Bio f4 Notes Final-1

Bi
ology231
GENETI
CS
Thi
sist udyofi
hest nher
it
anceandvar
iat
ion.
Termsusedingeneti
cs
1.I
nher
it
ance;t
ransmi
ssi
onofchar
act
eri
sti
csf
rom
thepar ent st ot heof fspr i
ngs
2.Var iati
on; possessi onofchar acteri
sti
csdi f
f erent
from t hoseoft hepar ent sandot heroffsprings.
3.DNA; De- oxy ribonucl eicaci d
4.RNA; Ri bonucl eicaci d
5.Monohybr idi nher itance; i
nher itanceofone
char act eristiccont rolledbyonepai rofher edi t
ary
fact orse. g.Tal lness
6.Dihybr idi nher i
tance; inher itanceoft wo
char act eristicsatt hesamet imee. g.colourand
Text ure/ shapei nt hegar denpeapl ant
7.Domi nance; abi l
ityofat raittoonl yexpressi t
self
8.Recessi veness; at r
aitt hatonl yexpressesi tself
wheni nhomozy gousst ate.
9.Het erozygosi ty;pr esenceoft wodi ssi
mi l
ar
member sofanal lelee. g.Rr ,
Ttet c.
10. Homozy gosi ty;pr esenceoft wosimi l
arofan
allelee. g.TT, RR, tt,rret c.
11. Al lele; onepai rofgeneswhi choccupy
cor respondi ngl oci /posi ti
onsi nhomol ogous
chr omosomes
12. Phenot ype-t hephy sicalappear anceofan
i
ndi v i
dual oror gani sm.I t’
si nfluencedbyt he
genot y peandenv i
ronment .
13. Genot ype-t hegenet i
cconst it
uti
onofan
organi sm.I tspur elygenet i
cal.
14. F1gener ation( fi
r stfili
algener ati
on)-ar ethe
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offspringst hatr epresentt hefir

stgener ati
onof
organismsori ndiv i
dual sunderst udy .
15. F2gener ati
on( secondf ili
algener at
ion)-these
areof fspringsobt ainedaf terselfcr ossingt heF1
gen.
16. I ncompl etedomi nance/co- domi nance-a
conditionwher enoal l
eleisdomi nantov ertheother
.
Thephenot ypeoft heof f
springisi ntermediate
betweent hatoft hepar ents.
17. Mul tipleallelism-ar echaracter i
st i
cs
determi nedbymor et hant wov ariantf ormsofa
singlegenee. g.inher itanceoft heBl oodgr oupsin
man( ABO)
18. Testcr oss/backcr oss-it’
sacr ossing
i
nv olvi
ngahomozy gousr ecessivet odet erminethe
genot ypeofanor gani sm.
19. Mut ati
on-t hesear espont aneouschangesi n
theindi vi
dual ’
sgenet icmakeup.
Concept sofVar i
ati
on
Variat
ionreferstoobser vablediff
erencesamongl ivi
ng
organisms.
Typesofv ariat
ion
1.Disconti
nuousv ari
ation–int hi
stypeofv ar
iat
ion,
therearedistinctanddef i
nitegroupsof
indi
vidualswi t
hnoi ntermediateforms.E.g.
sexei t
hermal eorf emale,
bl oodgr oups-onecanonl ybelongtooneof
thefourbl oodgr oupsA,B,AB,O
abi l
itytor ol
ethet ongue
Pr esenceofl onghai rinthenoseandont he
earpinna.
Pr esenceofaf reeorat t
achedearlobe.
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Allt
hesetr
ait
sarecontrol
ledbyoneortwomajorgenes.
Thesetr
ait
sarenotinf
luencedbytheenvi
ronment
2.
Continuousv ari
ation–t hisvari
ati
onhasawi de
rangeofdi ff
erencesf ort hesamechar acter
isti
c
from oneext r
emet ot heot here.
g.
Height
Skincolour/pigment ati
on
Wei ght
Lengt hofinternodes
Numberofl eav es,frui
tsonat reeetc
Fingerprints
Whent heset
rait
sarepl
ottedonagr
aphanor
mal
di
str
ibuti
oncurveisobt
ained.
Numberof
i
ndi
vi
duals
Hei
ghti
n
cm
Anor
mal
dist
ri
but
ioncur
veofhei
ght
s
Thi
stypeofvar
iat
ioni
sbroughtaboutbythei
nter
act
ion
ofbot
hthegeneti
cenvi
ronmentalf
actor
s.
E.
g.apl
antwi
thgenesfort
all
nessmayf
ail
togr
owt
all
duet
ocli
mateandpoorsoi
ls.
Pr
act
ical
Act i
vi
ty1
Tongueroll
ing
Fingerpr
int
s
Height
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Causesofvar
iat
ion
1.Gamet eformat i
on–dur i
nggamet ef ormati
on
twopr ocessescont ri
butetov ari
ation.These
are

Independentassor tment-during
met aphaseIofmei oti
cdi vision,homol ogous
chromosomescomet oget heri npair
sandsegr egate
i
ntodaught ercel l
sindependent lyofeachot her .Thi
s
i
ndependentassor tmentpr oducesav ari
etyofdi ff
erent
gamet es.Thet otalnumberofcombi nat i
onsi sgivenby
n
2 wher e‘n’isthehaploi dnumberofchr omosomes.I n
n 23
mann=23hence2 =2 whi chisequal t
o8, 388,608.

Crossingoverdur i
ngthepr ophaseIof
meioticcelldivi
sion.I.
e.whenhomol ogous
chromosomesbr eakandr ejoinatcer t
ainpoi ntscall
ed
chi
asmat
a.
2.Fert
il
izati
on–dur i
ngf ertil
izat
ionparental
genescacomet ogetherindiff
er entcombinations.
Theref
oredesirabl
eandundesi rablequalit
iesofparents
canbecombi nedint heoffspri
ngs.
3.Mutation-thesear espont aneouschangesi n
thegeneti
cmakeupofanor ganism.Mut at
ionbr i
ngs
aboutchangesi ntheli
vingorgani sms.
TheChr
omosome
Eachchr omosomei smadeupoft wopar al
lel
str
ands
call
edchr omatids.Eachpai rofchr
omat i
dsisconnect
ed
atapoi ntbythecent r
omer e.Chromosomescont ai
nthe
heredit
arymat eri
alcall
edthegenes.Al lcel
lsi
ncl
uding
thesper msandov ahavechr omosomes.
Chromosomesar epresentinthenucleusandareonly
visi
bleunderthemi cr
oscopedur i
ngcelldiv
isi
on–
mi t
osisandmei osis.Thereisadef i
nit
enumberof
chromosomesi neachcel lforever
yspeciesofanimalor
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plant.
E.g.inmansomati
ccells(
bodycells)have46
chromosomeswhilethesexcell
s/gamet eshave23
chromosomes.Duringf
ert
il
izat
ionfusionofthesperm-
23chr omosomesandtheov a-
23chr omosomes
restorest
he46chromosomest oform adipl
oidzygote.
Chr
omosomalnumber
sindi
ff
erentor
gani
sms
Or
gani
sm Numberofchr
omosomes
Somati
ccell
s Gamet es-n
–2n
Sheep( Ovi
saur i
es) 56 28
Cow( BosTaur us) 60 30
Fruit-
fly(Drosophil
a 8 4
mel anogast er
)
Mai ze( Zeamay s) 20 10
Wheat (Trit
icum 14 7
vulgare)
Tobacco( Nicoti
ana 12 6
tabacum)
Man(Homosapi ens) 46 23
Pr
act
ical
Act
ivi
ty2
Chr
omosomal
behav
iourdur
ingmitosi
s
Chr
omosomal
behav
iouri
nmei osi
s
GENESANDDNA
Genesoccupyspecifi
cpositi
onsont hechromosomes
cal
l hegenel
edt oci(genelocus)
Thegeneisachemi cali
nnat ur
e.Thegenesar einthe
for
m ofanuclei
cacidmol eculecall
edDe-oxyr
ibonucl
eic
aci
d(DNA).In1953t woBiologist
sFranci
sCr i
ckand
JamesWat sonworkedoutt hestruct
ureoftheDNA.
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DNAwasf oundt obecomposedoft hr

eediff
erent
components;
1.Afivecar bonsugar-
pent
ose
2.phosphat emolecul
e
3.ni
trogenousbase
Ther
earefourt ypesofthenitr
ogenousbase;
Adeni ne–A
Guani ne–G
Thy mi
ne-T
Cy tosi
ne–C
Acombinationthepentosesugar,aphosphatemolecul
e
andanit
rogenousbasef msanucl
or eot
ide.
I
.e.
Phosphat
e
Pentose Base
sugar
DNAst ructur
econt ainssever
alnucleoti
desfused
togethertoforml ongchainscal
ledDNAst rands.Two
paral
lelstr
andst wistononeanot herformi
ngadouble
heli
xst r
ucture.Adeninealwayscombi neswit
hThy mi
ne
andCy tosi
newi thGuanine.
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Rol
eofDNA
Storesgenet i
cinf
ormationinacodedf orm
Enablest r
ansferofgeneti
cinf
ormat i
on
unchangedt odaughtercell
sthrough
repl
icati
on
Translatesthegeneti
cinformat
ionintothe
characteri
sti
csofanor gani
sm throughprotei
n
synthesis
DNAREPLICATION
Dur ingcelldiv
isi
onbot hdaught ercellsarisi
ng
fr
om mi toti
cdivi
sionhav ethesamegenet ic
constit
utionasthepar entcel
l.DNAi nt he
parentcellmustthereforeduplicateaccur atel
y
beforethecelldiv
ides.Thepr ocesst hrough
whichaDNAmol eculeformsanexactRepl i
ca
i
scal edDNAr
l epl
icati
on.
Thet wost r
andsformingt hedoubl ehelix
separateslkeazi
i pper.Eachpar al
lelstrand
becomesat emplatethatspecifiesthebase
sequenceofanewcompl i
ment arystrand.
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Throught heact i
onofr epli
catingenzy mes, f
ree
nucleotidest akeupposi ti
onsal ongt he
templ atestrands.
Thespeci fi
cityofthebasepai ringensur esthat
onlycompl i
ment ar
ybasesl inktogetherwi th
thoseont het emplatestrands.I .
e.G-CandA- T.
Covalentbondsar eformedbet weent he
nucleotidesr esulti
nginthef ormat i
onofanew
DNAst rand.
Thet empl ateandt henewDNAst randthe
under gocoi li
ngt oform adoubl ehelix.Inthi
s
way ,twoi dent i
calDNAmol eculesar eformed
from theor iginalsi
nglemol ecule.
Eachoft henewDNAmol eculesget s
i
ncor poratedi ntooneoft het wonucl eiformed
j
ustpr iortot hesepar at
ionoft hedaught ercells.
Di
agr
am
Rol
eoft
heDNAi
npr
otei
nsynt
hesi
s
Thesequenceofbasesal ongt heDNAst randact sas
thealphabetanddet er
mi nest hesequenceofami no
acidswhent heyjointofor m apolypepti
dechai n.Protei
n
synthesistakesplaceinribosome’sf oundinthe
cytoplasm.SincetheDNAmol eculesareconfinedi nthe
nucleus,therehastobeawayofcommuni cati
ngt he
DNAi nformat i
ontotheribosome’ swher eactualprotein
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synthesisoccur s.
Thecel ltherefor ehasaspeci almol ecul
ecal l
edthe
Ribonucleicaci d(RNA) .I
tsroleistocarrygenetic
i
nfor mationf rom theDNAt ot hesiteofprotei
n
synthesisint hecy t
oplasm.It’
sr efer
redtoas
messengerRNA( mRNA) .RNAi sf or
medf rom theDNA
strands.
Dur i
ngfor mat ionoft hemRNAasect ionoftheDNA
strandsact sast hetempl at
est r
and.Thedoubl ehelixof
theDNAunzi psandf reenucleotidesali
gnthemsel v
es
opposi t
et het empl ate.Thebasesequenceoft he
templ at
est r
andi scopi edontoanewst rand.
InRNA, Thy mi nei sreplacedbyanot herbasecal l
ed
Ur
aci
l
(U)
ThetransferofDNAsequenceont
hemRNAst
randi
s
ref
err
edt oasTranscr
ipt
ion.
Di
agr
am
Aft
eri t
sf or
mationthemRNAl eavesthenucleuswi t
h
i
nstructionsfr
om theDNAaboutt hekindofpr ot
einto
besy nthesi
sedbyt hecell
.Thi
sinf
ormationisinthe
for
m ofbaset ripl
etsknownasCodonswhi chcodefora
part
icularaminoacidofapr ot
einmoleculee.g.
AAA- pheny l
alani
ne
TTT- l
ysine
CAA-v al
ine
CTA-aspar t
icacid
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenDNAandRNA
DNA RNA
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1.
HasDe- oxribosesugar Hasribosesugar
2.
Doubl
est randed Si
nglest r
anded
3.
Confi
nedi nthenucleus Foundi nnucleusand
cyt
oplasm
4.
Haveorganicbasesas Hasor ganicbasesas
cyt
osine,guanine, cyt
osine,guanine,adeni
ne
adeni
neandt hymine. andur acil
THEFI RSTLAW OFHEREDI TY( LawofSegr egat i

