BI

O101Gener
alBi
ology

F
irs
tSemes
ter201
2/2022

Bi
ology

Theterm biol
ogyderivedfrom theGr eekwor dβί ,bi
ος os," l
i
fe"andt hes uf
fi
x- λογία,-l
ogi a,
"st
udy,isas cienc
ec oncer
ned wi t
ht hes t
udyofl ifeand livi
ng organisms,incl
udi ng t
hei r
st
ruct
ure,funct
ion,growth,evoluti
on,di st
ri
but i
on,i
dentif
icati
onand t axonomy .Des pi
tet he
broadscopeofmoder nbiology,therear ecertai
ngeneralanduni f
yingc oncept
swi thinitthat
governi
tsstudyandresear
ch,consoli
datingitintoasingl
e,coherentf
ield.

Ingeneral
,bi
ologyrecogniz
est hecellasthebasicunitofl i
fe,genesasthebasicuni
tofher
edity
,
andevoluti
onast heenginet hatpropelsthes y
nthesisandc reat
ionofnews peci
es.Or
ganis
ms
madeupofonl ys i
nglecel
lsar ereferr
edt oasuni c
ellularor ganis
mswhilethosemadeupof
moret hanonec ellar
er ef
erredt oasmul ti
cel
lul
aror ganisms .Foranyorganis
mt osurv
iveit
mustutil
iz
eenergyandr egulateit
sinternalenvi
ronment .

Thef
oll
owi
ngar
esomef
iel
dsofbi
ology
:

I
. Molec ularbiol
ogy: s tudiesthec ompl exinterac
tionsamongbi ologi
calmolecul
es;
II
. Botany : studi
esthebi ologyofpl ants;
I
II
. Cell
ularbi ol
ogy: examinest hebas icbuildi
ng-blockofalll
if
e,thecell
;
I
V. Physiology : examinest hephy si
caland c hemicalfuncti
onsoft i
ssues,or
gans,and
organs y s
temsofanor ganism;
V. Optomet ry: theartands cienceofv is
ionandey ecare;
VI. Ecology : examineshowor ganismsi nteract
VII. Bi
oc hemi str
y: exami nesther udiment arychemistr
yoflif
e;
VII
I. Anatomy : Thebranc hofmor phol ogyt hatdealswiththestr
uctureofanimals

Char
act
eri
sti
csofOr
gani
sms

1. MadeofCELLS
2.RequireENERGY(food)
3.REPRODUCE( species)
4.MaintainHOMEOSTASI S
5.ORGANI ZED
6.RESPONDt oenv i
ronment
7.GROW andDEVEL OP
8.EXCHANGEmat er
ialswit
hsur
roundi
ngs(
wat
er,
was
tes
,gas
es)

CHARACTERI STI
CSOFL I
VINGTHI NGS
I
ni t
sbroadestsense,bi
ologyisthestudyofli
vingthi
ngs–t hesci
enceofli
fe.Ther earesome
general
l
yac cept
edc har
ac t
eri
sti
csthatar
ec ommont oallli
vi
ngthings
,thesei ncl
ude:-
(RememberMRNI GERCAD? )
1. Alll
i
v i
ngthingsaremadeofoneormor ecell
s.Ac el
li
sthebasicunitofal i
vi
ngt hi
ng.
Mos tcanperfor
m allproces
sesassoci
atedwithli
fe.Acel
lprovi
desal ltheconditi
ons
neededforthec hemicalr
eacti
onsofli
vingthings
.Cellsvar
yintypeandf unct
ion.
1
 2.Res pondi ngt ot hei renv ironment–al lorgani smsr espondt os timul i
.Pl ant sgr owt owar d
as our c eofl i
ght , andy ourpupi l
sdi l
atewheny ouwal kintoadar kr oom. Mul t
icell
ular
ani mal shav es pec i
al izeds ens eor gansandef f
ec toror gans .Uni cell
ularor gani smsal s o
wi thnoNer v ousSy s tem, ther ecept i
onandr es pons et oas t
imul usoc c uri nt hes amec ell
.
Soundi sas timul us .Ot hers timul ii
nc ludel ight ,pr essure,odor sandt emper ature
changes .
3.Gr owt h, Dev elopmentandRepr oduc tion–al lor gani smsar ec apabl eofgr owi ng
(thr oughc elldiv i
sionandc ellenlargement )andr epr oduc ingnewi ndi vidual smor eor
l
es ss imi l
arinf or mt ot hepar entor gani smsbymeansofs ex ualoras ex ualr epr oduc tion.
Thes eor gani smspos sessher editarymol ec ulest hatar epas sedt ot hei rof fspr i
ng
ens ur i
ngt hattheof fspr ingar eoft hes ames pec ies.
4.Regul ation–al lor gani smsneedener gyt obui ldt hes ubstanc est hatmakeupt heirc ell
s .
Allor gani smshav er egul ator ymec hani smst hatc oor dinatet heor gani sms ’internal
func t
ions .Thes ef unc ti
onsi ncludes uppl y i
ngc ellswi thnut rient s
, t
rans por ti
ngs ubstanc e
thr ought heor gani sm andr emov i
ngwas tes.F orl i
fetobemai ntained, abal ancemus t
ex i
s tbet weenanor gani sm’ sener gy-pr oduc ingpr oc essesandi tsener gy -us i
ngpr oces ses.
Thec ons t
antbal anc ingoft hes et wos y st
emswi t
hi nanor gani smi sc alledmet abol i
sm.
(Nut r
iti
onandEx c retion)( Bi ochemi strys tudent swi llexploitt hismor e).
5.Homeos tasi
s–al lor gani smsmai ntainr elativelyc ons tantinter nalc ondi tionsdi ff
erent
from t hei renv i
r onment , apr oc essc al
ledhomeos tas i
s.Thisist her egul at i
onbyan
or gani sm oft hec hemi calc ompos it
ionofi tsbodyf l
uidsandot heras pec tsofi t
sinter nal
env i
ronments ot hatphy siologicalpr oc essesc anpr oceedatopt imum r atese. g.
homoi othermy –ac id-bas ebal anc eandpoi kilother my–bodyt emper atur e.

