Lec 9

MATH F111
Saranya G. Nair
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
November 10, 2022
Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 1 / 29

Polar Coordinates
In this section we study Polar Coordinates and their relation to Cartesian

coordinates. We first formally introduce polar coordinates.
Definition (Polar Coordinates)

Let us fix an origin O and an initial ray from O. Now every point P in
the plane can be determined by a pair (r , θ) (say) where r is the directed
distance from O to P and θ is the directed angle between the initial ray
and the line segment OP. This coordinate system is known as polar
coordinate system.

Polar Coordinates
In this section we study Polar Coordinates and their relation to Cartesian

coordinates. We first formally introduce polar coordinates.
Definition (Polar Coordinates)

Let us fix an origin O and an initial ray from O. Now every point P in
the plane can be determined by a pair (r , θ) (say) where r is the directed
distance from O to P and θ is the directed angle between the initial ray
and the line segment OP. This coordinate system is known as polar
coordinate system.

Note
When we say P = (r , θ) is a point in a plane, then
• r is the distance.
• θ is the angle.
As in trigonometry, we calculate θ in the anti-clockwise direction.
Therefore θ is negative implies that we count in the clockwise direction.
In the xy -plane, we often consider the intial ray as the positive x-axis.

Example
Example
• The point (1, 0) in the xy -plane is described as (1, 0) in polar
coordinates. The same point can also be described as (1, 2π) or
(1, −2π). In fact the point can generally be described as (1, 2nπ),
where n is an integer.

Example
Example
• The point (0, 1) in the xy -plane is described as (1, π2 ) in polar
coordinates. In general, the point is described in the polar coordinate
as (1, 2nπ + π2 ), where n is an integer.

Example
Example
• The point (0, 1) in the xy -plane is described as (1, π2 ) in polar
coordinates. In general, the point is described in the polar coordinate
as (1, 2nπ + π2 ), where n is an integer.
√
• Finally the point (1, 1) in the xy -plane is ( 2, π4 + 2nπ) in the polar
coordinates.

Properties
In some cases we allow r to be negative. That is why we use directed

distance in defining P(r , θ).

Properties
In some cases we allow r to be negative. That is why we use directed

distance in defining P(r , θ).
Example
The point (2, 7π π
6 ) is same as (−2, 6 ).

Example
Find all the polar coordinates of the point P(2, π6 ).
Solution: We have already seen that we can represent the point P as

(2, π6 ) and (−2, 7π
6 ).
The other representations are (2, 2nπ + π6 ) and (−2, 2nπ + 7π
6 ), where n is
any integer.

Example
Fix r = a ̸= 0 and vary θ over [0, 2π]. Then P(r , θ) traces a circle of
radius |a|.
Example (Example 2(a))

Both r = 1 and r = −1 are equations for the circle of radius 1 centered at
O.

Example
Remark
If we fix θ = θ0 and vary r between −∞ and ∞, then we get a line
passing through origin that makes an angle of θ with the initial ray.
Example (Example 2(b))

A line can have more than one polar equation.

Example
Remark
If we fix θ = θ0 and vary r between −∞ and ∞, then we get a line
passing through origin that makes an angle of θ with the initial ray.
Example (Example 2(b))

A line can have more than one polar equation.
θ = π6 , θ = 7π
6 and θ = − 5π
6 are equations of the same line.

Example
Graph the sets of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the following
conditions.
(i). 1 ≤ r ≤ 2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 .
(ii). −3 ≤ r ≤ 2, θ = π4 .
(iii). 2π 5π
3 ≤θ ≤ 6 .

Example
Graph the sets of points whose polar coordinates satisfy the following
conditions.
(i). 1 ≤ r ≤ 2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π2 .
(ii). −3 ≤ r ≤ 2, θ = π4 .
(iii). 2π 5π
3 ≤θ ≤ 6 .

Relating Polar and Cartesian Coordinates
When we use both polar and Cartesian coordinates in a plane, we place

the two origins together and let the initial polar ray be the positive x-axis.
The ray θ = π2 , becomes the positive y-axis.



• x = r cos θ,y = r sin θ.



• x = r cos θ,y = r sin θ.
• r 2 = x 2 + y 2 , θ = tan−1 yx .


Example
Find a polar equation for the circle x 2 + (y − 3)2 = 9.

Example
Find a polar equation for the circle x 2 + (y − 3)2 = 9.
Solution: Putting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, we have
r 2 cos2 θ + (r sin θ − 3)2 = 9
⇔ r 2 cos2 θ + r sin2 θ + 9 − 6r sin θ = 9

⇔ r 2 − 6r sin θ = 0
⇒ r (r − 6 sin θ) = 0
Thus r = 6 sin θ.