on)
MENDEL’ SEXPERI MENTS
AnAust rianmonkknownasMendel isconsi deredt obe
thefatherofgenet i
cs.Hecar riedoutv ariousbr eeding
experiment sandobser vedv ar i
ationsi ndi fferent
charact erist
icsoft hegar denpea.Thechar act eri
stics
i
nclude:
Hei ghtoft hestems-t all ordwar f
Text ureoft heseedcoat -smoot horwr i
nkled
Col ouroft heseeds-y elloworgr een
Text ureoft heponds
Col ouroft hefl
ower s-whi teorpur ple
Posi ti
onoft hef lower -axi al ortermi nal
Hesel ect edagr oupofdwar fpl ant sandsel fpol l
inated
them bydust i
ngmat ur
epol l
engr ainsont ot hest igmas
ofthesamepl ant.Hecol lect edt her esultingseedsand
plantedt hem.Henot edt hatt heseseedsgr ewi nto
dwar fplant sonl y.Herepeat edt heexper imentf or
several gener ationsandobt ai nedt hesamer esults.
Inanot herexper iment,Mendel sel ect edtal lplantsand
self-
pol l
inatedt hem.Hepl ant edt her esultingseedsand
obser vedt hatt heygrewi nt oami xt ureoft allanddwar f
plants.Het ookseedsf r
om t het allof fspringsonl yand
repeatedt heexper imentf ormanygener ationsunt i
l he
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obtainedonlyt
all
plant s.
Thiswayhewasabl et oobt ai
napur eli
neoft al
lgarden
peasandapur eli
neofdwar fgardenpeas.
Het hencross-
poll
i
nat edpur ebredtallgar
denpeaswi t
h
thepur ebr
eddwar fvariety.Heplantedtheresult
ing
seedsandheobser v
edt hatal
ltheoffspri
ngswer etal
l
plants.
Fertil
izati
on-usingcheckerboar dorPunnet
squar e
F1genot ypeTt
F1Phenot ypicratio=Allt
all.
Hef urthercr ossedt wooft hesetal
lof fspri
ngsand
plantedt her esulti
ngseeds.Mendel obser v
edthatthis
secondgener ati
onconsi stedofami xtureoftal
l and
dwar fplants.Af tercountingtheseplant shenotedthat
theratiooft alltodwar fplantswasappr oxi
mately3:1
respectively.Heobser vedthatthi
sratiowasal way s
obtainedwhencr osseswer emadebet weent henon-
purebr eedsoft allpl
ants.
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F2Genoty
peTT,2Tt
,tt
F2Phenot
ypi
crati
o;3Tal
l
;1shor
t
Mendelconcl
udedt hatthetraitsofanorgani
sm are
det
erminedbyhereditaryfactorswhichoccurinpai
rs.
Onl
yoneofpai rofsuchf actorscanberepresent
edina
si
nglegamete.ThislaterbecameMendel ’sFir
stLaw,
TheLawofSegr
egat
ion
Atthisti
meMendel hadnoideaofgenesandsohe
call
edthem factors.Hepostulat
edthatt
hesefact
ors
arefoundont hechr omosomesandar epassedfr
om the
parentstot
heof fspringsv
iagametes.
Reasonsbehi
ndMendel
’
ssuccess
1.
Heusedf avourabl
emat er
ial
si .
e.thegar denpea
plantwhi
chi snormall
yselfpoll
inated.Thismadei t
easyforhimt oemploycrosspol l
i
nat i
onatwi l
l
.
2.
thepeaplantheusedhadsev eralcontrasti
ngt r
aits
3.
Hisstudywasf ocusedonpart i
culartr
aitswhi l
e
thosebefor
ehi m hadbeenattempt ingtodet ermine
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wholesomeheredit
yofeachorganism.
4.
Hekeptaccurat
edat aonallhi
sexperi
mentsand
frotheanal
ysi
softhisdatahewasableto
formulat
edefi
nit
ehy pot
hesi
s.
Mendelchosethegar
denpeapl
antbecauseoft
he
f
oll
owingreasons
Planthadmanycont rastingt rai
tse.g.fl
ower
colours,seedcoatt
ext ure,lengthoft hestems
etc.
Plantisnormall
ysel
fpol linatedbutcr oss
poll
inati
oncanbeempl oy edtwi l
l.
Plantmat ur
esrel
ati
velyf ast
Plantproducesmanyseedst hatcanbepl anted
toproducemanyof fsprings
Monohybr
idI
nher
it
ance
Thi
sistheinheri
tanceofonet r
aitli
kehei
ghti
nthe
gar
denpeapl antthatiscontrol
ledbyasingl
epairof
her
edit
aryfactor
s( genes)contri
butedbybothparent
s.
Genesoccurinpairsonchr omosomesandsuchgene
pai
rsareknownasal l
eles.
Thegeneti
cconst i
tuti
onofanor gani
sm i
scall
edthe
Genot
ypewhi l
ethephy sicalappearancei
sknownast he
Phenot
ype.
Thegenot ypeofanorgani
sm isrepresentedusing
pairedlett
ersymbol
s.Capi
tallet
tersrepresentsthe
domi nantgenewhil
esmalllet
ter
sr epresentthe
recessivegene.
Genet
icCr
oss
Component
sofageneticcr
oss
Parent
alphenot
ypes
Theparent
algenoty
pe–t
hecr
ossi
ngXshoul
d
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beshownher e.
Thegametesandshoul dbecir
cled.
Thefusi
onprocessorfert
il
izat
ion.
Thefi
li
algenerat
iongenoty
pes
NB.Theconvent
ionalsymbolf
ormal
eis♂andt
hatof
f
emaleis♀
Exampl
e1
Duringgamet eformat i
oninthedwar fplat,eachgenein
thepairsegregatesi nt
odiff
erentgamet es.Whent he
femaleandmal efusedur i
ngfer t
il
izat
ion,theof f
spri
ng
producedcont ai
nt hesamenumberofgenesasi neach
parent.Theinheri
tanceofdwar fnessint hepeapl ant
canbei ll
ustr
ateddi agrammaticall
ybyt hef oll
owing
geneticcross
Diagram
Exampl
e2
Simi
larl
ythepai rofgenesinthepur ebreedtal
lpl
ants
wil
lsegregat
ei ntodif
ferentgamet esduri
ng
gametogenesis.Whensel ffert
il
isedtheresul
ti
ngseeds
wil
lhavehalfthenumberofgenesf r
om eachparenti
.e.
Di
agr
am
Exampl
e3
Whenthepurebredt al
lplantiscr
ossedwi thdwarf
pl
ants,
theresul
tingseedsgr owintotallpl
antsonl
y.
Theseoff
spri
ngsr epresentthefi
rstgenerati
on(F1gen)
Diagram.
I
nt hegeneti
ccrossabov e,themaleplantistal
landthe
femaleplanti
sdwar f.I
fthecrossi
sr eversedsothatthe
femaleistal
landthemal eadwar f
,thisisrefer
redtoas
arecipr
ocalcross.TheF1r esul
tswil
l bethesamef or
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ei
thercr
oss.
Di
agr
am
Exampl
e4
Whent heF1of f
spri
ngsareselfpol
li
nated,t
heypr oduce
of
fspri
ngswhi chthatgrowint
oami xtureoftalland
dwarfplant
s.Theseoffspri
ngsareknownast heF2gen.
Diagram
APunnetSquar ecanalsobeusedt
owor
koutgenet
ic
cr
ossese. g.
Parentalphenotype t
all tal
l
Parentalgenoty
pe Tt X Tt
Gamet es Tt Tt
T t
♀
♂
T TT Tt
t Tt Tt
Whent heal l
elicgenesar eident i
cal
,asinTTandt t
,the
conditi
oni sknownashomozy gous.Ani ndividual
withsuchacondi ti
onisknownasahomozy gote.
Whent heal l
elicgenesar enoti denti
calasi nTt ,t
he
conditi
oni sreferr
edtoashet erozygous.Ani ndiv
idual
withsuchagenot ypeisref erredt oasahet erozygote.
Ani ndi
vi
dual wi t
hgenot y
peTt ,wil
lbephy sicallytal
l
becauset hegeneTi sdomi nantovert .Theal l
eletis
recessi
ve.
Adomi nantgeneexpr essesi tselfinbotht he
homoz ygous( TT)andhet erozy gous(Tt)st ateswhi l
ea
recessi
vegeneonl yexpressesi tsel
fIitshomozy gous
state(t
t).TTi stheref
orer eferredt oashomozy gous
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domi
nantandt ti
shomozy gousrecessi
ve.
Ther
ati
o3t all
:1dwar f,
intheF2genischaract
eristi
cof
monohy
bri
di nher
itancewhereonegeneiscompl etel
y
domi
nantovertheot her
.Thisi
srefer
redtoascompl ete
domi
nance.
Themonohy bridcrossesarebasedonMendel ’sfi
rstl
aw,
Thel awofSegr egationwhichstat
esthecharacter
isti
cs
ofanor ganism aredet er
minedbyint
ernal
factorswhich
occur si
npai r
s.Onl yoneofapairofsuchfactorscanbe
represent
edi nasi nglegamete.
Diagram -thepr ocessofsegregat
ion
Rat
iosandPr
obabi
l
ity
The3:1rati
oinmonohy bridi
nherit
ancecanbe
repr
esentedintheform ofprobabi
li
ty.Whenalar
ge
numberofhet er
ozygousgardenpeapl ant
saresel
fed,
theprobabi
li
tyofgett
ingtall
plantsis¾or75%andt hat
ofdwarfwill
be¼or25%.
Diagram
NB.Thei nher
it
anceofcharact
eri
sticsinvol
ves
probabi
li
ty.Thechancet
hataparticulargametewi
ll
fusewithanotheri
sarandom occur r
ence,i
ngenet
ics
thi
sdonebyshowi ngall
possibl
efusi ons.
PracticalActi
vi
ty3and4
Tossingacoi n
Todemonst r
aterandom fusi
onofgamet esi
n
monohy bridi
nherit
ance.
Similarmonohy bridinheri
tanceresult
sast hoseof
Mendel havebeenobt ainedbyusingt hefrui
tfl
y
(Drosophilamel anogaster)t
heinsecthasmany
obser vabl
echar acteri
sti
csthatarecont r
asti
ngsuchas,
Wi nglength–l ongwingdomi nantover
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vesti
gial wi
ng
Eyecol our–redey esdominantoverwhite
eyes
Sizeoft heabdomen–br oadabdomen
domi nantovernarrowabdomen
Bodycol our–gr eybodycolourdominantover
blackbodycol our.
Assi
gnment
Usi
ngappr opr iatel etterswor koutthef ollowingcr osses
wit
hrespectt ot hef ruitfl
y
Cr ossbet weenapur ebredlongwi ngedanda
vest igial winged
Cr ossbet weent wol ongwi ngedhet erozygotes
Cr ossbet weenar edey edhet erozygot eanda
whi teey edf ruitfly.
Thefr
uitfl
yi ssui tablef orgenet i
cstudybecauseoft he
fol
l
owingr easons.
1.Thef emal el aysv erymanyeggshence
i
ncr easi ngthesampl esizeforst udy.
2.Hav emanyobser vablechar acteristi
cst hatare
dist i
nctandcont rasting.
3.I
ti seasi lybr edint hel aboratorywi thmi nimum
requi rement s.
4.I
thasashor tgener ationti
me10- 14day s.
Ther efor emanygener ati
onscanbest udiedin
ashor tper i
odoft ime.
5.Of fspr i
ngscanbecr ossedwi tht heirparentsat
wi l
l (backcr ossi ng)
6.Fliesar esaf et ohandl ebecauset heydonot
transmi tanyknownhumandi seases.
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St
udyQuest
ion10
Pr
act
ical
Acti
vi
ty5
Breedi
ngf
rui
tfl
i
es.
I
ncompl
eteDomi
nance(
Co-
domi
nance)
InMendel ’sexper iment swi thgar denpeap[ plant s, t
he
genesdet er mi ningt hev arioust r
aitswer ecl ear l
y
domi nantorr ecessi ve.Howev erinsomespeci es, all
eles
det ermi ningsev eralcont rast i
ngt rai tsdonothav ea
clearcutdomi nant -
recessi v erelationshi p.Thi si mpl ies
thatnei t
heroft heal lelesiscompl et elydomi nantov er
theot her.
Het erozy gousi ndividualsar ephenot ypi
callydi fferent
from ei theroft hepar ents.Most lyt hephenot ypeoft he
het erozy gousof fspringi sint ermedi atebet weent hatof
thepar ent s.Thi sphenomenoni scal edI
l ncompl et e
Domi nance.Exampl esofi ncompl etedomi nance.
1.Inher itanceoff lowercol ourint he4o’ clockpl ant
(Mi rabi l
isJal apa) .I
fat ruebr eedi ngpl antpr oduci ng
redf lower si scr ossedwi t
hat ruebr eedi ngpl ant
pr oduci ngwhi t
ef l
ower s, allt
heF1of f
spr ingswi ll
hav epi nkf lower s.Whent heF1pl antsar esel f
pol l
inat ed, theyy i
eldr edf lower ed, pinkf lower ed
andwhi t
ef lower edof fspringatar atioof1: 2:1
respect ively.
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I
2.ncomplet edomi nanceinshorthorncattle.Mating
redandwhi t
eshor thorncattl
eyiel
dsRoan( l
ight
Red)calv esduet opresenceofbot hredandwhi te
hairs.Amat ingbet weent woroancoloured
shor t
hornsy i
eldsami xt
ureofred,roanandwhi te
colouredcalv esatar ati
oof1:2:1respectiv
ely.
St
udyQuest
ion12
Inher i
tanceoft heBl oodgr oups( Mult
ipl
eal l
elism)
Inall theki ndsofi nherit
ancedi scussedsof ar ,each
phenot ypicchar acteri
sticisdeterminedby2v ari
ant
formsofasi nglegenel ocatedataspeci ficl
ocusont he
homol ogouschr omosome.Howev ersome
char acteristi
csar edet erminedbymor ethant wov ariant
formsofasi nglegene.Thi sphenomenoni sr eferredt o
asmul t
ipleal l
eli
sm andt hegenesinvolvedar ecal led
mul tiplealleles.E.g.intheABObl oodgroupsi nhumans,
therear et hreegenesi nv ol
vedandt heyareresponsi ble
forthepr esenceofant igent y
pesont her edbl ood
cell
s. Thesear egeneAr esponsibl
eforthepr esenceof
antigenA, geneBf orantigenBandgeneOr esponsi ble
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forabsenceofant i
gensont her edbloodcel l
s.GenesA
andBhav eequal degreeofdomi nancei.e.areco-
domi nant.Theybothexpr esst hemsel veswhenpr esent
togetherasi nthebloodgr oupAB.
GenesAandBar edomi nantovergeneO.GeneOi s
recessiveandonl yexpressesi tselfinthehomozy gous
conditi
on.Thegenot ypesfort hef ourbloodgr oupsi n
theABOsy stem aretherefore,
Bloodgroup Genot ype Ant igens
(Phenotype)
A AA, AO A
B BB,BO B
AB AB AandB
O OO O-Zer o
i
.e.
AAorAO- Bloodgr oupA
BBorBO–bl oodgr oupB
AB–bl oodgr oupAB
OO–bl oodgr oupO
Amar r
iagebet weenamanofbl oodgr oupAanda
womanofbl oodgroupBwi llproducechi ldrenofal lt
he
fourbloodgr oupsifbot hparent sarehet erozygous.
Diagram
Mar r
iagebetweenamanofgenotypeAA(bloodgroupA)
andWomanofgenot y
peBB( bl
oodgroupB)resul
tsinal
l
theoffspr
ingshavi
ngbloodAB.
Diagram.
Assi
gnment
Wor
koutt
hefol
lowingcr
osses
Bothparentswi
thbl
oodgr
oupO
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Het
erozy
gousbl
oodgr
oupAandbl
oodgr
oup
O
St
udyQuest
ion13
I
nher
it
anceoft
heRhesusf
act
or
Inmant hepossessi onofRhesusant igensmakesone
Rh+andt hi
sisdomi nantov erRh–v e.Ifbloodf rom a
Rhesusposi ti
veper soni st ransfusedi ntoar hesus
negat i
veper son,thisi nducesant ibodiesagai nstt he
Rhesusf actorofthedonor .Thiscausesaggl uti
nat ionof
redbl oodcel l
soft her ecipient.
IfaRh- vewomani smar r
iedt oaRhe+v e,whenshe
becomespr egnant,thechi l
dwi llbeRh+v e.Rhesus
antigenscr ossthepl acent aintot hemot her ’
sbl ood
stream.Thi sst i
mul atest hemot her’simmunesy stem to
produceRhesusant i
bodies.Whent heseant ibodiesget
i
ntot hef oetalcir
culat i
on, anant igen-antibodyr eact ion
takespl aceandt her edbl oodcel lsoft hef oetusar e
dest r
oyed( Haemol y sed).
Dur i
ngt hesecondpr egnancy ,theamountofRhesus
antibodiesar emor eandcauseal otofdamaget ot he
foetus’sredbl oodcel l
sresul ti
ngt odeat h.Thi siscal l
ed
Haemolyt
icDi
seaseoft
heNewbor
norEr
ythr
obl
ast
osi
s
f
oetal
i
s.
Det
ermi
ningUnknownGenot
ypes
Thiscanbedonei nt woway s.
1.Carryi
ngoutaTestCr oss
Atestcrossisacr ossbet weenani ndividualof
unknowngenot ypewi thanindivi
dual ofar ecessi
ve
genotype.Atestcrosswher eanoffspri
ngi scrossed
wit
honeofi t
spar entsi scall
edaBackCr oss.
I
ngar denpeaplantst hegenet hatdetermi nesred
fl
owersisdomi nantov erthatwhichdet ermineswhite
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flowers.Apl antwi t
hredf l
owersmayei t
herbe
homoz ygous( RR)orhet er
ozygous(Rr)fort
his
characteristi
c.Toest abli
shitscorr
ectgenotypeiti
s
crossedwi t
hahomozy gousrecessi
veplanti
.e.awhit
e
floweredone( rr
)
Ifall
theirof f
springsbearr edfl
owersthenthi
si ndi
cat
es
thatther edfloweredpl antishomozygousori t
’sfr
om a
pureline.
Diagr am
I
ft heof f
spri
ngsbearami xtureofredandwhi tefl
ower s
i
nt her ati
oof1:1,thi
sindicatesthattheredflowered
plantwashet erozygous.
Diagr am
Selfing
Unknowngenot ypescanal sobedet erminedbycar r
ying
outsel f i
ngexperiments.Forexampl e,aphenotypi
cally
tallplantiseitherhomozy gous(TT)orhet er
ozygous( Tt)
forthi strai
t.
I
fsel fedandal li
tsoff
springsaretall
,theparental
genot ypei sTTt hati
shomozy gousdomi nant.
Diagram
Butifaft
erself
ingbothtal
landdwar foffspr
ingsare
producedintherati
o3:1respecti
vel
y,thentheparental
genotypeisheter
ozygous(Tt).
Diagram
SexDet
ermi
nat
ion
Thesexofanor ganism i
sagenet
icall
ydetermined
charact
eri
sti
c.Cell
sofmostorganismscont ai
napairof
chromosomescal edsexchr
l omosomesi nadditi
onto
theordi
narychromosomes.I
nmant her
ear e46
chr
omosomes(23pair
sofhomologouschr
omosomes
i
never
ybodycel
l)
.Thegenesdet
ermini
ngwhet
hera
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chil
dbecomesaf emaleoramal ear el ocatedont he
specificpairofsexchr omosomescal l
edt heXandt heY
namedaf tert hei
rshapes.
Ther emai ning22pai r
sofchromosomesar ecall
ed
Autosomes.Aut osomesar eresponsi bleforot her
i
nher i
tablet rait
s.
Amal ehumanbei ngcarriest
heXYchr omosomei .e.he
sHet
i erogamet i
c
Thef emal ecar ri
est heXXchromosomesi .e.
Homogamet i
c.
Aftermei osisi namal ethesper mat ozooncanei ther
carrytheXorYchr omosomewhi l
et hef emal eov a
containonl yt heXchr omosome.Thesexofachi l
di sa
mat t
erofchanceanddependsonl yonwhet hera
spermat ozoont hatfert
il
izest
heov um car ri
esXorY
chromosome.
Therei sther eforea50%chancet hatf erti
li
zationcan
resultineitherXY( Boy)orXX( Gir
l)i.e.
Femal e X X
(XX)
Mal e(XY)
X XX XX
Y XY XY
I
.e.2gi rl
s:2Boy s
I
nt er
msofpr obabil
ity,t
hechancethataboyoragirli
s
producedi naf ami l
yis½.
NB/i nbirdst hefemaleisXY–het erogamet
icand
themal ei sXX–homogamet i
c.
I
nsomei nsects,thefemaleisXXandt hemaleisXO
withtheYchr omosomeabsent .
I
nt hef r
uitfly(Drosophi
l
amel anogast
er)sex
deter minati
oni sasexactlyasinman, i
.e.mal
eXYand
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Femal
eXX.
Li
nkage
Anor gani
sm hasal argenumberoftrai
tscont
rol
ledby
manydi ff
erentgenes.Becausethenumberof
chromosomesi sl
imited,
eachgenecannotbelocated
onitsownchr omosome.Ther efor
echromosomesmust
accommodat emanygeneseachcont rol
li
ngpart
icul
ar
character
ist
ics.Thosegeneslocatedonthesame
chromosomear ecall
edlnkedGenes.Thesear
i egenes
whi
choccurtoget
heronachromosomeandar
epassed
t
ooffspr
ingwit
houtbei
ngseparat
ed
Allt
helinkedgenesconst i
tut
eal inkagegr
oup.Li
nked
genearei nheri
tedtogetheranddonot
segregate/separatedur
ingmei osis.Theyar
ether
efor
e
tr
ansmi t
tedi nt
ot hesamegamet e.
Diagram
IfgenesQ, RandTar eli
nked,thenallthethreepairsof
genesar eaccommodat edonahomol ogouspairof
chromosome.
InDr osophi
lasp,i
thasbeenf oundthatthegenesf or
wingl engt
h,abdomensizeandbodycol ourarelocated
ont hesamechr omosome.Ther efor
et hese
characteri
sti
csareusuall
yinheri
tedtogether.
Sex-
li
nkedGenes
genescarr
iedint
hesexchromosomet hatar
e
tr
ansmit
tedalongwi
thgenesthatdet
erminesex
InDrosophil
amel anogast
er,thegene,
whichdet
ermine
eyecolour,i
slocatedontheXchr omosome.However
thecorrespondi
ngallel
eont heYchromosomeisabsent.
Thisisbecausemostsex- l
i
nedgenesar ecar
ri
edont he
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Xchromosomewher eastheYchromosomecarri
esver
y
fewgenesandi salmostempty.
InhumanstherearefewgeneslocatedontheY
chromosome, whi
chcontrolt
rai
tsthatar
eexcl
usi
vel
y
foundi
nmal es.Theseare,Pr
ematurebal
dnessand
t
uft
sofhai
rint
hei
nthei
nnerpi
nnaandi
nthenose.
Diagr
ams.
Thecharacter
isti
cscontr
oll
edbygeneslocat
edontheX
chromosomei ncludeCol
ourbli
ndnessandHaemophi
li
a.
Thesecharacter
isti
cscanari
seineit
hermaleor
females.
Col
ourbl
i
ndness
Thisisthei nabili
tyt odi stinguishRedandGr een
coloursbysomepeopl e.Thi st r
aitisl i
nkedt otheX
chromosome.Thegenet hatdet ermi nesnor mal colour
vi
sionisdomi nantov erthatf orcol ourblindness.A
mar ri
agebet weenacol our -
bl indmanandawoman
homoz ygousf ornor mal col ourv isionr esultsi ntheir
daughtersbei ngcar riersbutwi thnor mal col ourv i
sion.
Thedaught ersaresai dt obecar riersbecauset heyare
heterozygousandcol ourbl indnessi s
suppressed/ maskedbyt hedomi nantgenef orcol our
vi
sion.
Allthesonsar eoft het wopar entsar ehowev ernor mal.
Thisisill
ust r
atedbel ow.LetNr epr esentt hegenef or
normal colourv i
sionandnr epr esentgenef orcol our
bli
ndness.Si ncet hegenei slinkedt oXchr omosome, i
ts
N n
al
lelesarer epresent edasX andX.
Colourbl i
ndmal e
n
(XY)
Nor mal Xn Y
Woman
(XNXN)
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XN XNXn XNY
XN XNXn XNY
Al
lthedaught
ersarecar
ri
ers-XNXn
Al
lthesonshavenormalcol
ourvisi XNY
on-
I
facar ri
erdaught erfrom t heaboveparentsmarri
eda
normal man, someoft heirsonswill
sufferfr
om colour
bl
indnesswhi l
ethedaught erswil
lei
therbecarr
ier
sor
homoz ygousf ornormal colourv
isi
onasshownbel ow.
Car r
ierfemal e
N n
(X X) XN Xn
Nor malmal e
N
(
X Y)
XN XNXN XNXn
Y XNY XnY
Of
fspr
ingsar
e;
XNXN -
Daught
erwi
thnor
malcol
our
vi
sion
XNXn -
Carr
ierDaught
er
XNY -
Sonwit
hnormalcolourvi
sion
XnY -
Col
ourbli
ndson.
Theabov eexampl esshowt hatt
hegenef orcol
our
blindnessispassedf rom mothertosons.
Thisisbecauset heonl
yXchr omosomeaman
i
nher it
sisfrom themot her
.IftheXchromosomecar ri
es
thegenef orthet r
ait,t
henthisgenewill
beexpressed
sinceallel
eont heYi sabsent.Theref
oretherear
emor e
mal esuffer
ersinapopul ati
oncompar edtofemales.
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Femal esonlysuff
erwheni nhomozy gouscondi tionof
therecessivegene.Inheri
tanceofcolourbl i
ndness
thr
oughsev eralgenerati
onscanbecl earlyill
ustrated
usingapedi gr
ee.Apedi greeisarecordint ableform
showingt hedist
ri
butionofoneormor etraitsin
dif
ferentgenerati
onsofr elat
edindi
viduals.Fig.1.24
Haemophi
l
ia
Thisi sanot hersex-li
nkedt rai
twheret hebl oodoft he
sufferertakesabnor mal lylongt i
met ocl ot
.Ther eis
prolongedbr eedi
ngi ntheev entofacuthencet het er
m
Bleeder ’
sDi sease.Ar ecessivegeneont heX
chromosomecauseshaemophi li
a.
Ifanor mal manismar ri
edt oacarrierwomanf or
haemophi li
a,thereisapr obabi l
i
tyof½t hatiftheirchil
d
i
saboywi llbeahaemophi li
acandifadaught er
,shewi ll
beacar ri
er.Noneoft hedaught ersoft hecoupl ewi l
lbe
haemophi li
acs.
LetHr epresentthegenef ornor malbloodcl otti
ngandh
torepr esentgenef orhaemophi li
ai.
e.
Carri
erwoman
(XHXh) XH Xh
Nor malman
H
(X Y)
XH XHXH XHXh
Y XHY XhY
Thei
rof
fspr
ingswi
l
lbe; -
XHXH-Normaldaughter
H h
XX - Carr
ierdaughter
H
XY - Normalson
h
XY - Haemophili
acson.
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St
udyquest
ion14
Apartf r
om car ryi
ngt hesex-l
inkedt rait
s,t
heX
chromosomei nthef emalesandt heYi nmal esbri
ng
aboutt hedev elopmentofbot ht hepr imaryand
secondar ysexual characteri
sti
cs.Atpuber t
y,secondary
sexual characteri
sti
csi nfemalesi ncludebreast
enlargement ,wideningoft hehips, andgrowt hofpubic
hairandonsetofmenst rualcycle.TheXchr omosome
controlsthese.
Inmal es,theyincludegr owthofpubi chai
randbear d,
deepeni ngoft hevoice,wideningoft heshoulder
set c.
Ef
fect
sofCr
ossi
ngOveronLi
nkedGenes
Someoft helinkedgenessepar at
eandar e
tr
ansmi t
tedondi ff
erentchromosomes.Thi shappens
duringcr ossingov er(prophaseIofmei osis)when
sectionsofchr omat i
dsofabi valenti
ntertwineandmay
breakof f.Someoft hesesect ionsgetr ejoi
nedt o
diff
er entchromat idsthussepar ati
nggenest hatwere
previouslyli
nked.Thef usionofsuchgamet es
cont aini
ngchr omat i
dswhosegeneshav echanged
placespr oducesnewcombi nations(recombi nants)
.
Crossi ngoverr esult
sinchr omosomal mut ati
ons,which
i
nt ur ncausev ariati
ons.
Diagr ams
MUTATI ONS
Mut
ati
onisbroughtaboutbyspont
aneouschangesi
n
t
hei
ndivi
dual
’
sgenet i
cmakeup.Mutati
onsarenormal
ly
duetor ecessiv
egenesmostofwhi charetransmi t
tedin
theusual Mendelianfashi
on.Thereforetheyar equite
rar
e.Individual
swi t
hmut at
ionsarer ef
erredtoas
mutant s.Mutati
oncanbei nducedbycer tainfactors.
Suchf actorsarecaledMut
l agens.Theyinclude,
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Exposur et oGammar
ays
Ult
rav ioletli
ght
Colchicine
Must ardgas
NB:Mut at
ionsoccurri
ngingametesaremor eimport
ant
thanthoseinsomat i
ccell
s.Mutat
ionalchangesar
ethe
basisofdiscont
inuousvari
ati
oninpopulati
on.
TypesofMut
ati
ons
1.
Chromosomalmut
ati
on
2.
Genemutati
on
Chr
omosomalMut
ati
ons
Thisinvolvest hechangei nthestructureorthenumber
ofchr omosomes.Dur ingcrossingov erinmeiosi
s
homol ogouschr omosomesi ntertwi
neatpoi ntscall
ed
chiasmat a.Thesepoi ntsarelaterbrokencreati
ng
variousoppor tuniti
esforchangesont hechromatids.
Ther earefivet ypesofchromosomemut at
ions
(chromosomeaber rat
ions).
Del et
ion
Dupl i
cat i
on
Inv er
sion
Tr anslocati
on
Non- disjunct
ion
Del
eti
on
Thisoccurswhensomesect i
onsofchr omatidsbr
eak
offandfailtor
ecombi ne.Theyarethereforecompl et
ely
l
ostandt hegeneti
cmat eri
alt
heycont aini
ssaidtobe
delet
edout .Mostdeleti
onsar el
ethalsincetheoffspri
ng
mayl osegenesresponsi bl
efort
hesy nthesisofsome
vi
talprotei
nmolecules.
Diagrams
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Dupl
i
cat
ion
Inthiscaseasecti
onofchromati
dsrepl
i
catesandadds
anext ral
engthtoi
tsel
f.Dupl
i
cat
ioncanproduceser
ious
effectsdependi
ngonthechromosomesections
i
nv olv
ed.
Diagrams
I
nver
sion
Int hi
scaseachr omati
dbr eaksattwopoi nt
s.When
rejoining,themi ddl
epiecer otat
esandj oi
nsinan
i
nv ertedposi ti
on.Thisreversesthegenesequence
alongt hechromat i
d.Thismi ghtbri
ngtogethergenes
whosecombi nedef f
ectsar eadvantageousordis-
adv ant ageous.
Diagr ams
Tr
ansl
ocat
ion
Thisoccurswhenasect i
onofonechr omati
dbreaksoff
andbecomesat t
achedtoanotherchr
omatidbutofa
non-homologouspair.
Translocat
ionther
efor
einvol
vesthemov ementofgenes
fr
om onenon- homologouschr
omosomet oanother
.
Diagrams
Non-
disj
unct
ion
Thisleadstoaddi tionorlossofoneormor ewhole
chromosomes.I fitoccursatanaphaseoft hefir
st
meioticdivi
sion,twohomol ogouschromosomesf ai
lto
segregateandt heymov eintothesamegamet ecell
.Ifi
t
happensatanaphaseoft hesecondmei oti
cdivisi
on,
sist
erchromat idsf ai
l t
osegregate.Thi
sresult
sinhalf
thegamet escont ainingtwooft hesamechr omosome
whiletheothershav enone.
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Di
agr
ams
Non-Disjunct i
oncausest hef oll
owing
1.Downs’ sSyndr ome:t hi
si swherether
eisanextra
somat icchr omosomenumber21.suchi ndi
vidual
s
have;
Sl i
tey eappear ance
Reducedr esistancet oinfecti
ons
Ment allydefici
ent
Thi ckt ongue
Car diacmal functions
Shor tbodywi t
ht hickfi
nger s
NB/t hesecondi ti
onsar ecommonamongchi l
dren
bornofmot hersabov e40y earsold.
Kl
2. i
nefelter’sSyndrome:i nt hi
scasei ndivi
dualshave
anext rasexchr omosome.Suchi ndividualshavea
tot
al of47chr omosomesi ntheircellsi.
e.XXY
(male)andXXX( f
emal e).Thisoccur sasar esul
tof
non-disjunctiondur i
ngsper mat ogenesi sor
oogenesi s.Thesy mpt omsofKl inefelter’
s
syndromear e
Inf
ertili
tyinmal esduet olackofsper m producti
on
Underdev elopedt estes
Reducedf acialhairinmal es
Veryt al
l withsignsofobesi t
y
Di
agrams
3.Turner
’ssyndr
ome:Thi
siswher
eani
ndi
vi
dual
lacks
onesexchromosomehencetherear
e45
chr
omosomes( XOorYO).
Pol
4. yploi
dy:wher
enumberofchromosomesdoubl
e
ort
ripl
e.Someti
mesdur
ingmeiosischr
omosomes
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mi ghtunder gonon- disjuncti

