode characteristics of Silicon and Germanium diode
2.1.4 Applications Of Diode:-
One of the major application of diode as a rectifier is discussed below in detail.
Rectifiers:
Rectifier is an electronic device which converts the alternating current to

unidirectional current, in other words rectifier converts the AC voltage to DC
voltage. Rectifier is used in almost all the electronic devices to convert the
mains voltage into DC voltage. Since most of the electronic devices will work
on only DC supply voltage, where semiconductor diodes are used as rectifying
elements. As semiconductor diodes conduct current in the forward direction and
block current in the other direction, they can be used for rectification.
Examples:- Power Supply, Amplifiers, Oscillators require 5V to 25V of DC
The rectifiers can be classified as follows
1) Half wave rectifier

2) Full wave rectifier(Two diodes and four diodes bridge rectifier)


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2.1.5 Half Wave Rectifier:-
The half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier that rectifies only half cycle of the
ac input. The circuit diagram of half wave rectifier is shown in the Figure 6. It
consists of a step down transformer with N1:N2(winding ratio), a diode
connected to the transformer and a load resistance RL connected to the cathode
end of the diode.
Fig 6. Circuit Diagram Of Half Wave Rectifier


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Fig 7. Waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier


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In the circuit, shown in figure 6,
V1= Vm sin wt ; instantaneous supply voltage
V2 = N2 x V1
N1
V2 = N2 x Vm sin wt; instantaneous secondary voltage.
N1
Operation:- A step down transformer is used to reduce the available ac voltage
to the required level. RL represents the load which consumes power from the
rectifier.
(a) During the positive half-cycle of ac supply, the voltage at point C is

positive. Hence, diode conducts and the current i o follows the path C-D 1- E-F-
D-C. The load voltage is given by V o = i o RL.
(b) During the negative half-cycle of ac supply, the voltage at point C is

negative. Therefore the diode gets reverse biased and the current i o is zero as a
result V o = 0. Note that the load current flows only for the positive half-cycle
and is zero for the negative half-cycle.
Efficiency Of Half Wave Rectifier:-
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the dc output power to the ac input power
supplied to the rectifier.
It is defined as ƞr
Therefore Ƞr = --------------(1)


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where,
Pdc ---->is the dc output power of the rectifier
Pi ------>is the ac input power to the rectifier
and Pdc = [Idc]²RL-----------(2)
For half wave rectifier, the equation for Idc is given as
Idc = [ ]----------------(3)
Substituting the equation 3) in equation 2) we get,
Pdc = -------------(4)
ac power input to the rectifier is given by
Pi = [Irms]²[Rf+RL] -----------(5)
But Irms =
Using this relation in equation (5) we get
Pi = [Rf+RL]-------------(6)
Substituting (5) & (6) in (1) we get,
Ƞr = =


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%ƞr =
If the diode is ideal, Rf=0

Therefore % ƞr max = 40.6
Hence half wave rectifier has a very poor rectification efficiency.
Ripple Factor Of Half Wave Rectifier:-
Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of ac component present in the rectified
output to the dc component of the rectified output. It is denoted by γ.
γ= ----------(1)
Vac------->is the RMS Value of ac component present in the rectified

output
Vdc ------->is the dc component of the Rectifier
As the total power output is the sum of powers of dc and ac component, we get
(Vrms)²= (Vdc)²+(Vac)²
Dividing throughout by Vdc², we get


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-------(2)
But,
γ=
Therefore = 1+γ²
Or γ² =
γ =√ ---------- (3)
Vrms =
and Vdc =
Therefore
Using this relation in equation (3)
We have,
γ=√
γ = 1.21


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In a half-wave rectifier, the ac or ripple component is 121% of the dc

component i.e. ac component is greater than dc component. Hence, half –wave
rectifier is not used for practical applications.
2.1.6 Full Wave Rectifier:-
i) Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes:-
Fig 8: Circuit Diagram Of Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes
where,
V 1 = Vm sin wt---------------------------------------------------------------------1)
V2 = (N2/ N 1) v 1 = (N2/ N 1) Vm sin wt-------------------------------------------2)
Where, V1 is the instantaneous ac supply voltage.
V2 is the instantaneous secondary voltage.
N1/ N2 is the turns ratio of transformer.