LEVELSOFORGANIZATI
ONOFL I
F E
Li
feishi
ghlyor
gani
zedf
rom s
mallandsi
mplet
olar
geandcomplex,wi
thi
ncell
s,wi
thi
n
multi
cel
l
ularor
gani
smsandamongorgani
sms.Her
eisahi
erar
chic
alor
ganiz
ati
onoflivi
ng
t
hings:

Wi
thi
nCel
l
s Wi
thi
nMul
ti
cel
l
ularOr
gani
sms AmongOr
gani
sms
Cel
l Or
gani
sm e.
g.Bi
rd Ec
osy
stem

Or
ganel
l
e Or
ganSy
stem e.g.N.S. Communi
ty

Mac
romol
ecul
e Or
gan e.
g.br
ain Spec
ies

Mol
ecul
e Ti
ssue Popul
ati
on

Nonl
i
vingL
evel
s:

1. ATOM (
element )
2.MOL ECUL E(compoundsli
kecar
bohydr
ates&pr
otei
ns)
3.ORGANEL LES(nucl
eus
,ER,Gol
gi…)

2
L
ivi
ngL
evel
s:

1. CELL(
makesupAL Lor ganis ms)
2.TISSUE(cell
swor ki ngt oget her)
3.ORGAN( heart,br ain,s tomac h…)
4.ORGANSYSTEMS( r
es piratory,circul
ator y…)
5.ORGANI SM
6.POPUL ATION( ones pec iesinanar ea)
7.COMMUNI TY(sev er alpopul ati
onsi nanar ea)
8.ECOSYSTEM ( differentc ommuni ties,forest
,pr
air
ie…)
9.BIOME( Tundra, Tr opicalRai nforest…)
10.BI
OSPHERE( alll
iv ingandnonl i
vingt hingsonEarth)

CEL L
Alllivi
ng organi
smsar e made up ofsmal luni t
sofpr otopl
asm s ur
rounded bya s urface
membr anei nanimalsandanon- l
iv
ingwalli nplantsandbac t
eri
a.Thisunitofpr ot
oplasmi s
termed‘ Cel
l’anditisthebasisf
ors t
ruc
ture,func ti
on,andbi ol
ogicalprocessesofallknown
l
ivingorganisms.Thecelli
stheuni
tofs t
ructureandf unctionbecauseitservesasthebuilding
blocksoflif
eandisalsocapabl
eofperf
ormingal lbiol
ogicalact
ivi
ti
es.

Thedi
scover
yofc el
lbyRobertHookein1 665 waspos
sibl
eduet
o advanc
ementinthe
magni
fi
cat
iontec
hnol
ogyi
.
e.dev
elopmentoft
hemi cr
osc
opebyAnt
onv
anLeeuwenhoek.

The f
irs
t observati
onofc el
l
swasmadei n1 665byEnglishs ci
enti
stRober tHooke,whous eda
crudemi croscopeofhisowni nvent
iontoex amineavari
etyofobj ect
s,includingat hinpieceof
cork.Not i
ngt her owsoft i
nybox esthatmadeupt hedeadwood’ stis
s ue,Hookec al
ledthem
“CELLS”.Ataboutt hes amet ime,theDut chmakerofmi c r
oscopes,Ant onv anL eeuwenhoek
pioneered thei nventi
on ofoneoft hebes tmicr
oscopesoft het i
me.Us ing hisinventi
on,
Leeuwenhoekbec amet hef i
rsttoobserve,draw,anddescribeav ari
etyofl i
vingorganismss uch
asbac t
eria,unicel
l
ularorganismsands perms wi
mmingins emen.

I
n1 838,aGer manbot anistnamedMat thiasSchlei
denc oncl
udedt hatallplant
swer emadeof
cel
l
s .In1839,aGer manz oologistnamedTheodor eSc hwannc oncludedt hatallanimalswere
madeofc el
ls.Workingt oget her,MatthiasJakobSchleidenandTheodor eSchwannr ecognizi
ng
t
hef undament alsi
mi l
ari
tiesbet weenpl antandani malc ell
sin1839,pr oposedther evol
utionary
t
heor y(c
elltheory
)thatgav er i
setomoder nbiology.
I
n1 855,aGer manmedi caldoc tornamedRudol phVi rchow observed,undert hemi croscope,
cel
l
sdi vi
dingandr easonedt hatallcel
l
sc omefrom otherpr e-
exi
s t
ingc el
lsbycelldivi
si
on.

THECEL
LTHEORY

Thec
ellt
heor
yst
atest
hat
:

i
. Al
ll
iv
ingor
gani
smsar
ecompos
edofoneormor
ecel
l
s.

i
i
. Thec
elli
sthemos
tbas
icuni
tofl
i
fe.

3
 i
i
i. Al
lcel
l
sar
isef
rom pr
e-ex
ist
ing,
li
vi
ngc
ell
s,bybi
ogenes
is.

i
v. Ener
gyf
low(
met
abol
i
sm andbi
ochemi
str
y)oc
cur
swi
thi
ncel
l

v
. Her
edi
tyi
nfor
mat
ion(
DNA)i
spas
sedonf
rom c
ellt
ocel
l
.

v
i. Al
lcel
l
shav
ethes
amebas
icc
hemi
calc
ompos
iti
oni
nor
gani
smsofs
imi
l
ars
pec
ies
.

THECEL
LSTRUCTURE:

Cell
sareofdi
ff
erentki
nds
,di
ff
erents
izes
,shapesandf
orms
.Howev
er,t
heyal
ltendt
opos
ses
s
thefol
l
owingf
eatures
:

1.
Cellmembr ane:thatkeepstheinsi
deandoutsi
des eparat
e.
2.DNA-containi
ngr egi
on:thatholdsthei
nst
ruct
ionstor unthepr
oces
sesofl
i
fe.
3.Cyt
oplas
m: as emi-fl
uidregi
onc ont
aini
ngtherestofthecell
’
smachi
nery
.

Cellsi
ze
Cell
sar evi
sibleonlywithami cros c
ope.Howev er,af ewtypesofc ell
ssuchaseggc el
ls,nerve
cel
lsinagiraffecanbes eenwithoutt heaidofami crosc
ope.Cell
sar eli
mitedi
nsiz
ebyt heratio
betweenthei routersurfacear
eaandt hei
rvolume.Thi smeanst hatifac el
lkeepsthes ame
shapeasitgr ows,it
svolumewi llincr
easemor erapidlythanit
ssurfacearea.Atsomepoi nt,i
ts
surfac
eareabec omest oos mal
lt oallownutri
ents,oxygen,andothermat eri
al
stoenterthec el
l
quickl
yenought omeett hecel
l
’sneeds .

Shape
Cell
scomei nv ar
ietyofs hapesreflecti
ngdi ver
sit
yoff uncti
ons.Skinc el
l
sforex ampl
ear efl
at
coveri
ngthebody ’
ss urf
ace.Als
oWhi tebloodc el
lscanc hangeshape(leavetheblood,
enterthe
areassur
roundingbl oodv ess
els,sot heyc andot heirjobofat tac
kinginvadersli
kebacter
ia)
.
Otherspeci
ali
zedc el
lsfoundi nliv
ingor ganismsincludeepi t
heli
alcel
l,Whitebloodcell
,Nerve
cell
,Smoothmus cl
efiber,Spermatoz oon,Parenchymac ell
sofplantetc.

CL
ASSI
FICATI
ONOFL
IVI
NGCEL
LS

L
ivi
ngc
ell
sc anbec lass
ifiedintodif
fer
entc l
ass
es.However,
thetwobasi
ccl
assesar
e:
i. Prokaryote,
from theGreekwor dspro(bef
ore)andkar
yon(nuc
leus
),
and
ii
. Eukaryote,f
rom eu(true)andkaryon(nucl
eus)
.