on.Thisresultsinhal f
thenumberofgamet eshav i
ngtwoofeacht y peof
chr omosomei e.di
. ploidtheresthav i
ngnone.I fthe
resul ti
ngdiploidgamet efuseswi t
hanor mal
hapl oidgamet eat riploi
dzygotei sformed.Ift wo
diploi dgamet esf use, atetr
aploidindi
vidualis
obt ained.Thisi swhati scall
edpol ypl
oidy.
Pol ypl oidyi
srar einani mal sbutcommoni npl ant s
wher ei t’sconsideredt obeadv antageousi .
e
i ncr easedy i
elds/ hybr i
dv i
gour//heter
osis
r esi stancetopest s
ear lymat uri
ty
r esi stancetodr ought
r esi stancetodi seases
Itcanbear ti
fi
ciallyinducedusi ngachemi calcal l
ed
colchi cine,whichpr ev entsspindleformationdur ing
mitosi sl eadi
ngt oacel lwi t
hdoublet henumberof
chromosomes( 4n) .
GeneMut ation
Thisinvolvesachangei nt hestructureofagene.
Genemut ationsar ealsor eferredtoaspoi nt
mut ations.Agenemut ati
onar i
sesasar esultofa
changei nthechemi cal natureoft hegene.Thechange
mayi nvolvesomeal terationsi ntheDNAmol ecul
e.A
changei ntheDNAmol eculei spassedont othem-
RNA.Thi sal ter
st hesequenceofami noaci dsduring
pr ot
einsy nthesis.Thismayr esultinunintended
pr ot
einmol eculesbeingsy nthesised,whichmaybe
lethal.Typesofgenemut ations;
Inser ti
on
Subst i
tuti
on
Inv ersi
on
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Del
eti
on
I
nser
ti
on
Thi
sist
headdi
ti
onofanext
rabaseont
otheexi
sti
ng
DNAstr
and.
Di
agram
Bythi
sinser
tionnopol
ypept
idechai
nisf
ormedasi
t
wer
ei nt
ended.
Del
eti
on
Thisi
st heremov al
ofagenepor t
ion.I
fthebase
Thymineisdeletedfrom i
tspositi
onasi ndicatedbelow,
thebasesequencebecomesal ter
edatt hi
spoi nt.
Thisresul
tsinthewr ongprot
einsbeingsy nthesised.
Di
agr
ams
Subst
it
uti
on
Thisisthereplacementofapor
ti
onoft hegenewit
ha
newpor ti
on.IfAdeni
neissubst
it
utedbyGuanineona
DNAst rand,t
hebasesequenceisalt
eredatthi
s
parti
cularpor
tion.
Diagrams
I
nver
sion
Ifaporti
onoftheDNAst r
andisrot
atedt
hrough1800
thatport
ioni
ssaidtobeinvert
edasshownbelow.This
alt
ersthebasesequenceatthi
spoint
.
Diagrams
St
udyQuest
ions
Disor
dersDuetoGeneMut at
ions
Suchdisor
dersi
ncl
udealbini
sm,sickl
ecel
lanaemia,
haemophil
ia,
col
ourbl
indnessandchondrodyst
rophi
c
dwarfi
sm.
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1.
Albi
nism
Thi sacondi ti
onwher ethesy nthesisofski npigment
calledmel aninfails.Thev i
ctim hasal ightskin,whi t
e
hairandpi nkey es.Suchaper soni sreferredt oasan
Albino.Mel aninisder ivedf r
om t woami noaci ds–
Pheny l
alanineandTy rosine.Mel aninissy nthesised
throughaser i
esofr eactionscont roll
edbyaspeci fi
c
gene.
Gene‘ A’ i
sresponsi bleforpresenceofmel aninand‘ a’
i
sr esponsi bl
ef oritsabsence.Gene‘ aa’in
homozy gousst atebl ocksi noneort wopl acesint he
synt hesisofmel ani nhencenomel aninisf ormed.Thi s
occur sasar esultofoneenzy me( Tyronase)f ail
ingto
bef ormedi nthepr esenceoft herecessi vegene.
Aper sonwi t
hgenot ypeAAhasnor mal skin
pigment ati
on.
Onewi t hgenot ypeAai sacar r
ierandhasnor mal
skinpi gment ation.I naf ami l
yanal binocanbebor n
undert hr eecondi tionsonl y.
Ifbot hpar ent sareal bi
nos
Ifoneoft hepar entsisanal bi
noandt heot her
acar r
ier
Ifbot hpar ent sarecar ri
ers
Assi
gnment
Workoutcr
ossesineachcase.
Whati
stheprobabi
li
tyofget
ti
nganal
binochi
l
d
i
neachcase?
2.
Sickl
eCel
lAnaemi
a
Thisisagenemut at
ionasaresultofsubsti
tut
ion.
Normal haemoglobinHbAconsi st
soft wopolypept
ide
chains.I
nt hesi
ckl
ecel l
condi
ti
on,oneami noacid
cal
ledglutamicacidissubst
it
utedbyanot heramino
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aci
dcalledvali
neineachoft
het wo-poly
pepti
de
chai
nsoft hehaemoglobi
nmolecule.Theresul
ti
ng
haemoglobinisknownasHaemogl obinS–HbSand
i
sdiff
erentfrom t
heHbAi nseveralways.
Compar i
sonbet weenHbAandHbS
Nor mal haemogl obi n( Hb Def ect iveHaemogl obi n
A) (HbS)
1.Aposi ti
oni neach Thesameposi t
ioni s
poly pept i
dechai nis occupi edbyv alinei neach
occupi edbygl utami caci d pol ypept idechai n
2.Doesnoteasi l
y Easi l
ycr ystall
isesi nlow
cryst all
isei nl owoxy gen oxy genconcent r
ation
concent rati
on
3.Thehaemogl obini s Notef fi
cientinoxy gen
efficienti noxy genl oadi ng l oadi ngandt r
anspor tati
on
andt ranspor tation
4.Ther edbl oodcel l
sar e Redbl oodcel lsar esickle
biconcav einshape shaped( crescentshape)
Sickl ecel lanaemi ai st her eforet hecondi ti
onwher e
thev ictimi shomozy gousf orthedef ectivegenet hat
direct st hesy nthesi sofhaemogl obi nS.Mostoft he
v i
ctims’ redbl oodcel lsar esi ckleshapedandt he
per sonf requent lyexper i
encesoxy genshor t
aget othe
bodyt i
ssues.Suchaper soncannotcar r
yout
strenuousphy sical exer cises.
Manysi ckl ecel lvi
ct imsdi ey oungduet oi nsufficient
oxygensuppl ytobodyt i
ssues.
I
nt hehet erozy gouscondi ti
on, lesst hanhal fthe
numberoft her edbl oodcel lsissi ckleshaped.The
restar enor mal andef fi
ci entinoxy gent ranspor t.This
isr efer redt oassi ckl ecel ltrait.Ani ndividual witht he
sickl ecel ltr
aitexper iencesami ldcaseofanaemi abut
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l
eadsanor
mal
li
fe.
I
nheritanceofSi ckleCel lAnaemi a
I
famanwi thsicklecel ltr
aitmar r
iesanor mal
woman, thepr obabi l
i
tyt hatanyoft heoffspringwill
carrythesi cklecel ltraitis½.
I
fbot hpar ent sarecar rier
st heprobabili
tyofgetti
ng
anof fspringwi thsicklecellanaemi ais¼.
3.Haemophi l
ia:Thiscondi tionwher ethebloodt akes
abnormal l
yl ongt i
met oclot.Ahaemophi l
icgene
thatprevent st hepr oductionoft heclotti
ngfactors
causest hecondi tion.
4.Colourbl indness: Ther ear edif
ferentformsof
colourblindness.Themostcommononei sthered-
greencol ourbl i
ndness.I nthiscaseani ndivi
dual i
s
unablet odi stinguishbet weenr edandgr een
colours.
NB.Mostdi
sadvantageousgenesarerecessive.Ver
y
fewaredomi
nante.g.thegeneforchondrodystr
ophic
dwarf
ism
St
udyQuest
ion16
Ef
fectofEnvi
ronmentonHer
edi
ty
Thegenotypeandt heenvi
ronmentinfluencet
he
devel
opmentofani ndiv
idual.I
nanimalsgenetical
ly
i
denti
calindi
vi
dualsrearedunderdiff
erentenvir
onment
s
wil
lappeardi
fferentt
hanthoser ear
edunderv ery
di
ffer
entcondit
ions.Consideri
denti
caltwins.
Pr
act
icalAppl
i
cat
ionsofGenet
ics
oPl
antsandanimal br
eedi
ng
oBl
oodtransf
usion
oGenet
iccounsell
i
ng
oGenet
icengi
neering
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1. Plant sandAni mal Breedi ng