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Fig 9. Waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes


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The circuit diagram of full wave rectifier using two diodes is shown in the
Figure 8.
Operation:-A step down transformer is used to reduce the ac supply voltage to

the required level. Center tapping in the secondary of the transformer is done to
obtain two equal voltage but of opposite phase.
During the positive half-cycle of the ac supply, the voltage at point C is positive
and the voltage at point D is negative. Consequently Diode D1 conducts and D2
remains off. The current follows the path C- D1- E-F-O-C. Hence, during the
positive half cycle the output obtained can be considered as i o = i d1.
During the negative half- cycle of the ac supply, the voltage at point D is
positive and the voltage at point D is positive and the voltage at point C is
negative . Thus, D2 conducts and D1 is off. Accordingly, the current follows the
path D-D2-E- F-O-D. Hence, during the negative half cycle the output obtained
can be considered as i o = i d2. i o flows from E to F. Hence, i o is unidirectional.
Resultant current and voltage curves are shown in Figure 9.
Efficiency Of Full Wave Rectifier:-
Efficiency of Rectification, ƞr = --------------------(1)
Pdc = dc output power

= Vdc . Idc
= Idc². RL ( Because Vdc = Idc RL)
The equation for Idc can be written as
Idc = ---------------------------(2)


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Substituting equation 2) in the Pdc equation we get,

Pdc = -------------------------------(3)
Pi = ac input power
The equation for ac input power can be written as
Pi= (Irms)² (Rf+RL)---------------------(4)
The equation for Irms can be written as
Irms = ------------------------------------------------------(5)
Substituting the equation 5) in equation 4) we get,
Pi = --------------------(6)
Substituting (3) & (6) in (1) we get
Ƞr =
If diode is ideal Rf & RL = 0
Therefore %ƞrmax =81.2

Hence the rectification efficiency of full-wave rectifier is twice that of half—
wave rectifier.


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Ripple factor of Full wave Rectifier:-
The equation for Ripple factor can be written as
γ= ----------------1)
Vac------> RMS value of ripple component of load voltage
Vdc -----> dc value of load voltage
We know that,
Vrms² = Vdc² + Vac²-------------2)
where,
Vrms is the total RMS value of load voltage
Dividing the equation 2) throughout by Vdc² we have
= 1+
But, γ =
The equation for Vrms and Vdc can be written as
Vrms= ---------------3)
Vdc = -------------4)
Therefore


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Using the equations 3) and 4) in equation (1)
We have
γ=
γ = 0.483
Thus, In a full-wave rectifier, the rms value of ripple content is 48.3% of dc

value. Since the ripple content is less than the dc value, full-wave rectifier
provides more dc voltage output than a half-wave rectifier.
ii) Full Wave Bridge Rectifier:-
Bridge rectifier is a type of rectifier in which diodes will be arranged in the

form of a bridge. This provides full wave rectification. In bridge rectifier four
diodes will be used. These four diodes are connected in the form of a bridge to
the transformer as shown in the Figure 10.


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Fig 10. Circuit Diagram Of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
where,
V 1 = Vm sin wt-----------------------------------------------------------------1)
V2 = (N2/ N 1) v 1 = (N2/ N 1) Vm sin wt---------------------------------------2)
Where, V1 is the instantaneous ac supply voltage.
V2 is the instantaneous secondary voltage.
N1/ N2 is the turns ratio of transformer.


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Fig 11. Waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier Bridge Rectifier


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Operation:- During the positive half- cycle of ac supply, the voltage at point C
is positive-going with respect to point D. Diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased
and D3 and D4 are reverse biased. The current follows the path C- D1- E-F- D2-
D-C. Hence, during the positive half cycle the output obtained can be
considered as i o= i d1= i d2.
During negative half- cycle of the ac supply, the voltage at point D is positive-
going with respect to point C. Diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and
D2are reverse biased. The current follows the path D-D3-E- F- D4-C-D. Hence,
during the positive half cycle the output obtained can be considered as i o = i d3=
id4.
Note that during both the half- cycle of ac supply, the load current i o flows from
E to F. Hence, io is unidirectional.
2.2 Filter:
Filter is a circuit used to reduce the ripple content present in the rectified output.
The ripple content of rectified output can be filtered out by connecting a
capacitor in parallel with RL.
The output from full-wave and half-wave rectifiers is not a smooth dc due to the
ripple content. The ripple content of half-wave rectified out put is 121% of dc
component where as it is 48.3% of dc component in full-wave rectified output.
In order to obtain smooth dc. It is necessary to filter out the ripple content.


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2.2.1 Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter:
Fig 12. Half Wave Rectifier with capacitor filter
Fig 13. Waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier with and without capacitor filter


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The Circuit diagram of Half Wave Rectifier with capacitor filter is shown in the
Figure 12. The Waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier with and without capacitor
filter are shown in the Figure 13.
Vr(p-p) is the peak to peak ripple voltage on capacitor.

tc is the charging time of capacitor.
td is the discharge time of capacitor.
Time period of output waveform T=tc+td
Operation:- During the positive half cycle of ac supply, the diode conducts
and charges the capacitor to the peak value Vm of the transformer secondary
voltage. When the transformer secondary voltage falls below Vm the diode
stops conducting.
Now the capacitor starts discharging into RL and the voltage on capacitor
decreases. The discharging of the capacitor continues till the diode starts
conducting again and charges the capacitor in the next positive half cycle of ac
supply.
From the waveforms shown in Figure 13,we find that without filter capacitor,
Vo varies between zero and Vm and with capacitor filter, the variation is between
(Vm – Vr (p-p)) & Vm..