PROKARYOTI CCEL L
Thesecel
lsweret hefir
stform ofli
feonEarth,t
heyar ec haract
eri
zedbyhavi
ngv i
talbiological
proces
sesincl
udingc el
lsignali
ngandbei ngsel
f-
sustai
ning.Theyar esi
mplerands mall
ert han
eukary
oti
cc el
ls
,andl acknucleusandothermembr ane-enclosedstr
uct
ures
.Prokar
yotesinclude

4
t
woofthedomai nsofli
fe,bact
eriaandar
chaea.TheDNAc ons
ist
sofasi
nglechr
omosomet hat
i
sindir
ectcontactwitht hecytopl
asm. Mostpr okar
yot
esarethesmal
lestofal
lorgani
sms
r
angi
ngfrom 0.
5t o2.
0 µm indi
amet er
.

A.THESTRUCTUREANDF
UNCTI
ONOFPROKARYOTI
CCEL
LORGANEL
LES

Caps ules
These ar esli
myorgummys ecreti
onsofs ome bacter
ia(gram negat
ive)outs
ide the c el
l
membr aneandc el
lwall.Thec apsulemaybeofpol ys
ac c
har
ideorpolypepti
debi-l
ayert hatis
covalentl
ybondedt othepept i
dogl y
canofthecel
lwall
.
Funct i
on
Unitesbac t
eri
aintocolonies,enablebacter
iatost
icktosurf
acessuchasteeth,mudroc kset c
.
providesaddit
ionalpr
otectiontotheor gani
sm.

TheCellWall
Thisi
sas emiri
gidstr
uct
uret
hatliesoutsi
dethecellmembr
ane.I
tsmainchemicalc
omponenti
s
pepti
doglycan(
mur ei
nfr
om murus )
.Inbacter
iat
hismaybeporous,y
etitdoesnotcont
ri
but
ein
regul
ati
ngtheentryofmater
iali
nt othecel
ls.
Funct
ions

 Mai
ntai
nss
hapeoft
heor
gani
sm

 Pr
event
sthec
ellf
rom bur
sti
ngwhenflui
dsflowi
ntot
hec
ellbyos
mos
is.

 Theoutermembraneac
tsasacoar
sesi
eveandex
ert
sli
tt
lec
ont
rolov
ert
hemov
ement
ofsubs
tanc
esint
oandoutoft
hecel
l.

Peri
plasmi
cspace
Thi
si s a gap between t he cellwal land t he cellmembrane.I
tscomponentsincl
ude
pepti
dogly
can,di
ges ti
veenzymes ,andtrans
por tproteins.
Functi
on
 Des t
ruct
ionofpot ent
iall
yhar mfuls
ubs tances
 Transportat
ionofmet abolit
es(byproduc tofmet abol
i
sm)i
ntot
hebac
ter
ialc
ytopl
asm.

TheCel lMembr ane

Thec el
lmembr ane,orpl as
mamembr ane,isal ivi
ng membranet hatf ormst heboundar y
betweenac ellandi tsenv i
ronment.Themai nc omponentsarephospholipidsandpr ot
ei ns
.The
phos pholi
pidmol eculecons i
stsofapol arheadt hatcont
ainsphosphategr oupandt wonon-
polarhy dr
oc arbont ail
s.Thesemembr anephospholipi
dsusual
lyform abi l
ayerwi t
heachoft he
phos phateendsoft helipi
dmol eculesextendi
ngt owardthemembr anes urfac
e,andt hefat
ty
aci
dendsex tendingi nwar d.Thec hargedphos phateendsoft hemol eculesarehydr ophi
li
c
(water-l
oving)andt husc ani nt
erac
twi ththewat eryenvi
ronment.Thef attyacidends,ont he
otherhandc ons i
stslargelyofnonpol arhydroc
arbonc hai
ns,t
hatarehy drophobi candf or
msa
5
barr
ierbetween thecelland i
tsenvi
ronment.Thepr ot
ein mol
ecul
esthatareint
ers
persed
betweenthephospholi
pidsandwhichext
endsthroughtheenti
remembrane,ac
tsascar
ri
ersor
for
mc hannel
sthroughwhichmater
ial
senterandl
eav et
hecell
.

F
unc
tions
 Themai nfunc ti
onofthecellmembraneistor egulatet
hemov ementofmateri
al
si nto
andoutofac ell
.
 I nbacter
ia,thi
smembr anealsoperf
ormssomef uncti
onscar
ri
edoutbyotherst
ructures
ineukaryoti
cc el
lss
uchassy nt
hesesofcel
lwallc omponents
,DNAr epl
i
cat
ion,s
ecretion
ofprotei
ns,carri
esonrespi
rati
on,
andc apt
uresener gyasATP.

 I
tal
soc
ont
ainsbas
esofappendages(
flagel
l
a)

 Final
l
y,s
omepr otei
nsi
nthebac
ter
ialc
ellmembr
aner
espondt
ochemi
cals
ubs
tanc
esi
n
theenvi
ronment.

I
nter
nalSt
ruc
tur
es

Cytopl
asm
Thi
si sas emifl
uidar eathatisboundedbyt hecytopl
asmicorc el
lmembr ane.I
tconsti
tutes
about four-f
if
th wat er and one fif
th diss
olved subst
ances such as enzymes,proteins,
car
bohy drat
es,l i
pids,inor gani
c i
ons , and other suspended substances t
hat include
chr
omos omesand s omer i
bosomes.Manyc hemi
calreacti
ons,bothanabolicand c
atabol i
c,
occurinthecytopl
as m.

Ribosomes
Ribosomesconsi
stofRNAandpr otei
n.Theyar eabundanti nthecyt
oplas
m ofbac t
eria,often
groupedinlongchainscal
ledpolyr
ibosomes .Theyarenearl
yspheri
calands t
aindensely;they
contai
nlar
geands mallsubunit
s.Whol ebacteri
alr
ibosomes,whichar
es mall
erthaneukar y
ot i
c
ri
bosomes,havearateof70S,andtheirsubunit
shaveratesof30Sand50Svedberg.
Functi
ons Ri
bosomesserveassit
esf orpr
oteinsynt
hesis
.

Nuc l
earRegion
Oneoft hekeyf eat
uresdi
fferenti
ati
ngprokaryoti
ccel
l
sfr
om eukar y
ot i
ccel
lsi
stheabsenceofa
nucleusboundedbyanuc learmembr ane.Ins
teadofanucleus,bacteri
ahaveanuclearr
egion,
cal
lednucleoid.Thecentr
allylocat
ednuc l
earregi
on(nuc
leoid)consi
s t
smainl
yofDNA,buthas
someRNAandpr otei
nassociatedwit
hit.