Graphing in Polar Coordinates
We will see how symmetries and tangents help in graphing the equation in
polar coordinates. Symmetry Tests for Polar Graphs in the Cartesian
xy-Plane To draw a graph, we first see the followings:
• Symmetry about the x-axis: If the point (r , θ) lies on a graph, then
we check whether the point (r , −θ) or (−r , π − θ) lies on the graph
or not.

• Symmetry about the y -axis: If the point (r , θ) lies on the graph, then
check for the point (r , π − θ) or (−r , −θ) that lies on the graph or
not.

• Symmetry about the y -axis: If the point (r , θ) lies on the graph, then
check for the point (r , π − θ) or (−r , −θ) that lies on the graph or
not.
• Symmetry about the origin: If the point (r , θ) lies on the graph, then
we check for the point (−r , θ) or (r , π + θ) lies on the graph or not.

Slope of a Polar Curve
Let r = f (θ) be a polar curve. Then x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ and

y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ. If f is a differentiable function of θ, then so are x
dx
and y and when dθ ̸= 0, we have
dy d
dy dθ dθ (f (θ) sin θ) f ′ (θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ
= = = (1)
dx dx
dθ
d
dθ (f (θ) cos θ)
f ′ (θ) cos θ − f (θ) sin θ
where f ′ (θ) = df
dθ .

Slope of a Polar Curve
Let r = f (θ) be a polar curve. Then x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ and

y = r sin θ = f (θ) sin θ. If f is a differentiable function of θ, then so are x
dx
and y and when dθ ̸= 0, we have
dy d
dy dθ dθ (f (θ) sin θ) f ′ (θ) sin θ + f (θ) cos θ
= = = (1)
dx dx
dθ
d
dθ (f (θ) cos θ)
f ′ (θ) cos θ − f (θ) sin θ
where f ′ (θ) = df
dθ .
Remark
dy dr
dx ̸= dθ .

Properties
If the curve r = f (θ) passes through the origin at θ = θ0 , then f (θ0 ) = 0,

and the slope equation gives
Remark (Slope of the Curve r = f (θ) in the Cartesian xy -Plane)

dy f ′ (θ0 ) sin θ0 sin θ0
= ′ = = tan θ0 .
dx (0,θ0 ) f (θ0 ) cos θ0 cos θ0
That is, the slope at (0, θ0 ) is tan θ0 . The reason we say “slope at (0, θ0 )”
and not just “slope at the origin” is that a polar curve may pass through
the origin (or any point) more than once, with different slopes at different
θ values.

Properties
Example
Graph the curve r = 1 − cos θ in the Cartesian xy -plane.

Properties
Example
Is the curve is symmetric about x-axis?

Properties
Example
Is the curve is symmetric about x-axis?

Suppose the point (r1 , θ1 ) lies in the curve.
⇔ r1 = 1 − cos θ1
⇔ r1 = 1 − cos −θ1 , ⇔ the point (r1 , −θ1 ) lies in the curve and thus the
curve is symmetric about the x-axis. Due to symmetry about x axis, we
need to trace the curve in 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and then reflect it wrt x axis.

As θ increases from 0 to π, cos θ decreases from 1 to −1. Therefore
1 − cos θ increases from 0 to 2. Now as we increase θ from π to 2π, cos θ
increases from −1 to 1. Thus 1 − cos θ decreases from 2 to 0. The curve
leaves the origin with slope tan(0) = 0 and returns to the origin with slope
tan(2π) = 0.

We make a table of values from θ = 0 to θ = π, plot the points, draw a
smooth curve through them with a horizontal tangent at the origin, and
reflect the curve across the X -axis to complete the graph. The curve is
called a cardioid because of its heart shape.
θ r = 1 − cos θ
0 0
π 1
3 2
π
2 1
2π 3
3 2
π 2

General Method
Another method of graphing that is usually quicker and more reliable is to

1 first graph the function r = f (θ) in the Cartesian r θ-plane,
2 then use that Cartesian graph as a table and guide to sketch the
polar coordinate graph in the xy -plane.
This method is sometimes better than simple point plotting because the
first Cartesian graph, shows at a glance where r is positive, negative, and
nonexistent as well as where r is increasing and decreasing.

Example
Plot the graph r = 1 − cos θ in General method.
First we plot the graph in the Cartesian r θ- plane.

Example
Graph the curve r 2 = 4 cos θ in the Cartesian xy-plane.