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2.2.2 Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter:
Fig 14. Full Wave Rectifier with capacitor filter
Fig 15. Waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier with and without capacitor filter


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Figure 14. The Waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier with and without capacitor
filter are shown in the Figure 15.

Time period of output waveform T/2=tc+td
Operation:- During the positive half cycle of ac supply, the diode D1 conducts
and charges the capacitor to the peak value Vm of the transformer secondary
voltage. D1 stops conducting when the transformer secondary voltage falls
below Vm.
Now the capacitor starts discharging into RL and the voltage on capacitor begins
to fall. The discharging of the capacitor continues until the diode D2 starts
conducting again in the next cycle and charges the capacitor.
From the waveforms shown in Figure 15,we find that without filter capacitor,
(Vm – Vr (p-p)) & Vm. Note that with filter capacitor, the variation in Vo is smaller
than that without filter capacitor.


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2.2.3 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor Filter:
Fig 16. Full Wave bridge Rectifier with capacitor filter
Fig 17. Waveforms of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier with capacitor filter


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Figure 16. The Waveforms of Full Wave bridge Rectifier with and without
capacitor filter are shown in the Figure 17.

Time period of output waveform T/2=tc+td
Operation:- During the positive half-cycle of the ac supply, diodes D1 and D2

conduct and charge the capacitor to the peak value Vm of the transformer.
Diodes D1 and D2 stop conducting when the transformer secondary voltage falls
below Vm.
Now the capacitor starts discharging into RL and the voltage in the capacitor
begins to fall. The discharging of the capacitor continues until the diode D2 and
D3 start conducting and charge the capacitor in the next half-cycle of the ac
supply.
From the waveforms shown in Figure 17, we find that without filter capacitor,
(Vm – Vr (p-p)) & Vm. Note that with filter capacitor, the variation in Vo is smaller
than that without filter capacitor.
2.3 Zener Diode:
The diode based on Zener or Avalanche breakdown is called a Zener diode.

These diodes have a current limiting resistance to prevent permanent damage
due to the high reverse current which flows in conventional diodes after
breakdown. The symbol of a Zener diode is shown in Figure 18.


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Fig 18. Symbol of Zener diode.
2.3.1 Characteristics Of Zener Diode:
Fig 19. Characteristics Of Zener diode


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The characteristics of a Zener diode is shown in Figure 19. The forward

characteristic and the reverse characteristic are similar to that of a conventional
diode until breakdown under reverse bias.
Beyond the Zener-breakdown voltage while under reverse bias, the voltage
across the Zener remains constant at Vg. The diode can come out of the
breakdown region when the magnitude of the reverse voltage becomes less than
Vz. Such as device finds application in voltage regulators.
Zener diodes are thus used in the reverse-biased mode and are available in a
wide range of Zener voltages.
Parameters Of Zener Diode:-
The parameters of Zener diode are as follows
a) Zener breakdown voltage(Vz):-It. is the reverse-bias voltage at which the

device enters the breakdown region, maintaining a constant voltage Vz.
across the device.
b) Minimum reverse current(IZK):- It is the reverse current at the knee of

the reverse characteristic and is the minimum reverse current to sustain the
breakdown condition.
c) Maximum Zener current(IZM):- It is the maximum current the device

can carry without exceeding the maximum power dissipation.
2.3.2 Voltage Regulator:
A voltage regulator is a circuit which accepts regulated dc as input and provides

a constant dc output voltage irrespective of changes in the line voltage and the
load current.