Manchoosest hosepl antsandani mal swi tht he
desi rabl equal i
ties.Thi si sr eferredt oasar tifi
cial
select ion.I nbr eedi ngorcr ossbr eedingdoest his.
Inbreedi nghowev eri ncr easest hechancesof
undesi rabl egeneswher eascr ossbr eedi ngi ncr eases
heter ozy gosi t
ywi tht heof fspring’ shav ingbet ter
perfor mancet hanbot hpar ent s.Thi si sr ef erredt oas
hybr i
dvi goure. g.acr ossbet weenBor anandHer eford.
Poly ploi dyhasal sobeenusedi npl ant ing.Theor i
ginal
wheathadadi ploi dnumberof14chr omosomesbutt he
commer cial wheathasei ther28or42( tetrapl oid-4nor
hexapl oid- 6n).
Exampl esofchar act eristi
cs, whi chhav ebeensel ected
i
nagr i
cul tur e.
1.Resi st ancet odi seasese. g.cassav ar esist antt o
cassav amosai c, coffeev arietyr esi stantt oCBD.
2.Ear lymat urityi nani mal sandpl ant s.
3.Adapt at i
onst ov ariouscondi ti
onse. g.r ainf all
,
t emper atureet c.
4.Easeofhar v est i
nge. g.incof feeandbananas
wher edwar fv arietieshav ebeendev el oped
5.Incr easedpr oduct i
v eseasone. g.i nchi cken
6.Hi gherpr oduct ivity
7.Pr oduct i
onoff lower ssuchasr osesf ort hei rcolour
andar oma.
2)Bl oodTr ansf usion
Bef orebl oodi sgi vent oar ecipient ,bloodt y pi
ngi sfirst
done.Thi sisdonet oensur ecompat ibilitybet weent he
donorandt her eci pient .
Bloodt ypingal socanbeusedt osol v edi sput ed
parent age.Howev ert hemostr ecentt echni quei n
establ ishi ngpar ent agei st heDNAmat chi ng.
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3) Genet i
cCounsel l
i
ng
Thisi
st heprovisi
onofinf
ormati
onandadvi
ceon
genet
icall
yinherit
eddisor
derst
oindi
vi
dual
s.The
i
ndivi
dual i
sgivensuchadv i
cet
oenablehi
m orher
maket hebestchoice.
Ex
amplesofdisordersforwhi
chgenet
iccounsel
l
ing
maybedoneinclude
Sicklecellanaemia
Haemophi li
a
Al bi
nism
Er yt
hroblastosi
sfoet
ali
s
Col ourbli
ndness
Klinefel
ter’
ssy ndr
ome
Inor dertoconf i
rmt hedi sorderthedoct orscandot he
following
Phy sical exami nat i
one.g.Lackofbr eastsin
Turner’ssy ndrome.
Labor ator yt estse. g.bloodteststoconf i
rm
si
cklecel l anaemi a
Amni ocent esi sf orchromosomal abnormalit
ies
i
nf oetus
Fami lyhi stor ymaybeusedt odet ermine
possiblei nher i
tanceoft hedisordere.
g.
haemophi lia.
Genet i
cscr eeningoft hedefectivegeneinthe
population
4) Geneti
cEngi neer i
ng
Thi sdealswi t
hi dent ifi
cat ionofadesi rabl
egene,
altering,
isol
atingandt ransf err
ingitfr
om onel ivi
ng
organi sm t
oanot her .
EVOLUTI
ON
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Meani
ngofEvol
uti
onandCur
rentConcept
s
Ev ol
utionisagr adual changei nl
ivi
ngorgani sms
from simpl eli
fef ormst omor ecomplexf ormsov er
al ongper i
odoft ime.
Iti s based on t he similar
it
ies i
n structure and
functi
ont hatisobser v
edi nallor
ganisms.
Allar e made up ofcel l
s,and similarchemi cal
compoundsar epr esent.
Thi sindicatest hatal lorganism mayhav ehada
commonor igi
n.
Ev ol
utionseekst oexpl ai
nt hediversi
tyofl i
feand
alsotoanswert hequest ionast otheor igi
nofl i
fe,
aswel l asit
spr esentst at
e.
TheOr
igi
nofLi
fe
Humanbei
ngshav
etr
iedt
oexpl
ainhowl
i
febegan.
Cur
rent
lyhel
dvi
ewsar
eli
stedbel
ow:
Specialcr eat
ion-lifewascr eatedbyasuper nat
ural
beingwi thinapar ticularti
me.
Spont aneousgener ationlifeor i
ginatedfr
om non-
l
ivingmat t
erallatonce.e. g.maggot sari
sef rom
decay i
ngmeat .
Steadyst ate-lif
ehasnoor i
gi n.
Cosmozoan-l i
feonear thor iginatefrom elsewhere,
outerspace.
Bio-chemi calevolut i
on-li
feor i
gi nat
edaccor dingto
chemi calandphy si cal l
aws.
Onl yspecialcreationandchemi calevol
utionwi l
lbe
discussed.
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Speci
alCr
eat
ion
mai ntainst hatt hewhol euni verseandal lli
ving
organi smscamei nt obei ngduet ot heactofa
super nat ural being
Theear l
iesti deai st hatofspeci alcr eati
onwhi chis
recor dedi nt heol dt est ament( Genesi s1: 1-26).
Itst atest hatGodcr eat edthewor ldandal lliv
ing
thingsi nsi xday s.
Somehol dt hesi xday sl i
ter
ally,whi l
eot herssayi t
mayr epresentt housandsofy ear s.
Accor dingt ohi stheor y,theear thandal lorganisms
wer ecr eat edmat ur e.
Simi larit
iesi n st ruct ureand f unct ion denot et he
stampofa" commonDesi gner "
Ev i
dencef ort hisv iewar isesf rom obser vationsof
li
fei tself.
Faithexpl ainsi tall.
By f ait
h we under stand t hatt he uni verse was
creat edbyt hecommandofGod.
Sev er alscient istshol dt hisv iewandt hei
rr esearch
conf irms account si nt he ol dt estamentof a
univ ersalf lood expl ains the di sappear ance of
dinosaur sasv eget at i
ondecr eased.
Chemi
calEvol
uti
on
Thefoll
owingist
helineofthoughtheldi
nthisvi
ew
toexpl
ainori
ginofl
if
e:
Thecompositi
onofat mospheri
cgaseswas
dif
fer
entfr
om whatitistoday:
Therewasl essoxy gen,mor ecarbon (I
V)oxide,
hencenoozonelayerstofil
tert
heultr
a-v
iol
etli
ght.
The high sol
ar energy reached the eart
h and
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ology231
broughtt ogetherhy drogen,car bon( IV)oxi deand