Incl
us i
ons
Bacteri
ac anhav ewi t
hint heircytopl
asm av ari
etyofs mallbodiesc oll
ect
ivelyreferredtoas
i
nc l
us i
ons .Somear ec al
ledgr anul
eswhi l
eot hersv es
icl
es.Granul
es,althoughnotboundedby
membr ane,c ont
ainsubst ancessuchasgly c
ogenorpol yphosphat
et hataredens elyc ompacted
anddonotdi ss
olveinc y t
oplasm.Glycogeni sus edforenergywhi lePolyphos phate,suppli
es
phos phatef orav arietyofmet aboli
cpr ocesses.Vesic
lesont heot herhandar emembr ane
boundandc ont
ainli
piddepos i
tthatserveass t
orehousesofenergyandass ourcesofc ar
bon
forbuildingnewmol ecules.
6
Endos pores
Veget ati
vecel l
sofs omebac t
eria,s hasBac
uc i
ll
usandCl ostri
dium,pr oducer esti
ngs tagesc alled
endos porest hathel ptheor ganismt os urvi
ve.Theyar ef ormedwi t
hinc el
ls,andc ontainv ery
l
itt
lewat er.Theyar ehi ghlyresist
anttoheat ,drought,acids,bases,disi
nfectants,andr adiation.
Anendos porec onsistsofac ore,surr
oundedbyac ortex
,andas porec oat,andins omes pec i
es,
adel i
c at
elythinl ay
erc al
ledt heex os
por i
um.Thec orehasanout erc orewall,ac el
lmembr ane,
nuclearr egion,and ot herc ellcomponent s.Endos poresar ec apable ofs urviv
ing adv erse
envi
r onment alc onditi
onsf orlongper iods,somef orover1 0,000y ears(therear ec l
aimst hat
endos poress eal
edi namberhav es ur
viv
edf orov er25mi l
li
ony ears).

Ex
ter
nalSt
ruc
tur
e

I
naddit
iontocel
lwal
ls,
manybac
teri
ahav
eFl
agel
l
aandpi
l
ithatex
tendf
rom t
hec
ellmembr
ane
t
hroughthecel
lwal
landbey
ondit
.

Flagell
a
Thisisal ong,thi
n,hel
i
calappendaget
hati
smadeupofprot
ein.I
tisusedformovementin
mos tbacteri
a.Bac
ter
iacanhaveoneormorefl
agel
l
aat
tac
hedt
odi f
fer
entl
ocat
ionsi
ndif
fer
ent
species.

Pil
i
Pil
i(s
ingular :pil
us)aretiny,holl
owpr oj
ect i
ons.Theyareus edtoat t
achbacter
iat os urfacesand
arenotinv olv edinmov ement .Bac teri
ac anhav etwokindsofpi li(
1)l
ongc onjugationpi l
i
,orF
pil
i(al
soc alleds expil
i)
,and( 2)s hortat t
achmentpi l
i,call
edfimbr i
ae(fim`- bre-e;s ingular
:
fimbr i
a).Conj ugati
onpi l
i(orsexpi li
),f
oundonl yincertai
ngr oupsofbacteri
a,attac ht woc ell
s
andmayf ur nishapathwayf ort het r
ansferoft hegeneti
cmat erialDNA.Thistransferpr ocessis
cal
led conj ugat i
on.TransferofDNA f urnis
hesgenet icv ari
etyf orbacter
ia,ass exualr e-
producti
ondoesf ormanyot herl i
feforms .

B.THESTRUCTUREANDF
UNCTI
ONOFEUKARYOTI
CCEL
LORGANEL
LES

Eukar
yoti
ccell
sareaboutf if
teentimeswi
derthanatypi
calprokar
yot
iccellandc anbeasmuch
asthous
andt imesgreaterinv ol
ume.Theyhavedi
ametersofmor ethan1 0µm,andar emuch
l
arger.Eukaryot
iccelli
ncludesonlytheDomainEukary
awhi chcont
ainspl ant
s,animal
s,f
ungi
andprotoct
ist
a(organis
mss uchasAmoeba,Parameci
um, andthemalari
apar as
ite)
.

The mai n di sti

nguis
hing f eatur
e of eukar yotes as c ompar ed to pr okaryotes is
compartmentali
zati
on:thepresenceofmembr ane-boundorganell
esinwhi c
hs pecifi
cmet aboli
c
act
ivi
ti
est akeplace.Li
kepr okaryot
e,eukar
yoteshav ethr
eear chi
tectur
alregions,membr ane
sur
roundingt hecell
,ac yt
oplasm andamembr anesurr
oundednuc l
eussurroundingt heDNA.
Withi
nthec ytopl
asm ofEukaryotescel
l
sarevari
etyofint
ernalst
ructurest
hatar esurroundedby
7
oneormoremembr anes
.Cel
lwal
l
smayormaynotbepr
esent
.Somepos
ses
sci
l
iaandf
lagel
l
a
at
tac
hedtothei
rsur
faces
.

Cells
ur facemembr ane
Themembr anei sthesamewi thprokaryoti
cc el
lmembranebutc ontai
nsster
olsinaddit
ion.
Eukaryot i
cpl as
mamembr anesareles
sv ers
atil
ethanthatoft
hepr okary
otesbecausetheydo
nothav er espir
ator
yenzymes.
 Theyar eparti
al
lypermeablebarr
iersthatcont
rolt
heexchangebetweenthec el
landits
env i
ronment.

Nucl
eus
Thi
sist helar
gec ellorganel
lethatisencl
osedbyanenv el
opeoftwomembr anesandthatis
per
foratedbynuc learpor es
.Itcontainsthegenet
icinf
ormat
ionoftheor ganism aswellas
nucl
eoli(nucl
eol
us)t hatcont
ainsigni
ficantamountofRNAands er
vesass
itesfortheassembly
ofr
ibosomes .

F
unc
tions
 Thenuc leusisvi
tall
yimport
antincont
rol
li
ngtheactiv
iti
esofthecell.Thisi
sbecaus
eit
cont
ainsthegeneti
cinfor
mati
oninthefor
m ofDNA( deoxyr
ibonucl
eicacid)
 TheDNA c analsor epl
ic
ateit
sel
fpri
ortonucleardivi
si
ongi vi
ngriset oothernucl
ei,
whic
halsoc ont
ainsDNA’s.

Chr
omatin
Thi
sisc
ompos
edmai
nlyofc
oil
sofDNAboundedt
opr
otei
ncal
l
edhi
stones
.

Nuclearenv
elope/nucl
earpor
e
Thi
si satwomembr anestr
uct
urear
oundt
henuc
leus
.Itmaybec
over
edwi
thr
ibos
omest
hat
car
ryoutprotei
nsynt
hesi
s.