Example
• cos θ ≥ 0 when θ from − π2 to π2 .
• Is the curve Symmetric about X axis?
• Is the curve symmetric wrt origin?
• Can you use the above 2 symmetries to conclude if the curve is
symmetric wrt Y axis?
• What are the values of θ for which the curve passes through the
origin? What are values of tan at those θ’s?

Example
Thus the curve has vertical tangents at θ = − π2 and θ = π2 because tan θ
is infinite.

Example
Thus the curve has vertical tangents at θ = − π2 and θ = π2 because tan θ
is infinite.
Remark
In general, if we know the curve is Symmetric wrt X axis and Y axis, can
you derive it is symmetric wrt origin? If we know the curve is Symmetric
wrt Y axis and origin can you derive it is symmetric wrt X axis?
√
θ cos θ r = ±2 cos θ (approx)
0 1√ ±2
3
± π6 2 ±1.9
± π4 √1
2
±1.7
± π3 1
2 ±1.4
± π2 0 0

Example 3
Example
Graph the lemniscate curve r 2 = sin2θ in the Cartesian xy -plane.
Solution: We begin by plotting r 2 as a function of θ in the Cartesian r 2 θ

plane.

Example 3
√
We pass from there to the graph of r = ± sin 2θ in the r θ plane.

Example 3
Now we plot the polar graph.
The graph ”covers” the final polar graph twice. We could have managed
with either loop alone, with the two upper halves, or with the two lower
halves from Fig (b). The double covering does no harm, however, it will
be important to note it if we want to find the length of the curves.
Graphing Limacons
Limaçon (“lee-ma-sahn”) is Old French word for “snail.” Equations for

limaçons have the form r = a ± b cos θ or r = a ± b sin θ. There are four
basic shapes.
1 1
1 Limaçons with an inner loop: (a).r = 2 + cos θ, (b). r = 2 + sin θ
2 Cardioids: (a). r = 1 − cos θ (b). r = −1 + sin θ
3 3
3 Dimpled limaçons (a). r = 2 + cos θ (b). r = 2 − sin θ
4 Oval limaçons (a). r = 2 + cos θ (b). r = −2 + sin θ.

Example
Graph the curve r = cos 2θ in the Cartesian xy -plane.
4 leaved rose

Graphing Calculators:
Desmos, Geogebra
https://www.intmath.com/plane-analytic-geometry/8-curves-polar-
coordinates.php

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MATH F111

November 10, 2022

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 1 / 29

In this section we study Polar Coordinates and their relation to Cartesian

Definition (Polar Coordinates)

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 2 / 29

In this section we study Polar Coordinates and their relation to Cartesian

Definition (Polar Coordinates)

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 2 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 3 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 4 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 4 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 4 / 29

In some cases we allow r to be negative. That is why we use directed

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 5 / 29

In some cases we allow r to be negative. That is why we use directed

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 5 / 29

Solution: We have already seen that we can represent the point P as

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 6 / 29

Example (Example 2(a))

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 7 / 29

Example (Example 2(b))

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 8 / 29

Example (Example 2(b))

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 8 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 9 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 9 / 29

When we use both polar and Cartesian coordinates in a plane, we place

The ray θ = π2 , becomes the positive y-axis.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 10 / 29

When we use both polar and Cartesian coordinates in a plane, we place

The ray θ = π2 , becomes the positive y-axis.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 10 / 29

When we use both polar and Cartesian coordinates in a plane, we place

The ray θ = π2 , becomes the positive y-axis.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 10 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 11 / 29

Solution: Putting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ, we have

r 2 cos2 θ + (r sin θ − 3)2 = 9

⇔ r 2 cos2 θ + r sin2 θ + 9 − 6r sin θ = 9

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 11 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 12 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 13 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 13 / 29

Let r = f (θ) be a polar curve. Then x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ and

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 14 / 29

Let r = f (θ) be a polar curve. Then x = r cos θ = f (θ) cos θ and

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 14 / 29

If the curve r = f (θ) passes through the origin at θ = θ0 , then f (θ0 ) = 0,

Remark (Slope of the Curve r = f (θ) in the Cartesian xy -Plane)

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 15 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 16 / 29

Is the curve is symmetric about x-axis?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 16 / 29

Is the curve is symmetric about x-axis?

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 16 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 17 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 18 / 29

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 19 / 29

Another method of graphing that is usually quicker and more reliable is to

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 20 / 29

First we plot the graph in the Cartesian r θ- plane.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I November 10, 2022 21 / 29