nit
r ogent omakeor ganiccompounds.
These wer e:hy dr ocarbons,ami no aci ds,nucl eic
acids, sugar s,ami noaci dsandpr otei
ns.
Thepr ot ei
nscoal escedandf ormedcol loids.
Prot einsandl ipidsf ormeda" cellmembr ane"t hat
encl osed t he or gani c compounds,t o f orm a
pri
mi ti
v ecell.
Thecel lwassur roundedbyor ganicmol eculesthat
i
tf edonhet erotrophi call
y .
Thist ookpl aceinwat er.
From t hiscellprogr essivelyaut otrophsev olved.
Thatwer esimi l
art oblue- greenal gae.
Theypr oducedoxy genandasmor eoxy genwas
evol vedozonel ay erf ormedanbl ockedul tr
av iolet
radiation.
Thisal l
owedf ormat ionofpr esentdayphot o-
autot rophs.
Ev
idencef
orOr
gani
cEv
olut
ion
Mostoftheev
idenceforevol
uti
onisindi
recti
.e.i
t
i
sbasedonstudiescarr
iedoutonpresent-
day
ani
malsandplants.
Dir
ectev
idencei
sobt
ainedfr
om study
ingthe
remai
nsofanimal
sandplant
softhepast.
Fossi
lRecor
ds
Thestudyoff
ossil
siscall
edpaleont
ology.
Fossi
ls ar
er emains oforganisms thatli
ved i
n
anci
entti
mes.
Mostfossi
lsareremainsofhardpartsofthebody
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suchasbones, teeth, shellsandexoskel etons.

Somef ossilsar ej usti mpressionsoft hebodypar ts,
e.g.footprints,leaf -
vennat ionpatterns,etc.
Fossils ar e usual l
yf ound i n sediment aryr ocks
which hav e been f ormed by deposi ti
on of
sediment sov ermi ll
ionsofy ears.
Thedeepert hel ay erofsedi ment s,theol dert he
fossil
sf oundi nthatl ay er
.
Modem man,Homosapi ens,evol vedfrom ape- li
ke
creatures25mi ll
iony earsago.
Theseev olvedt oupr i
ght,toolusi ngcreaturecalled
Australopithecus af arensis which had a cr anial
capacityof400- 500cc.
Thisev olvedt hroughsev eralintermediates;Homo
habil
isandHomoer ectust omodem dayhuman.
Homosapi enshasacr anialcapaci t
yof1350-1450
cc.
Homosapi ensi smor eintell
i
gent.
Mai nfeat uresi nhumanev oluti
oni ncludebi pedal
posture,i s an omni vore and has an opposabl e
thumb.
Li
mit
ati
onsoft
heFossi
lEvi
dence
Onlypar t
ial
pr eservati
onwasusual l
ypossibl
e
becausesof terpartsdecay ed.Thefossil
records
aretherefor
ei ncompl ete.
Dist
or t
ion-par tsofor ganismsmi ghthavebecome
fl
att
eneddur ingsedi ment ation.
Subsequent geol ogical act iv
iti
es e.g. erosi
on,
eart
hquakes,f aul
ting and upl if
ti
ng may hav e
destroyedsomef ossils.
Geogr
aphi
calDi
str
ibut
ion
Unt
ilabout250mi
l
li
ony
ear
sago,
all
thel
and
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massesonear thf ormedasi nglelandmass

(Pangaea) .
Thisisthoughtt ohav eunder gonecont inent aldri
ft
,
spli
tti
ngi nt
odi fferentcont i
nent s.
Consequent ly,
or gani smsi ncer tai
nr egions
becamegeogr aphi callyi solatedanddi dnothav ea
chancet ointerbreedwi t
hot heror ganismsi not her
regi
ons.
Suchor ganismsunder wentev olutionini solation
andhav ebecomechar act eri
sticall
ydi fferentfrom
organismsi not herr egions.
Forexampl e,pouchedmammal s(e.g.kangar oo,
wallaby,koalabear )aref oundal mostexcl usivel
yin
Aust r
ali
a.
Theopossum i st heonl ysur v i
vingr epresent ati
veof
thepouchedmammal sinNor t
hAmer i
ca.
Compar
ati
veEmbr
yol
ogy
Dur i
ngtheear lystagesofdev el
opment ,t
he
embr yosofdi ff
erentvertebratesarealmost
indist
ingui
shabl e.
 Fish,amphibian,birdandmammal ianembryos
hav esimil
ar,features,i
ndicati
ngt hattheyar
ose
from acommonancest or .
Simi l
ari
ti
esinclude:
Visceralcl
efts,segment almuscl eblocks
(my otomes)andasi nglecirculat
ion.
Compar
ati
veAnat
omy
Compar at
ive anat
omyist he studyoforgans i
n
di
ff
erent species wi
tht he aim of est
abli
shi
ng
whethertheorgani
sm ar
erelat
ed.
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Or ganismswhi chhav ethesamebasi cf eaturesare

thoughtt ohav earisenfrom acommonancest or.
Thev ertebratepent adactyll
imbevol vedi ndiffer
ent
way sasanadapt at i
ontodi f
ferentmodesofl ife.
e.g.asaf l
ipperinwhal es,asawi nginbat sandas
adi gginghandi nmol es.
Suchor gansar esai dt obehomol ogous,i .
e.they
hav ear isenfrom acommonancest orbutt heyhav e
assumeddi ffer
entf uncti
ons.
Thi sisanexampl eofdi vergentevolution.
Thewi ngofabut ter f
lyandthatofabi rdaresai dto
beanal ogous.
i.e.t heyhav eoriginatedf r
om di ff
erentancest ors
butt heyper formt hesamef unction.
Thi sisanexampl eofconv ergentevoluti
on.
Cel
lBi
ology
All eucar yotic cells hav e organell

es such as
mitochondr i
a,membr ane-boundnuclei,ribosomes,
golgibodi es.
Thus i ndicating thatdi f
ferentorganisms hav ea
commonancest or.
The pr esence ofchl oroplasts and cell
ulose cel
l
wallsi ndicatest hatgreenpl antshaveacommon
ancest or.
Blood pi gment s ar e conjugat
ed proteins wit
ha
met algroup.
Similarpi gment s ar ef ound in dif
ferentani mal
groups.
e.
g.haemogl obini sfoundi nallver
tebratesandi n
annelida( earthworm) .
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Thi
sshowst
hatal
lani
mal
shav
eacommonor
igi
n.
Mechani
sm ofEvol
uti
on
Themechani sm ofev olut
ioncanbedescr i
bedasa
processofnat uralselecti
onact i
ngont heher i
table
vari
ati
onst hatoccuramongt hemember sofa
populati
on.
Apopul ati
onconsi stsofagr oupofi ndivi
dualsof
thesamespeci es.
Each i ndividual has a set of her editary
factor
s(genes) .
Allt
hegenesi napopul ati
onconst i
tut
eagenepool .
Whenr eproduct i
ont akesplace, genespairwit
hone
anotherrandoml y.
Geneswhi choccuri ngr eatnumber sint hegene
pool,willoccuri n greaternumber sint he next
generati
on.
Severaltheorieshav ebeenpr oposedov erthey ears
toexplai
nhowev ol
ut i
ontookpl ace.
Lamar
k’st
heor
y
Lamar khadobser v
edthatifapartofthebodyofan
organism wasusedext ensi
vel
y,i
tbecameenl ar
ged
andmor eefficient;
If apar toft hebodywasnotf ull
yused,i twoul d
degenerat e.
By use and di suse ofv ari
ous body parts,t he
organism woul d change and acqui re certain
characteri
stics.
He suggest ed t hatthese charact
eristi
cs woul d
them be passed on t o the of fspri
ng(next
generation).
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In 1809,l amar k published hi