F
unc
tion
 Thenuc l
earporeisres
ponsibl
eforexc
hangeofs ubst
ancessuchasmRNAbet weenthe
nucl
eusandt hecytopl
asm,andhasadefi
nit
es t
ruct
urefor
medbyt hefus
ionoftheout
er
andinnermembr aneoft heenvel
opesthatcontr
olsthepas
s ageofmolec
ulesthr
ough
thepore.

Cytoplasm
I
neukar y
ot es,thec yt
oplasm makesupar elat
ivel
ys mallerporti
onofeukar yoti
cc el
lst hanof
prokaryoti
cc ell
sbec ausethenucl
eusandmanyor ganel
lesfillmuc hoft hespaceinaeukar yoti
c
cel
l.L i
ket hec ytoplasm ofprokaryot
iccel
ls
,thec ytoplasm ofeukar yot
iccell
sisas emi fluid
substancec onsist
ingmai nl
yofwat erwit
hthes ames ubstancesdissolv
edini t
.Inaddition,t hi
s
cytoplas
mc ontainselementsofafibr ousnetworkknownasc ytoskelet
onthatgiveslargerc ell
s
shapeands uppor t
.

8
Centr
iol
es
Theseareorganel
l
ess it
uatedint hecyt
oplasmc l
osetot henuclearenvel
opinanimalsand
si
mplerplant
s.Theyoc curin pairsand l
i
eatr i
ghtangleto each other
.Eachcentr
iol
eis
composedofninegr oupsofmi c
rotubul
esarrangedintr
iplet
s,wi
t heachofthetr
ipl
etgroup
connect
edtotheneighbori
ngtri
pletbyfi
bri
ls.

F
unc
tions
 Themai nfuncti
onisnotcl
ear,however,i
tisbel
i
evedtopl
ayarol
eintheor
ient
ati
onof
thespindl
ef i
berduri
ngnucleardivi
si
on.Thushelpi
ngtodet
ermi
neinwhic
hplanethe
cel
ldiv
ides.
 Theys erveasbasalbodi
esofflagel
l
aandc i
li
a.

Endoplas
mi cret
icul
um( ER)
Thi
sisas yst
em offlat
tenedt ubesandmembrane-bounds
acsc
all
edci
ster
nae.Theymayormay
nothaveribosomesattac hedtothem.Thet
wot y
pesofERarer
oughandsmoot h.
Funct
ions

 TheroughERisc
onc
ernedwi
tht
het
rans
por
tofpr
otei
ns,whi
char
emadebyr
ibos
ome
onit
ssurf
ace.

 Thesmoot hERisconcer
nedwi
thlipi
ds y
nthes
is,andpr
oduc
tionofs
ter
oids(
aty
peof
prot
ein)e.
g.t
est
ost
eroneandes
trogen.

Mitochondr i
a
Thesear estruct
uresfoundi nallaerobi
ceukaryot
iccell
s.Theyar
es ur
roundedbyenvelopesof
twomembr anesandc ontai
nf l
uidfil
ledmatri
x.Theinnermembr aneisfol
dedtoformc ris
tae
(cr
ist
a)whic hextendsint
ot hemat ri
x.Otheri
ncl
usionsofthematr
ixareri
bosomes,c
irc
ularDNA
molecules,andphos phategranules.
Functi
ons :

 Themai
nfunc
tioni
saer
obi
cres
pir
ati
on

 Cr
ist
aei
sthes
iteofox
idat
ivephos
phor
ylat
ion andel
ect
ront
rans
por
t

 Themat
ri
xist
hes
iteofKr
eb’
sCy
cle.

Chloroplas
t
Thislargeplast
idiss ur
roundedbyanenv el
opeoft womembr aneswit
haj el
ly-
li
kes t
roma
throughwhi chrunsas ystem ofmembr anescall
edgr ana(s.gr anum).Thes tr
omaoft hes
e
organell
esc or
respondss t
ruct
ural
ly wi
tht he matri
xofmi tochondr i
a.Unli
ke mi t
ochondri
a,
chloropl
astshaves epar
ateinter
nalmembr anes,cal
led thy
lakoidst hatcont
aint hepigment

9
c
hlorophyl
l.Chl
oropl
astscont
ainDNAandc anr epl
icat
eindependentoft hecelli
nwhichthey
r
esi
de.
F
unction.
 Itisanor ganel
leinwhi chphotosy
nthesistakesplace,produci
ngs ugarfrom c
arbon
di
oxideandwaterusi
nglightener
gytrappedbyc hlor
ophyll
.
 L i
ghtenergyi
salsoconvert
edtochemicalenergyinthechloropl
ast
.

Ribosomes
Ribosomesofeukary
oticcel
lsarel
argerthanthoseofpr okar
yoti
ccel
ls
.Theyar eabout60%
RNA and 40% pr ot
ein.They hav
es ediment
ation rat
e of80S,and t heirsub-
unit
shave
sediment
ati
onrat
esof60Sand40S. Ri
bosomesareassembledinthenuc
leolioft
henucl
eus.

Golgiapparatus
TheGol gi(gol̀ je)appar at usc onsis
tsofas tackofflat t
ened membr anouss acs.TheGol gi
apparat
us r ecei
ves s ubst
anc es tr
ansported f rom t he endoplasmicr eti
culum,s t
ores t
he
subst
ances,andt ypicall
yalter stheirchemic alstruc
ture.Itpackagestheses ubstancesinsmall
segmentsofmembr anesc alleds ecr
etoryv esi
cles.Thes ecret
oryvesi
clesfusewi ththeplasma
membr aneandr eleases ecretionstot heex teri
oroft hec el
l.TheGolgiappar at
usalsohelpsto
formtheplas mamembr aneandmembr anesoft helysosomes .

Lysosomes
Lysosomesar eext
remelysmal l
,membr ane-cover
edor ganell
esmadebyt heGol giapparatusin
ani
malc ell
s.Theycontainmulti
plekindsofdigest
iveenzymess uchasproteases,nucleases,and
l
ipasesthatcoulddes t
royac el
lifthoseenzymeswer ereleas
edi nt
othec ytopl
as m.L y
sos omes
fus
ewi thvacuolesthatfor
m asac el
lingest
ssubstances
,andt heyrel
easeenz ymest hatdi ges
t
the subst
anc esint he vacuoles
.Ther e are many functi
onsofl y
sosomes ,whi chc an be
summar i
zedasf ol
low:
i. Endoc y
tosis
:thi
sisthedigesti
onofmat eri
al
stakenin.

i
i
. Autophagyist
heproces
sbywhi
chunwant
eds
truc
tur
eswi
thi
nthec
ell
sar
eengul
fed
anddigest
edwithi
nthely
sos
omes
.

i
i
i. Ex
ocy
tos
is:
thi
sist
her
eleas
eofenz
ymesout
sidet
hec
ell
.

i
v. Aut
oly
sisi
ssi
mpl
ysel
f-
diges
tion

Peroxi
somes
Peroxi
somesares mall,membrane-enc
losedor ganell
esfilledwi t
henzymes.Theyarefoundin
bothplantandani malcel
lsbutappeart ohavedi f
ferentfuncti
onsint
het wokindsofcell
s.I
n
animalcel
l
s,thei
renz ymesoxi
dizeaminoac i
ds,wher easinplantcel
l
stheytypi
cal
lyoxi
dizefat
s.
Peroxi
somesaresonamedbec ausetheirenzymesc onv er
thydrogenperox
idetowaterinboth
plantandani
malc ell
s.