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The output of a full wave rectifier with capacitor filter may be called as
regulated dc, as it varies with changes in load current and low voltage.
Most of the electronic circuits require stable dc voltage for their proper
operation. Hence it is necessary to regulate the output of full wave rectifier with
filter. A regulator is connected between full wave rectifier with filter and
load. The block diagram of Regulated dc power supply is shown in the Figure
20.
Fig 20. Block diagram of Regulated dc power supply


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2.3.3 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator:
Fig 21. Zener diode as voltage regulator
Refer the circuit of a Zener diode voltage regulator shown in fig. 21, Vin is the
unregulated dc voltage which is the output from a full-wave rectifier with
capacitor filter. Zener diode operates in the reverse breakdown region and has a
constant voltage VZ across its terminals. For the Zener diode to operate in the
breakdown region, the regulated dc input voltage Vin must be greater than the
Zener breakdown voltage VZ.
Since RL and Zener diode are in parallel,
Voltage across RL= voltage across Zener diode
i.e., Vo = VZ ------------------ (1.1)
Vo is a constant voltage, since VZ is constant. From equation 1.1 we find that

Vo remains constant even if Vin happens to change due to the fluctuations in ac
line voltage. From the figure it can be seen that
I = IZ + IL ------------------- (1.2)
IZ = I – IL ------------------- (1.3)


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------------------- (1.4)
Using this relation in equation 1.3 we have
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (1.5)
Assume that Vin varies between Vinmin and Vinmax and IL varies from ILmin to ILmax.
From equation 1.5 we find that minimum Zener current flows when Vi = Vimin
and IL = ILmax. The current through Zener must be more than IZmin where IZmin is
the minimum Zener current required to operate in the breakdown region.
Therefore -------------------------(1.6)
Also maximum Zener current flows when Vi = Vimax and IL = ILmin. The current
through Zener must be less than IZmax, where IZmax is the maximum allowable
Zener current for safe operation.

Therefore ‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (1.7)
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ (1.8)
Where PD is the maximum allowable power dissipation in the Zener.


Semiconductor Devices Part1

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Semiconductor Devices Part1

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Chapter 2: Semiconductor devices and Applications

The contents of the chapter are as follows:-

1. PN junction diode , Characteristics and parameters

2. Diode approximations, Half wave rectifier

3. Full wave rectifier

4. Full wave bridge rectifier

5. Rectifiers with capacitor filter

7. Voltage regulator design, numerical

2.1 P-N junction diode:

A P-N junction diode is a two terminal unidirectional device with a p-type

Fig 1. Symbol of Diode(forward bias and reversed bias)

It is clear that | IF| >> | IR|

2.1.1 Characteristics Of Diode:

Forward and Reverse characteristics of a silicon diode:-

Fig 2. Forward and reverse characteristics of a silicon diode

2.1.2 Diode Parameters:-

1) Forward voltage drop:- It is the voltage drop across a diode when it

2) Maximum forward current:- It is the maximum current flowing

3) Reverse saturation current:- The reverse saturation current IR(sat) is the

4) Reverse breakdown voltage:- The reverse breakdown voltage, VBR is the

5) Dynamic resistance:- The dynamic resistance or ac resistance or

Fig 3: Forward characteristics of the silicon diode

2.1.3 Characteristics Of Ideal diode:

The characteristics of the ideal diode are as follows

Ideally, It is said that

Note that Rf =0 represents a short circuit or a switch in closed condition, while

The ideal characteristics of a silicon diode is shown in the figure 4.With

The practical diode characteristics of Silicon and Germanium diode is shown in

Fig 4. Ideal characteristics of a silicon diode.

Fig 5. Practical diode characteristics of Silicon and Germanium diode

2.1.4 Applications Of Diode:-

One of the major application of diode as a rectifier is discussed below in detail.

Rectifier is an electronic device which converts the alternating current to

Examples:- Power Supply, Amplifiers, Oscillators require 5V to 25V of DC

The rectifiers can be classified as follows

1) Half wave rectifier

2.1.5 Half Wave Rectifier:-

Fig 6. Circuit Diagram Of Half Wave Rectifier

Fig 7. Waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier

In the circuit, shown in figure 6,

V1= Vm sin wt ; instantaneous supply voltage

(a) During the positive half-cycle of ac supply, the voltage at point C is

(b) During the negative half-cycle of ac supply, the voltage at point C is

Efficiency Of Half Wave Rectifier:-

and Pdc = [Idc]²RL-----------(2)

For half wave rectifier, the equation for Idc is given as

ac power input to the rectifier is given by

Using this relation in equation (5) we get

Substituting (5) & (6) in (1) we get,

If the diode is ideal, Rf=0

Hence half wave rectifier has a very poor rectification efficiency.

Ripple Factor Of Half Wave Rectifier:-

Vac------->is the RMS Value of ac component present in the rectified

Dividing throughout by Vdc², we get

Using this relation in equation (3)

In a half-wave rectifier, the ac or ripple component is 121% of the dc

2.1.6 Full Wave Rectifier:-

i) Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes:-

Fig 8: Circuit Diagram Of Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes

V2 = (N2/ N 1) v 1 = (N2/ N 1) Vm sin wt-------------------------------------------2)

Where, V1 is the instantaneous ac supply voltage.

V2 is the instantaneous secondary voltage.

N1/ N2 is the turns ratio of transformer.