s book ‘ ’
TheoryOf
Evolut i
on’’
.
Hepr oposedt hatnewl i
feformsar i
sef rom useand
disuseofpar t
sofexi st i
ngorganismsandt hrough
theinher it
anceofacqui redchar
acteristi
cs.
Lamar k’
st heory has been di sappr oped int hat
although use and di suse ofpar ts does l ead to
acqui red characteri
sti
cs,such char act eri
sti
csar e
noti nheritablesincet heyareef f
ectspr oducedby
theenv i
ronmentandnotbygenes.
Evol
uti
onbynat
uralsel
ect
ion
In1859, charlesDar winpublishedhistheoryof
evol
ution’inabookcal ledoriginofspeciesby
meansofnat uralsel
ection’
.
Darwin’stheor ywasbasedont hefoll
owing
evi
dence; t
hepopul ati
onofagi venspeci
esr emains
constantov eral ongper i
odoft ime.
Thenumberofy oungonesi smor ethant henumber
ofadults.
Moreof fspringsar eproducedt hancanpossi bl
y
surv
ive.
Vari
ationoccur swithi
ngagi v enpopulat
ion,i
.eal
l
member soft hesamespeci esar enotali
ke.
Onthebasi soft heseobservat i
ons.
Dar
winmadet
hef
oll
owi
ngconcl
usi
ons;
Thereisastruggl
ef orexi
stenceamongi ndivi
dual
s
i
nagi venpopulati
on.
I
ndivi
dualswhoar enotsuitablyadapt
ed( e.
i.who
haveunfavourabl
ev ari
ati
ons)arel
essabletopass
thei
rcharact
erist
icstothenextgenerati
on.
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Nat uralselecti
onoper atesont hepopulation,
selectingt hoseindivi
dualswi t
hf av
ourable
variati
ons;
i
.e.env ironmentf avoursindivi
dualsthataremor e
adapt ed.
Theywi ncompet i
ti
one. g.forfoodandsur viv
e.i
.e.
’
‘survivaloft hefi
ttest
’’
.
Theyat t
ainsexual mat uri
tyandpassont he
char acteri
sticst
ot heiroffspri
ngs.
Nat
uralsel
ect
ion
Pepper edmot h(Indust ri
al melani sm)
Thepepper edmot h, Bistonbet ularia,existsintwo
disti
nctf orms;
Aspeckl edwhi tef orm( thenor mal form)andt he
mel anic, darkform.
Themot hsnor mal lyr estont het reet runksand
brancheswher ret heyar ecamouf lagedagai nst
predat ors.
Thef irstmel anicmot hswer eobser vedi n1848
aroundManchest eri nBr i
tain.
Sincet hatt ime,thei rnumber shasi ncreased
tremendousl y,out -
number ingt hespeckl edwhi te
form.
Thei ncr easeint hepopul ationoft hemel ani
cf orm
i
scor rel atedwi t
henv i
ronment al changesbr ought
aboutbyi ndustr
ializat i
onandpol lution.
Smokeandsootf rom f actorieshav edar kenedt he
treetrunksov erthey ear s.
Thishasr esult
edi nt hepr eserv ati
onoft he
mut ationi nBistonbet ulari
al eadingt ot heev oluti
on
ofthemel anicform.
Thisf or mi salmosti nv i
sibleagai nstt hedar k
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backgr oundoft het r

eetrunksandi slesssubjectto
predationthant hespeckledf orm.
Thepepper edformi smor eabundanti nareasaway
from thesootandsmokeoff actories.
Thisisbecausei tiswellcamouf lagedbyt helichen-
coveredt reet runksagai nstwhi chi trestsandi s
theref
or enoteasi l
ydetectedbypr edators.
Theexi stenceoft woormor edist i
nctformswi thin
aspeci es( asex empli
fiedbyBi stonbetulari
a)i s
caledpol
l ymor phism.
Resi
stancet
oDr
ugs
Cert
ain st r
ains of or ganisms hav e dev el
oped
resi
stancetodr ugsandant i
bioti
cs.
 Fol
l
owi ng cont i
nued use of such dr ugs and
anti
bioti
cs,someoft heindividualsinapopul ati
on
ofbacteri
aorot hermicroorganismssur viveandar e
ablet o pass t hei
r characteristi
cs tot he next
generati
on.
When a pat ientf ail
stot ake f ul
ldosage oft he
anti
bioti
cs pr escri
bed t he pat hogen dev el
ops
resi
stancetot hedr ugshencebecomedi ffi
cul
tt o
contr
ol.
Somemosqui toeshav edev elopedr esi
stanceto
cert
ainpesticides.
Pr
act
icalAct
ivi
ti
es
Compar
isonofVer
tebr
ateLi
mbs
Li
mbsofv ar i
ousv er
tebratesareprovi
ded:
e.
g.fi
sh-Tilapia,
amphi bian-fr
ogrept
il
es,l
i
zar
d;bi
rd
-domesti
cf owl (
chicken),mammal -r
abbit
.
Thei
ranatomycanbest udied.
Thefol
lowingcanbenot ed:
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Thatal l li
mbshav ef ivesetsofbones;
Asi ngleupperbone-t hef emuri nhi ndl imbandt he
humer usi nf orel i
mb
Twol owerl imbbones- i
.e.t het ibia&f i
bulainthe
hindlimb&ul na&r adiusint hef or el
imb.
Smal lbones-i .e.ankl e(t
ar sals)andwr istbones
(carpals)
The bones maki ng t he f oot and hand ar e
met atar salsandmet acar
pal sr espect ively.
Thebonesoft oesandoff inger si.e.phal anges
Obser vet hev ariousmodi ficationsoft hesebonesi n
thev ariousani mal s.
Limbs of di fferent mammal s e. g.r abbit,cow,
donkeyr evealt hatt heanat omyi sadapt edtomode
ortypeofmov ement.
e.g.thehor sehasasi ngl
edi git.
Anout dooract i
vit
yt oobser vev ariousst yl esof
mov ementi ndi fferentmammal scanbest udied.
Itisnot edt hatsomemov eont ipsoft oes(donkey)
othersont hewhol el eg(rabbi t
) .
Compar
isi
onofWi
ngsofbi
rd-
andi
nsect
Wi ngsofbirdsandi nsects(grasshopper,butt
erfl
y
ormot h)areobt
ained.
Ahandl ensoradissectingmicroscopei susedto
observethespeci
mens.
Thedi f
fer
encesintheiranatomyi snoted.
Insectwingsaremembr anouswhi l
et hoseofbirds
aremadeupoff eatherst hati
nterl
ock.
Educat
iont
ourt
oAr
cheol
ogi
calsi
te/
localMuseum
Vi
sit
s t
o t
he l
ocal museum y
iel
d i
mpor
tant
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i
nf ormation that gr
eatl
y supplement study of
evoluti
on.
TheNat ionalmuseum inNair
obihasmanyf ossil
s.
Visittothevari
ousarcheol
ogical
sit
esthatexisti
n
Keny aisrecommended.
RECEPTI
ON,
RESPONSEANDCO-
ORDI
NATI
ON
I
NPLANTSANDANI
MALS
I
ntr
oduct
ion
Thestructuresi nvolvedindet ect
ingt hechanges
maybel ocat edf arawayf rom theonest hat
respond.
Thereisneedf oracommuni cati
onsy st
em withi
n
thebody.
Thener v
oussy stem andt heendocr inesy st
em
perfor
mt hisf unction,i
.e.l
inkingthepar tsofthe
bodythatdet ectchangest othoset hatrespondt o
them.
I
rr
it
abi
l
ity/
Sensi
bil
i
ty
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Livi
ngorgani smsar ecapabl
eofdet ecti
ngchanges
i
nt hei
rinternalandexternal
env i
ronmentsand
respondingt othesechangesinappr opri
ateways.
Thischaracteri
sticiscal
ledir
ri
tabil
it
y ,
andisof
greatsurviv
al val
uet ot
heorganism.
St
imul
i
Ast i
mul usisachangeinthei nternalorexter
nal
envir
onmentt owhichanor ganism r esponds.
Exampl esofsti
muliincl
udelight ,
heat ,
sound,
chemical s,
pH,water
, f
ood,oxy genandot her
organisms.
Response
Ar esponseisanychangeshownbyanor gani
sm i
n
reacti
ont oastimulus.
Ther esponseinvol
v esmovement softhewholeor
partofthebodyei t
hertowar dsthesti
mulusor
awayf rom it
.
Italsor esul
tsi
nsecr et
ionofsubstancese.g.
hormonesorenzy mesbygl ands.
Co-
ordi
nat
ion
Co-or
dinat
ionist
heworkingtoget
herofal
lthepar
ts
ofthebodytobri
ngaboutappropr
iat
eresponsest
o
changeintheenvi
ronment.
Recept
ion
Recepti
oni
sthedetecti
onofchangesi
nthe
envi
ronmentt
hroughrecept
ors.
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I
rr
it
abi
l
ityi
nPl
ant
s
Responsei nplantsi
snotaspr onouncedasi n
animal s.
Thisdoesnoti nanywaydi mini
shtheimpor tanceof
i
r r
itabil
it
yinplants.
Itisasi mportanttotheirsurvi
valasitisinanimals.
Plantsr espondtoav arietyofsti
muliintheir
env ir
onment .
Thesest i
muliincl
udelight,moistur
e,gravit
yand
chemi cals.
Somepl antsalsoshowr esponsetotouch.
Tr
opi
sms
Plantsoftenr espondbygr owinginapar ti
cular
direct
ion.
Suchgr owt hmov ement sarecall
edtropisms.
Theyar ether esultofunequalgrowthinthepar tof
theplantthatr esponds.
Thest i
mul uscauseunequal di
stri
but
ionofgr owth
hor mones( auxins)producedintheplant.
Onesi degr owsmor ethantheotherresulti
ngi na
bendei t
hert owar dsthesti
mulus(positi
vet r
opi sm)
orawayf rom t hestimulus(negati
vetropism).
Phot
otr
opi
sm
Ifseedli
ngsareexposedtolightfr
om onedir
ect
ion,
thei
rshoot sgrowtowardstheli
ght.
 Thi
sr esponseiscal
ledphototr
opism.
Shootsar esai
dt obeposit
ivel
yphotot
ropi
cbecause
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theygr owt owardst hel i