Vac
uol
es
1
0
I
neukary
ot i
cc el
l
svacuol
esaremembr ane-
enc
los
ed s
truc
tur
est
hats
tor
emat
eri
al
ssuc
has
s
tar
ch,
glycogen,orf
attobeus
edforenergy.

Fl
agell
a
Fl
agell
ai neukaryot
esar elar
gerandmor ecomplex
.Theyconsi
stoftwoc ent
ralmic
rot
ubules
andninepai r
sofper i
pheralmi
crot
ubules(a9:
2ar r
angement
).Ass
ociat
edwi theachpai
rof
per
ipheralmicr
otubulesaresmal
lmolec
ulesoft
heprotei
ndynei
n.

Cili
a
Cili
aar eshor t
erandmor enumer oust hanflagel la,butt heyhav et hes amec hemi calcompos i
ti
on
andbas i
car rangementofmi crotubul es.Cili
aar ef oundmai nlyamongc i
l
iatedpr otozoa,whi ch
hav e10,000ormor ec i
liadistr
ibut edov ert heirc ellsur f
ace.Toget hert hec il
iaofanor ganism
beati nac oor dinatedpat ter
n,whi c hc r
eat esawav et hatpas sesfr om oneendoft heor ganism
tot heot her.Thel argenumberofc il
iaandt heirc oor dinatedbeat ingal l
owsc il
iatedor ganisms,
suc haspar amec ia,tomov emuc hmor er apidlyt hant hos ewi t
hflagel l
a.Ciliaons omec ell
sc an
alsopr opelflui ds,diss
olvedpar ti
c l
es ,bac t
eria,muc us,ands oonpas tthec ell
.Thi sfunc t
ionc an
beofgr eati mpor tanceinhos tdef ens esagai ns tdi s
eas es,parti
c ular l
yint her espirat
oryt r
ac t
,
wher eitisknowni nhumansast hemuc ocil
iaryes calator .
Pseudopodi a
“Falsefeet,”aret empor aryprojectionsofc ytoplasm as sociatedwi thamoeboi dmov ement .This
kindofmov ementoc cursonl yinc ell
swi thoutwal l
s,s uchasamoebasands omewhi teblood
cells
.When an amoebafir stex tendsapor t
ion ofi tsbodyt of orm aps eudopodi um,t he
cytoplasmi smuc hl es
sdens ei nt heps eudopodi um t hani not herar easoft hec ell
;asar esult
,
cytoplasm f rom el sewherei nt he or gani s
m flowsi ntot he ps eudopodi um byc ytoplas
mi c
streaming.

CellWall
s
A numberofuni cell
ulareukaryoti
cor ganismshav ec el
lwal l
st hatl ackpept idogl
ycan t
hat
charact
eri
zebac t
eri
a.Algalcellwall
sforexamplec onsi
stmai nl
yofc el
lulose,chit
inorbothand
i
ns omepol ys
acchari
des. Chi t
inisas t
ructur
alpolysacchari
det hati sal soc ommoni nt he
exoskel
etonsofar t
hropodss uchasi ns
ec t
sandc rust
aceans.Pr ot
oz oanshav eflexibl
eexter
nal
coveri
ngsc al
l
edpel li
cl
es.Regardlessofc ompos i
ti
on,cellwallsgivec el
lsrigidi
tyandpr ot
ect
them fr
om bursti
ngwhenwat ermov esi
ntot hem f
rom t
heenv i
ronment .

Di
ff
erenc
esbet
weenanAni
malCel
landaPl
antCel
l

Pl
antc
ell Ani
malc
ell

Pl
antcel
ls hav
ec hl
orophy
ll
,cel
l
ulos
e and Animalc el
l
shaveadrenal
i
ne,t
hyr
oxi
neand
st
arc
hwit
houtcent
ri
ole theorganel
lec
ent
ri
ole

Ar
elat
ivel
yri
gidc
ellwal
lout
side t
he c
ell Noc
ellwal
l
11
 s
urface membr
ane;por es c
ontai
ning f
ine
t
hreadsknownas plasmodesmatali
nksthe
c
ytoplas
m ofneighbor
ingcel
lsthroughthe
c
ellwall
s.

Chl
oropl
ast
sinphot
osy
nthet
icpl
antc
ell
s Noc
hlor
opl
ast
sfound

Al
argec
ent
ralv
acuol
e Animalcel
lsmayhav
esmal
lvac
uol
ess
uchas
phagocy
t i
cvac
uol
es

CEL
LDI
VISI
ON

Thisisthepr oc
esswher eac el
l
’scytopl
asm dividesgiv
ingri
s etoanot herc ell
.Befor
eac el
l
div
idesthenuc l
eusmus tf i
rstdivi
det oproducet woormor enuc lei.Therear etwotypesof
nucleardi
vis
ioninli
v i
ngc el
l,mitosi
sandmei osis.Beforewedi sc
us sthetypeandhow ac el
l
div
idesitisimport
antt oremindour sel
vesont hes t
ruct
ureofac hromos ome.Thi si
sbec ause
chromosomesar et hemos ti mportants t
ruc
turesin everycellduring divi
sion astheyar e
res
pons i
blef
orthetransmissi
onofher edi
taryi
nformati
onfrom onegener ati
ont othenext.

TheSt ructureofaChr omos ome

Ac hr
omos omei smadeupoft wopar tsknownasc hromat i
ds.Thec hr omat i
dsareheldtogether
atapoi ntc al
l
edc entromer ewhi c
hmayoc curany wher ealongt hel engthoft hechromos ome.
Studieshav erev eal
edt hatc hromos omeswi t
hinc ell
sex i
stinpai rswi theac hofthepai red
chromos omest er medhomol ogousc hromosomes .Homol ogousc hromos omesar es i
milarin
structureandc ontaingenest hatc odef orsamec harac t
er.Ther eas onwhyt her
ear epairsof
chromos omesi nac ellist hatones etc omesf rom thef emalepar entbywayofeggandt he
otherf r
om t hemal epar entbywayofs perm.
Thenumberofc hromos omesi nac ellvari
eswiths peciesofor ganisms .Frui
tfl
yforexampl ehas
eightc hromos omes ,catshav ethi
rty-eight
,dogshav es eventy-ei
ght .Humanbei ngshavef ort
y-
si
xor23pai rswi th onl yonepai rt ermed sexorX and Yc hromos omesdi ff
eri
ng int hei
r
compos i
tion and s tr
uc ture.The mal e orY c hromos ome i sshor tert han the X orf emale
chromos omesandl ackss omeoft hegenesf oundont hef emalec hromos ome.

TheCel
lCycl
e
Thes
earesequencesofact
ivi
ti
esoccur
ri
ngbetweenonec
elldi
vi
si
onandt
henex
t.
Thecel
lcy
clei
ss epar
atedi
ntothreemains
tages
:

i
. I
nter
phas
e:wheresynt
hes
isofallt
hemater
ialsr
equir
ed forthef unc
tioni
ng and
gr
owthofthec
elloc
cur
saswel
laswher
eDNAr epl
i
cat
iontakesplac
e.

i
i
. Mi
tos
is:
wher
ethenuc
leusoft
hec
elldi
vi
des
.

i
i
i. Cel
ldiv
isi
on/c
ytoki
nes
is,wher
ethec
ytopl
asm di
vi
desf
oll
owedbyt
hedi
vi
si
onoft
he
ent
ir
ec el
l
.

1
2
MI
TOSI
S

Mitosi
si sthe processbywhich acell
’
snucl
eusdi
videsto producetwo daught
ernucl
ei
contai
ningidenti
calset
sofc
hromosomestot
hepar
ent
’scel
l.I
tisusual
l
yfol
lowedbydivi
si
onof
t
hewhol ec
elltoformtwodaught
ercel
l
s.

Mit
osi
salt
houghacontinuouspr
ocesswi
thnodis
tinc
tionbetweenthephas
es,i
sdi
vi
dedi
nto
f
ourst
agesforc
onv
enience;Pr
ophas
e,met
aphas
e,anaphaseandtel
ophas
e.

TheSt
agesofMi
tos
is

Int
erphas e
Thisiswhereal lt
hemateri
alsrequir
edbyt hec
elli
ssynthesi
zed.TheDNAofeac hchromosome
als
or epli
catesmakingeachchromos ometoexis
tasapai rofchromati
dsj
oinedbyac entr
omere.
Atthisstagethec el
li
s4n(4c opiesofeac
hDNAmol ecul
e,2i neachhomol
ogousc hromosome).
Duringinterphasechromosomesbec omeloos
elycoil
ed,thread-l
i
kemateri
al,t
hatisdif
fi
cultt
o
see,cal
ledc hromati
n.

Prophas
e
Thisi
sthelongestphas
eofthecel
ldivi
si
on.Thechromosomesbec omethi
ckerandshor
terasa
resul
tofti
ghtpac kagi
ngofitscomponents.Cent
riol
erepl
ic
atesandmov estotheoppos i
te
polesofthec el
landbegintopr oduceshortmicrot
ubul
esc al
l
edas t
ers
.F i
nall
ythenuclear
envel
opbreaksawayandspi
ndlefi
bresaref
ormed.

Metaphas
e
Atmetaphas
ethechromosomel
ineuparoundt
heequat
oroft
hes
pindl
eandbec
omeat
tac
hed
thr
oughthecent
romereonthes
pindl
efi
bre.

Anaphase
Thespindl
efiberspl
i
tintwoandthespi
ndl
efiberpul
lthedaught
ercent
romer
etooppos
ite
pol
es.Theseparat
edchr
omat
idsar
epul
l
edalongbehindthec
entr
omeres
.

Tel
ophase
Thec hr
omati
donr eac
hingthepolesofthecelluncoil
sandlengthenstof or
m achromat
in
again.Spi
ndl
efibresdi s
int
egr
ate,nucl
earenvelop r
eformsaround the each oft
he pol
ar
chromosomes
.Telophasemayleaddir
ect
lytoc
ytokines
is.

Cytokines
Thisist hedi vi
s ionoft hec yt
opl asm ort heent i
recellintot woormor edaught ercell
s.In
prepar at
ionfordi vi
si
on,t hecellor ganell
esbecomeev enlydis
tributedt owar dsthet wopol esof
thet elophasec ellalongwi tht hec hromosomes .Inanimalcel l
s,thec ellsurfacemembr ane
beginst oi nvaginat edur i
ngt elophas etowardt heregionprev i
ous l
yoc cupiedbyt hespindle
equat orformingaf urrow.Thec ell’
ss ur
facemembr anesinthef ur r
ow ev entuall
yj oinupand
compl etelysepar atet hec ell
.I npl ants
,thes pindl
efibredisappear sev erywher eex ceptt he
regi
onofequat or i
alplane.Heret heymov eoutwar di
ndiameterandi nc reaseinnumbert of or
m
abar relshapedr egionc all
edphr agnopl ast
.Gol giapparat
us,ER,r i
bosomes ,mi tochondria,are
1
3
att
ract
edt othi
sr egionandtheGol giappar atusproduc eanumberofs mallflui
d-f
ill
edv esi
cles
whichappearfir
stint hecenteroft hec el
ls.Thev esi
clesthenf us
et ogethertof or
m ac ellplate
whichgrowsacros stheequatorialplane.Thec ontentsoft hevesi
clesatt hi
ss t
agec ontr
ibutet o
thenewmi ddlelamel l
aandc ellwalloft hedaught erc el
lwhi l
etheirmembr aneformst henew
cel
lsurfac
emembr ane.Thes preadingpl ateev entuall
yf useswitht hepar ent’
sc el
lwal land
separ
atesthetwodaught ercell
s.

TheSi
gni
fi
canc
eofMi
tos
is

Genet
icSt
abi
l
ity

Mitosi
sisakindofdivisi
onbywhi chident
icaldaught
erc el
l
sareproducedhavi
ngthes ame
amountandtypeofgeneticconst
it
uti
onasthatoftheparentcel
l
.Thenumberofchromosomes
remainst
hesameinallthecell
sproducedmakingthedaughtercel
l
sret
ainthesamechar
ac t
ers
asthoseoft
heparentcel
l.

Gr
owt
h

Itisresponsibl
eforgrowt
handdevelopmentofmult
i-
cel
l
ularor
gani
smsf
rom asi
ngle-
c el
l
ed
zygote.Ithelpsthecelli
nmai
ntai
ningpropersi
ze.I
tisalsoamethodofmult
ipl
ic
ationi n
unicel
lul
arorganis
ms.

Regener
ati
on

Mitosi
shel
psinrest
ori
ngwearandtearinbodytis
sues,r
epl
acementofdamagedorl
ostpar
t,
heali
ngofwoundsandregener
ati
onofdet
achedpart
s(asi
ntai
lsofl
iz
ards
).

As
exualRepr
oduc
tion

Mit
osi
sisthebas
isofas
exualr
epr
oduc
tion,t
hepr
oduc
tionofnewi
ndi
vi
dualofs
pec
iesbyone
par
entorgani
sm.