ght .
Thet ipoftheshootr ecei v
est helightstimulusf r
om
onedi recti
on( uni
lat eral st
imul us)butther esponse
occur sbelowt het i
p.
Ther esponseoft heshooti sduet oahor monecal led
auxinpr oducedatt het ip.
Itdiff
usesdownt heshoott ot hiszoneofcel l
elongat i
onwher ei tcausest hecel lstoelongat e.
Lightcausesauxi nt omi gratet othedar kersi de.
Theauxi nismor econcent ratedi nthedar ksidet han
ont helightside.
 Thecel l
sont hedar ksi degr owf asterthant heones
ont helightside.
Agr owt hcurvaturei st heref orepr oduced.
Sur
vivalval
ue:
Positi
vephototr
opi
sm byshootsensurest
hat
suff
ici
entli
ghtisabsor
bedbyleavesfor
photosynt
hesis.
Geot
ropi
sm
Geotropism isagr owthr esponset ogravity
.
Rootsar eposi t
ivel
ygeot ropicbecausetheygr ow
downt owar dst hedir
ectionoft heforceofgr avi
ty;
Shootsar enegat iv
elygeot r
opicbecauset heygr ow
awayf rom directi
onoff orceofgr avi
ty.
Ifaseedlingiskepti nthedar kwithitsplumul eand
radi
cleinahor i
zontalposi t
ion,t
heplumul ewi l
l
eventuall
ygr owv erti
cal
lyupwar dswhi l
et heradicl
e
will
growv ert
icall
ydownwar ds.
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Theef f
ectofgr avit
yonr ootsandshoot scanbe
explainedasf ol
lows:
Whent heseedl ingisplacedinahor i
zont alposit
ion,
mor eauxi nset t
lesont helowersideoft her ootand
shootduet ot heeffectofgravit
y.
Shoot sr espondt oahigherconcent r
ati
onofauxi n
thanr oot s.
Thel owersi deoft heshootgr owsfastert hanthe
uppersi de.
Resul ti
ngi nagr owthcurvaturethatmakest heshoot
growv erticall
yupwar ds.
Rootgr owt hisinhibit
edbyhi ghconcentr ati
onsof
auxin.
Theref ore, thelowersideoft herootgrowsatasl ower
ratethant heuppersi dewher ethereislessauxi n
concent rati
on.
Thisr esul tinagr owthcurvaturethatmakest heroot
growv erticall
ydownwar ds.
Sur
vivalVal
ue:
Rootsinresponsetogr
avit
ygrowdownwardswhere
theyabsorbwaterandgetanchor
edint
hesoil
.
Thisresul
tsinabsor
pti
onofnutri
ent
sneededfor
growth.
Hydr
otr
opi
sm
Hydr
otropi
sm i
sthegr
owt
hofr
oot
stowar
dswat
er
(
moisture)
.
Sur
vivalVal
ue
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I
tensuresthatplantrootsgr
owtowardsmoi
stur
e
t
oobt ai
nwat erneededforphot
osynt
hesi
sand
t
ransportofmineralsalt
s.
Chemot
ropi
sm
Chemot r
opism i
stheresponseofpartsofaplant
towardschemicalsubst
ances,e.g.t
hegrowthof
thepoll
entubetowardstheovuleinflower
ing
plant
sisachemot ropi
cresponse.
Sur
vivalVal
ue
Thi
sensur
esthatf
ert
il
isati
ontakeplaceandt
he
per
pet
uati
onofthespeciesconti
nues.
Thi
gmot
ropi
sm
Thigmotr
opi
sm isagrowthresponsetotouche.g.
tendr
il
sofcl
imbingplantbendsaroundobject
sthat
theycomeincontactwit
h.
Sur
vivalVal
ue
Thisprovi
dessupportandtheleavesstayi
na
posit
ionsuit
abl
eforabsorpti
onofl i
ghtand
gaseousexchangeforphotosynthesi
s.
Tact
icMov ement sinPlantsandotherOrgani
sms
At acti
cmov ementi sonemadebyawhol e
organism oramot il
epartofanor gani
sm (
e.g.a
gamet e)i
nr esponsetoast i
mulus.
Tacticmov ementsar enamedaccor di
ngtothe
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natureoft hest i
mul usthatbringsaboutthe
response.
Photot axi
si smov ementi nresponsetodi r
ection
andi ntensit
yofl i
ght .
Free-swimmi ngalgaesuchasChl amydomonas
usuallytendt oconcent ratewhereli
ghtintensityi
s
optimum andwi llrespondt oli
ghtbyswi mmi ng
towar dsit.Thisisanexampl eofphototacti
c
response.
Osmot axi
si smov ementi nresponsetochangesi n
osmot i
ccondi t
ionse. g.fr
eshwateramoeba.
Sur
vivalVal
ue
Ensuresfavour
ablecondit
ionsforexist
ence.
Chemot axi
sismov ementinresponseto
concentrat
ionofchemicalsubstances.
Sur
vivalVal
ue
Inbry
ophytes,anther
ozoi
dsmov et
owar
ds
ar
chegoni
at oeffectf
ert
il
isat
ion
Sur
vivalVal
ueoft
axi
s:
Theseensur
econdit
ionsf
avourabl
eforl
i
febr
ing
maximum benef
itt
otheorgani
sm.
Nast
icMov
ement
s
Anast i
cmov ementi sonemadebypar tofaplanti
n
responsetostimuluswhi chisnotcomingf
rom any
parti
cul
ardirect
ion.
Nasticmovement sar ealsonamedaccordi
ngtothe
natureoft
hest imulus.
Seismonasty/haptonasty-responset
oshock.
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The'sensi
ti
veplant
'Mimosapudicarespondsto
touchbyfol
dingupitsl
eaves.
Thisisanexampleofaseismonasti
cresponse.
Pr
oduct
ionofauxi
nsandt
hei
ref
fect
sonpl
antgr
owt
h
Auxinsar epr oducedbypl antapices, i
.e.rootapex
andshootapex.
Theybr ingaboutcel l el
ongat i
onr esulti
ngi ngrowth.
Theyar ediffusiblesubst anceswhi cheffectgrowth
wheni nv erysmal lamount s.
Rootsr equirelowerconcent rat
ionst hanshoot s.
Theef f
ectofauxi nsont hegrowt hofr ootsand
shootshasal readybeendi scussed.
Auxinsal soexer totheref f
ectsonpl antgrowthand
development .
Therear evariousot herchemi cal substanceswhich
havebeenshownt oinfluencepl antgrowt hand
development .
Ef
fect
sofAuxi
nonPlantGrowt
h
Api
calDominance
Auxinsinhibitthegrowthofsi debranches.Thisi
s
ref
erredtoasapi caldominance.
I
fthet erminalbudi sremov ed,si
debr anches
developfrom thel at
eralbuds.
Thisknowl edgei sappli
edinpr uni
ng.
Aslongast hemai nstem isallowedtor emain
i
ntact,thedev elopmentofsi debranchesis
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suppressed.
Pruni
ngt heterminalbudremovesthemainsources
ofauxin,thusall
owingsidebr
anchestosprout
.
Gr
owt
hofadvent
it
iousr
oot
s
Advent
it
iousr
ootsdevelopfr
om thestem.
Auxi
nsstimul
atethegrowthofsuchroots.
Par
thenocar
py
Thisreferstot hef ormationoff r
uit
swit
hout
fer
til
isati
on.
Thiscanbei nducedbyt reatingunpoll
i
nated
fl
ower swi t
hauxi n.
Thisphenomenoni sappliedint hedev
elopmentof
seedlessf r
uitvarieties.
Auxins,togetherwi thotherpl anthormones,ar
e
i
nvolv edinsecondar ygrowt h,fall
i
ngofleav
esand
ri
peningoff ruits.
RECEPTI
ON,
RESPONSESANDCO¬ORDI
NATI
ONI
N
ANIMALS
Thener vousandendocr i
nesyst
ems( t
oget
her
knownast heneuro-endocri
nesyst
em)actasaco-
ordinat
ingsystem.
Theyl i
nkingthereceptorstotheef
fect
orsand
regulat
ingtheiract
ivit
ies.
Recept
ors
Recept
orsarecell
sthatdetectorreceiv
est i
mul
i.
Theymaybescat t
eredmor eunif
orml yall
overt
he
bodysurf
acee.g.r
eceptorsforpai
n, t
ouch,
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temperature;ort heymaybel ocatedinaspeci al