MEI
OSI
S

Meiosi
sist heform ofnuc l
eardivi
si
oni nwhi chthec hromosomenumberi shalvedfrom the
dipl
oid(2n)numbert ohapl oidnumber( n).Inmei osi
st woc y
clesofnucl
eardiv
isi
onsoc cur.
Thesearemei osisIwher et hehomol ogousc hr
omos omess eparateandmeios
isIIwheret he
si
sterchr
omat i
dss eparate.Meiosi
smai nl
yoc c
ursdur i
ngt heformati
onofgametes(sperm and
egg)inanimalsthatreproduc esex
uall
ywhileinplantitoccur
sdur i
ngthefor
mati
onofs pores.

I
nter
phas
eI

Thi
sisthef
ir
sts
tageofmeiosi
s.Dur
ingt
hiss
taget
hec
ellget
sreadyf
ormei
osi
sbydupl
i
cat
ing
i
tschr
omosomesandcent
ri
ole.

1
4
Pr
ophas
esI

Thisisthes econdphaseofmei ot
icdiv
isi
onandt helongest
.Atthebeginni
ngoft hisst
age
chromatins t
randofDNAcoilupintoindiv
idualchromosomes.Thechr
omos omesar
emadeup
oft wos i
sterc hr
omati
dswhichareidenti
calcopiesoft hesameDNA andwhi char ejoi
ned
togetheratt hecent
romer
e.Duringmeioti
cpr ophasetherearethr
eemajorevent
sthatoc cur
anddonotoc c
urduri
ngmit
osis
.Theseare:

i
. Sy
naps
is:

Homol ogouschr
omosomesareusual
l
ylay
ingrandomlyi
nthenucleus
.Butdur
ing
meiosi
st heypai
rupt oget
herpoi
nttopointtofor
m abival
ent
.Thisproc
essof
pai
ringiscal
leds
ynaps
is.

i
i
. Cr
oss
ingov
er:

Onc
ethepairi
ngiscomplet
ed,thehomologouschr
omos
omesbegi
ntoex
change
t
hegenest
hroughaproc
esscal
ledcr
oss
ingover.

i
i
i. Chi
asma:

Afterthec r
ossi
ngov er,
thepairedc hromos omesbegintoseparat
eback. Whenthese
chromos omesar eseparat
ingwi theachot her
,theymakeauni quepatternwit
heac h
oft hec r
ossov erpoint
sstil
lattached.Thissit
uati
oni scal
l
edc hi
asma.Att hi
spoint
thec hromosomesar enotpur elypaternalormaternalbutwil
lhavetheirgenebeing
shuffl
edt hus,
causinggeneti
cv ari
ati
on.

Thespindl
efibers
tart
stofor
mfrom t
hec ent
ri
oleandthecentr
iol
es t
art
stomov eawayf
rom
eachothert
owardsthepol
esoft
hecel
l.Thenucl
eusdi
sappear
sandt henucl
earenvel
opbr
eaks
apart
.

Met
aphas
eI

Thetet
rads(bi
val
ent
)li
neupar
oundt
heequat
oroft
hes
pindl
e,andat
tac
hthems
elv
esbyt
hei
r
cent
romeres
.

Anaphas
eI

Thefi
ft
hstagebegi
nswit
hthes
pindl
efi
bresc
ont r
act
ingint
ot hecentri
ole.
Thesi
sterc
hromat
ids
remai
natt
achedbutthet
etr
adspi
tsup.
Thecellbegi
nstoelongat
er eadytospl
i
t.

Tel
ophas
eI

Att
elophas
e,t
hec
hromos
omesar
enowatt
hepol
esoft
hec
ell
.Thec
ell
scont
inuet
oel
ongat
e

1
5
andisal
mostr
eadytobedi
vi
ded.Nucl
eiandthenuc
learenvel
opbegintoappearar
oundthe
chr
omosomes.
Atthi
sst
aget
hechromosomenumberi
shalfbutsti
l
lhav
ingdoublechr
omat
id.

Cy
toki
nes

The c
ellspli
tsi
ntotwo daught
erc el
l
s.The daught
ercell
sare hapl
oidc
ell
sbecauset he
homologouschr
omos
omepai r
sSpli
t-
upduri
nginter
phaseI
.thes
ist
erchr
omat
idsar
esti
lli
ntact
.

Pr
ophas
eII

Thisi
ss i
mil
art oprophaseIexceptthatsynapsi
s,cr
ossi
ngov er,andchiasmadonotoc cur
.Thi
s
stageisabsentifint
erphas
eI Iisabsent.Thenucleol
iandnuc l
earenvelopdisappearandthe
chromati
dss hort
enandt hi
cken.Thec ent
ri
olesbegintomov eapartfrom eachotherandbegin
toforms pi
ndlefi
bres.Thec
hromos omesbegi ntomovet owardsthecenterofthecell
.

Met
aphas
eII

Duri
ngmet aphasetwothesist
erchr
omat
idsarel
i
nedups
eparat
elyatt
hemetaphasepl
aneas
i
nmet aphaseI .Thespindl
efibr
eiscomplet
eand t
hesi
sterc
hromati
dsar
eat tac
hed t
oit
t
hroughtheircentr
omere.

Anaphas
eII

AnaphaseIIi
sali
ttl
ediff
erentfr
om theanaphas
eI .Her
ethes
ist
erc
hromat
idsdetac
handmove
awayfrom eachother.Thes pl
itchromosomebegi nstomovetowar
dsthec ent
riol
east
he
spi
ndlefi
brecont
ract
s.Cellal
sobeginst
oelongate.

Tel
ophas
eII

Thechr
omosomesarr
iveatthepol
esofthecel
l.Nucl
eiandnucl
earenvelopbegi
nst
of orm
aroundt
hechromos
omes .
Thespi
ndl
efi
bredi
sappear
s,t
hecel
lsar
ealmostreadyt
obedi
vided.

Cy
toki
nesI
I

Thecel
lspl
i
tsandther
earefourdi
ff
erentcel
l
sc r
eat
edf
rom t
heor
igi
nal
.Eac
hcel
list
hehapl
oid
cel
lwit
hthedi
ffer
ents
ingl
esetoft
hec hr
omos omes
.

SI
GNI
FICANCEOFMEI
OSI
S

Sex
ualr
epr
oduc
tion

Thi
sres
tor
esthenormaldi
ploidstat
eoft hecellot
herwis
ei twi
l
llead t
o doubl
i
ng oft
he
chr
omosomef
oreac
hs uc
ces
sivesex
ualrepr
oduc
tiongenerat
ion.

Genet
icv
ari
ati
on

Mei
osi
sal
sopr
ovi
desoppor
tuni
tyf
ornewc
ombi
nat
ionofgenest
ooc
curi
nthegamet
es.Thi
s
1
6
l
eadst
ogenet
icv
ari
ati
oni
ntheof
fspr
ingpr
oduc
edbyt
hef
usi
onoft
hegamet
es.

1
7