senseor gane.g.r ecept
or sforli
ght,sound,taste
andsmel l.
Mot ornerveslinkt heCentralNervousSy st
em ( CNS)
totheef f
ectors.
Itscellbodyisl ocatedatoneendoft heaxon.
Itt
ransmi t
sner vei mpulsesfrom theCNSt othe
eff
ectors.
Ef
fect
ors
Thesear ethecel
l
s,organs,oror
ganel
leswhich
enabl
et heorgani
sm torespond.
Theyincludemuscles,gl
ands,ci
l
iaandflagel
l
a.
THENERVOUSSYSTEM
Component
soft
hener
voussyst
em i
nhumans
Everyorganisthehumanbodyi sconnectedto
nerves.
Thener voussystem ismadeupofnervecell
s
(neurons)whichtransmiti
mpul
sesfrom onepartof
thebodyt oanother.
I
tconsi
stsoft
hef
oll
owi
ng:
TheCent ralNervousSystem (CNS)isa
concentratedmassofi nterconnect
ednervecell
s
whichmakeupt hebr ai
nandt hespinalcor
d.
Theperipheralnervoussy st
em ismadeupof
nerveswhi chli
nktheCNSt otherecept
orsandt he
eff
ectors.
Sensoryner vesl
inkthesensor ycel
ls(r
eceptor
s)to
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t
hecentral
nervoussyst
em andtr
ansmi
tner
ve
i
mpulsesfrom asenseorgant
otheCNS.
St
ruct
ureandFunct
ionsofNeur
ons
Aner vecel lconsi stsofacel lbody(centr
on)wher e
thenucl eusi slocat ed,andpr oject
ionscalled
dendr i
tesar ise.
Oneoft hepr oject i
onsi sdrawnouti ntoanaxoni .e.
thel ongestpr ocess.
Eachaxoncont ainsaxoplasm whi chiscont i
nuous
wi t
ht hecy toplasm i nthecel lbody.
Theaxoni sencl osedinaf att
ymy eli
nsheat hwhich
i
ssecr et edbySchwar m cel l
.
Themy el i
nsheat hisinterr
upt edatapproximatel
y1
mm i ntervalsbyconst rict
ionsknownasnodesof
Ranv i
er.
Themy el i
nsheat hisenclosedbyat hinmembr ane
calledt heneur il
emma, whi chispartoftheSchwann
cellincont actwi thaxon.
Themy el i
nsheat handnodesofRanv ierenhance
transmi ssionoft heimpulse.
Ther
ear
ethr
eet
ypesofneur
ons:
i
. Sensor
yneur
one
Alsoknownasaf f
erentneurone.
Transmitsi
mpulsesfrom sensor
ycel
lstotheCNS.
Thecellbodyofasensorynervecel
li
slocatedat
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somedist
anceal
ongt
hel
engt
hoft
heaxonout
side
theCNS.
i
i
. Mot
orneur
one
Knownasef f
erentoreffectorneur
one
Transmiti
mpulsesfrom theCNSt othe
effect
ors(
musclesandgl ands)
It
scellbodyi
slocatedinsidetheCNS.
I
nter
medi
ateorconnect
orneur
one
Alsocal
ledrel
ayneurone
Foundinsi
detheCNS.
Theyconnectsensor
yandmot orneur
onswit
h
eachotherandwithotherner
vecellsi
ntheCNS.
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Funct
ionsoft
heneur
one
Thener veimpul sei sel ectr
icalinnat ure.
It
st ransmi ssi ondependsondi fferencesin
elect r
ical pot ential betweent hei nsideandt he
out sideoft heaxi on.
Theout sidei sposi ti
vewhi l
et hei nsideisnegat i
ve.
Thest imul ust r
igger sachanget hataf f
ectst he
per meabi li
tyofneur onemembr ane.
Ther esul tisachangei nthecomposi ti
onofi ons
onei t
hersi deoft hemembr ane.
Theout sidebecomesnegat iveast heinsi
de
becomesposi ti
v eduet osodi um ionsr ushingi n.
Theabov econst itutesaner vousi mpul sewhi chis
transmi tt
edal ongt hesensor yneur onetot heCNS.
Thespeedoft r
ansmi ssionisv eryhi gh.
Cer tainmammal ianaxi onst r
ansmi timpulsesat
ther at eof100m/ s.
Thedendr i
tesofneur onsdonotconnectdi rectlyto
eachot her,butt heyl eaveasmal l gapcall
ed
sy napse.
Thet ransmi ssionofani mpul sef rom onecel l t
o
thenextt akespl acet hroughsy napse.
Sy napt icknobsar est r
ucturesfoundatt heendsof
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dendrites.
Thust hedendr i
tesofonener vecel
lmakecont act
wi t
hthedendr i
tesoft headj acentnervecel l
throught hesy napses.
I
mpul sesar et ransmittedint heform ofachemi cal
transmi t
tersubst ancewhichcr ossest hegap
betweenonedendr iteandt henext .
Thet r
ansmi ttersubst anceisf oundwi thinsynapti
c
vesicl
es.
Thechemi calsubst anceisei theracetylchol
ineor
nor
adr
nal
i
ne.
Thesy napti
cvesicl
esbur standreleasethe
transmi tt
ersubstancewhenani mpulsearrivesat
thesy napticknob.
Impul sesinmot orneuronesar etr
ansmittedt o
effectors.
Thespacebet weenmot orenddendr i
teandmuscl e
i
sknownasneur o-
muscul arJuncti
on.
Sy napticvesi
clesintheendsoft hedendr i
tes
releaset hetr
ansmi t
tersubstanceacrosst heneural
muscul arj
uncti
on.
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Funct
ionsofMaj
orPar
tsoft
heHumanBr
ain
TheCent ralNervousSy stem (CNS)consistsof
thebr ainandt hespi nal cord.
TheCNSco- ordi
nat esbodyact i
vit
iesbyreceiv
ing
i
mpul sesf r
om sensor ycellsf
rom diff
erentpart
s
oft hebody .
I tthensendst heimpul sestotheappr opr
iat
e
effectors.
Thebr ai
ni senclosedwi thi
nthecranium or
brain¬case.
I tiscov eredandpr ot ectedbymembr anesknown
asmeni nges.
Whenmeni ngesar einf ectedbybacterial
orfungi
theycausemeni ngi
t i
s.
Thebr
ai nconsi stsofthef ollowingparts:
Cer
ebr
um.
Thisisthelar
gestpar
toft hebrain.
Itconsi
stsoftwocerebralhemispheres.
Iti
shighlyfol
dedinordertoincreasethesur
face
area.
Thecerebrum cont
r sl
ol earni
ng,int
ell
i
gence,
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t
hought,imaginat i
onandr easoning.
Themedul l
aobl ongata( br
ainstem).
Themedul laobl ongatahascent erswhichcontrol
breathi
ng( ventil
ation)r
ate,heartbeatrat
e( car
diac
frequency),swallowing,sal
ivati
on,bloodpressure
temper at
urer egulati
on,heari
ng,tasteandtouch.
Thecerebell
um
I
slocat
edinf r
ontoft
hemedul
laandi
saf ol
ded
dor
salexpansi
onofthehi
ndbr
ain.
I
tcontr
olspostur
emovementandbal
ance.
Thehypothalamus
Controlsfunctonssuchasbodyt
i emper
atur
eand
osmoregulat
ion.
Thepi
tui
tar
ygl
and
I
sanendocr
ineorganthatsecret
esanumberof
hor
moneswhichcontrolosmoregul
ati
on,
growt
h,
metabol
i
sm andsexualdevel
opment.
Opt
icl
obes-
cont
rol
thesenseofsi
ght
.
Ol
fact
oryl
obes-
cont
rol
thesenseofsmel
l
.
Spi
nalCor
d
Thespi
nal
cor
disl
ocat
edwi
thi
nthev
ert
ebr
alcol
umn
andconsi stofthefol
lowi
ng:
Thegr eymat t
erformsthecent r
alpartofthespi
nal
cord.
Itconsist
sofner ve¬cel
lbodiesandintermediat
e
nervefibr
es.
Thewhi temat t
erofthespinalcordcarri
essensory
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nerv
efiber
swhi
l
ethev
ent
ral
rootcar
ri
esmot
orner
ve
fi
bers.
Si
mpl
eAndCondi
ti
onedRef
lexAct
ions
Si
mpl
eRef
lexAct
ion
Asimplerefl
exacti
onisanautomaticr
esponset
oa
sti
mulus.
Theroutethati
sfoll
owedbyimpulsesdur
inga
ref
lexacti
oniscal
ledaref
lexarc.
Ar
efl
exact
ionf
oll
owst
hef
oll
owi
ngsequence:
Areceptorissti
mul atedandanimpulsei
s
tr
ansmittedalongasensor yner
vefi
bretothespi
nal
cord.
Theimpul seispickedupbyaninter
mediate
neuronewi t
hintheCNS.
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Theinter
mediatenervef
ibret
ransmi
tsthei
mpulse
toamot ornervef
ibrewhichi
sconnect
edtoan
eff
ector.
Theeffectorr
esponds.
Exampl
esofr
efl
exact
ioni
ncl
ude:
Pull
i
ngthehandawayf
rom ahotobj
ect
.
Thekneejer
k.
Sneezi
ng.
Condi
ti
onedRef
lexes
Thesear elearnedresponses.
Whent woormor est
imul iarepresent edt oan
animal att
hesamet imeandr epeatedl y
,theanimal
eventuall
yrespondst oei t
herstimulus.
Forexampl e,ifahungr yanimal i
spr esent edwit
h
food,itwil
lrespondbysal i
vati
ng.
Ifabel li
srungatt hesamet imeast hef oodis
presentedtot heanimal ,
theanimal wi lll
earnto
associatethesoundoft hebellwithf ood.
Eventuall
y,theanimal canbemadet osal ivat
eat
thesoundoft hebel lal
one.
Thisresponsei scaledcondi
l ti
onedr ef l
exandi s
oneoft heway sbywhichani malslear n.
TheRol
eofEndocr
ineSyst
em i
nHumanBei
ngs
Endocri
nesyst
em consi
stsofgl
andst
hatsecr
ete
hormones.
Theglandshavenoduct
sandareknownas
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endocri
neglands.Othergl
andsareknownas
exocr
ineglandsbecausetheyhaveducts.
Thepancreashasanout erexocr
ineport
ionandan
i
nnerendocrineport
ion.
Hormonesar echemicalsubst
ances,pr
otei
nin
natur
ewhi charesecretedatonepartofthebody
andhaveef f
ectsonot herpar
tsnotnecessaril
ynear
thepointofsecret
ion.Theyaresecr
eteddirectl
y
i
ntobloodandtransport
edbybl ood.
Eachhormoneeitherhasagener al
isedco-
ordi
nati
ngeff
ectont hebodyorbr i
ngsabouta
speci
fi
cresponseinapar t
icul
artargetor
gan.
Hor
monespr
oducedi
nhumansandt
hei
nef
fect
son
t
hebody.
Endocr
ine Ef
fectof
Hor
mone(
s)pr
oduced Rol
eofhor
mone Ef
fectofexcess
gl
and def
ici
ency
1.Pi
tui
tar
y Tr
ophi
cHor
mones Cont
rol
sgr
owt
h Dwar
fi
sm Gi
gant
ism
(
i) Somat
otr
opi
n
(Growth
Hormone)
(
ii
)Thy
rot
rophi
cHormone Cont
rol
spr
oduct
ion Sameasf
or Sameasf
orexcess
oft
hyr
oxi
nby def
ici
encyof oft
yroxi
ne
t
hyr
oidgl
and t
hyr
oxi
n
(
ii
i)Adr
enocor
ti
cot
rophi
c St
imul
atest
he
Hor
mone(
ACTH act
ivi
tyofadr
enal
cor
tex
(
iv)Fol
l
icl
est
imul
ati
ng Dev
elopmentof
Hor
mone(
FSH) Gr
aaf
ianf
oll
i
clesi
n
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t
heov
ary
(
v)Lut
eini
singHor
mone
(L.H)
2.Thy
roi
d Thy
roxi
ne Regul
atesthe Ret
ardat
ionof Hi
ghmet abol
ic
metaboli
crat
e; phy
sical
and r
ap
ti
dh
e, eart
beat,
ment
al gener
alwast
ingof
dev
elopment thebody:
(
cret
ini
sm) p
or
fo
et
r
yu
es
bi
o
an
l
ls
(ex
opthalrni
c
goi
tre)
3.
1sl
etsof (
i)I
nsul
i
n Regul
atesbl
ood Hy
per
gly
caemi
a Hypoglycaemia
Langer
hans sugarbycausi
ng (
highbl
ood (
lowbl
oodsugar
)
p
i
nancr
eas conv
ersi
onof sugar
);di
abet
es
gl
ucoset
ogl
ycogen mel
l
itus
(
ii
)Gl
ucagon Regul
atesbl
ood Hy
pogl
ycaemi
a Hy
per
gly
cemi
a
sugarbycausi
ng (
lowbl
oodsugar
)(hi
ghbl
oodsugar
)
conv
ersi
onof
gy
lcogeni
nto
gl
ucose
4.Gonads Andr
ogensandoest
rogensDev
elopmentof Secondar
ysexualI
nfemal
esl
eadst
o
Test
isand secondar
ysexual char
act
eri
sti
cs dev
elopmentof
male.
?Inmal
es
ov
ari
es char
act
eri
sti
cs. f
ail
todev
elop
l
eads
t
odev
elopmentof
femal
e
char
acter
ist
ics.
(
i)Ov
ari
es Oest
rogen Repai
rofut eri
ne
wall
Pr
ogest
rone Causesthickening Miscarr
iagewhen
ofwallofuterus; l
evelfal
lsdur
ing
i
nhibi
tsovulation pr
egnancy
dur
ingpr
egnancy
;
prev
entscont
ract
ion
ofuter
us
(
ii
)Test
is Test
ost
erone Promote Mal
est
eri
l
ity
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(i
nter
sti
ti
al sper
mat
ogenesi
s;
cel
ls)
andmal
esecondar
y
sexual
char act
eri
sti
cs.
5.
Adrenal (
i)Adr
enal
i
ne Changesi n
gl
ands' responsetof ear,
stressorshock;
i
ncr easedheartbeat
,
conver
sionof
gl
ycogento
gl
ucose;dil
ati
onof
pupi
ls;
increased
bl
oodflowt o
skeletal
muscles
(
ii
)Hy
drocor
ti
sone Met abol
ism of Lessgl
ycogen
carbohydrat
es, stor
edi
nt hel
i
ver
l
ipidsandprotei
ns andmuscles
(
ii
i)Al
dost
erone Promotesretent
ion Ki
dney
sexcret
e
ofsodium chl
ori
de toomuch
andbicar
bonate sodi
um, chlor
ide
i
ons andbicarbonate
i
ons
Adr
enal
i
ne
Enhanceact
ivi
tyofsy
mpat
het
icner
voussy
stem.
Oversecr
eti
on
I
ncreasedheartbeat
Highbloodpressure
Thintonel
essmuscl es.
Undersecr
eti
on
Lowbloodpressure
Inabi
l
ityt
owithstandst
ress
Muscularweakness
Thyr
oxine
Oversecr
eti
oni
ster
medhyper
thyr
oidi
sm t
hiscauses:
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I
ncreasedBasalMet aboli
cRate(BMR)hence
i
ncr
easedt emperature.
Per
sonbecomesv eryangry,ner
vousandhands
mayshake.
I
ncreasedheart
beatwhi chleadtocar
diacf
ail
ure.
Undersecr
eti
oni
ster
medhypot
hyr
oidi
sm:
Poorgrowthandmentalret
ardati
on(creti
nism).
Reducedmetaboli
crat
ehencedecr eased
temperat
ure.
Personbecomesinact
iveandslothf
ul.
Eyesandfacebecomepuf f
yasf l
uidgetsstored
underski
n.
I
next r
emecasesthetongueisswol l
enandski n
becomesrough.
Enlar
gedthyr
oidgl
and.
Compar
isonbet
weenendocr
ineandner
voussyst
em
Nerv
ous Endocr
ine
communicat
ion communicat
ion
Speedof Usual
l
yrapi
d Usual
l
ysl
ower
Tr
ansmi
ssi
on
Response Usual
l
yspeci
fi
c Usual
l
ywidespr
ead;
in
i
nagiven somecases
Ef
fect
or i
npart
icul
art
arget
or
gan.
Nat
ureof El
ect
rochemi
cal Chemical
;i
nthef
orm of
i
mpulse al
ong ahormone
Axi
on;
chemi
cal t
hatt
rav
elsi
nbl
ood
acr
oss
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sy
napses
Durati
onof Usuall
yshor
t Usual
l
ylong-
last
ing.
e.g.
l
ived
response gr
owt
h
Si
mil
ari
ti
es
Bot
hendocr
ineandner
voussy
stem ar
einv
olv
edi
n
thecoordi
nati
onofbodyf uncti
ons.
Bothhavetargetorgans.
Botharecontrol
ledviaanegativ
ef eedback
mechanism, i
.etoohighproducti
onr esul
tsi
na
reducedproducti
on.
Ef
fect
sofdr
ugsabuseont
hehumanheal
th.
Dr
ugabusecanbedef inedasmi suseofdrugs.
Dr
ugsar echemical
compoundst hataff
ectthe
workingofbodyorkill
diseasecausing
microorganisms.
Pr
escr
ipt
iondr
ugs
Ar
edrugsprescr
ibedbyadoctor
.
Pr
escri
beddrugscanbeabusedthr
ought
aki
ng
ov
erdosewhichmaycausedeath.
Overt
hecount
erdr
ugs(
OCD)
Areselfpr
escri
beddrugs.
Thesehaveharmf ul
ef f
ectsandmayleadto
tol
erancesuchthathigherdosesar
eneeded.
Bel
owi
sal
i
stofef
fect
sofhar
ddr
ugsonhumanheal
th
Lungcancercausedbyni coti
ne.
Emphy sema.
Liv
ercirrhosi
s-causedbyalcohol
.
Int
erf
ereswi t
hv i
sion-al
cohol.
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ology231
Steril
ity-khat( r
ni r
aa).
Sl
eepl essness-i nsomnia-khat( mir
aa).
Hallucinat i
ons-Canabi ssat i
va( Bangi).
Digest i
v esystem isupset, nausea.
Diarrhoeaandv omi ti
ng.
Headacheanddoubl ev i
sion.
Skint onechanges-e. g.toodar k.
Appet iteisextreme-v erypoororv erygreat
.
Weightl oss.
Personal i
tychangese. g.i
r r
it
ableandconf used.
Conv ulsions,lethargyanddepr essionsduet o
i
nhal ationofsol ventse.g.glue.
STRUCTUREANDFUNCTI
ONSOFPARTSOFHUMANEAR
TheMammal
i
anEar
Themammal i
anearperformstwomaj orfunct
ions:
heari
nganddetect
ingchangesintheposit
ionsof
thebodytobr
ingaboutbalanceandposture.
Theearisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreesect
ions.
TheOuterEar
Thi
sconsistsof :
Anout erflap,thepinnawhichismadeupof
cart
il
age.
Thefunct ionofthepi nnai
st ocatchanddir
ect
sounds.
Theext ernalaudit
orycanalisat ubethr
oughwhich
soundt ravel.
Theliningoft hetubesecreteswax, whi
chtraps
dustpar ti
clesandmi croor
ganisms.
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Thetympanyisamembranestretchi
ngacrossthe
i
nnerendoftheexter
nal
audi
torycanal.
Thetympanum vi
brat
eswhenitishitbysound
waves.
TheMiddl
eEar
Thisi
sachambercont
aini
ngt
hreesmal
lbones
call
edt heearossi cles,themal leus,incusand
stapes.
Thet hreeossi c1esarti
cul atewithoneanot herto
ampl ifyv ibrati
ons.
Thevi br ationsaretransmi ttedfrom thet ympanum
totheov alwindow.
Attheendoft hechamberi samembr anecal l
edthe
ovalwi ndow.
Whent het ympanum v i
br ates,i
tcausest heear
ossic1est omov eforwar dsandbackwar ds.
Thiscausest heov alwindowt ov i
brate.
TheEust achiantubeconnect sthemi ddleeart othe
phary nx .
Itallowsai rt
ogeti nandoutoft hemi ddleear,t
hus
equal i
singt hepressurebet weent hei nsideandthe
outsideoft hetympanum.
TheI
nnerEar
Thisconsist
sofaser iesofchamber sfi
ll
edwith
flui
d.
Itcompri
sest hecochleaandsemi ¬ci
rcul
arcanals.
Cochleaisacoiledtubet hatoccupiesasmall
spaceandaccommodat esalargenumberof
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sensorycel
ls.
Thecellsar
econnectedtothebr
aint
hroughthe
audit
orynerve.
Theydetectvibr
ati
onswhichl
eadtoheari
ng.
Hear
ing
Thesoundwav essett hetympanum v ibrati
ngand
aretransf ormedi ntov i
brat
ions.
Thev ibrationsar et ransmit
tedt otheov alwindow
bythet hr eeossi cles.
Vibrati
onsoft heov alwindowcauset hef l
uids
insi
det hecochl eat ubetov i
brate.
Themembr anesi nsidethecochl eahav esensor y
cell
swhi chchanget hesoundv ibrat
ionst onerve
impulses.
 Thesear etransmi ttedtothebr aint
hrought he
auditoryner ve.
Hear i
ngi sper ceivedi nthebrain.
Bal
anceandpostur
e
Thesemi-
cir
cularcanal
s
Therearethreesemi-ci
rcul
arcanalsineachear .
Theyaresituat
edatr i
ghtangl
est oeachot herand
eachonei ssensi
tiv
et omovementi nadi f
ferent
plane.
Theyarefil
ledwithfl
uidandeachhasaswel l
ing
call
edtheampul l
aatoneend.
Insidetheampullaaresensorycell
s.
Balanceandposturearedetectedbyt hesecells.
Mov ementoftheheadi nagivendirecti
oncauses
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thefl
uidtomovet
hehai r
sonsensor
ycel l
s.
Thistr
ansmiti
mpulsestothebr
aint
hroughthe
audit
oryner
vesothatthemovementisregi
ster
ed.
Defect
softheear
Acutel
abyr
int
hit
is
Thisi
sani nf
lammat i
onofthemiddl
eearand
cochl
ea.
Itmayleadtodeafness.
Itcanbetreatedbyusingcer
tai
ndrugsbut
someti
mesanoper at
ionmaybenecessary
.
Ti
nni
ti
s:
Thisisasensat
ionofnoi
sesintheear.
Itiscausedamongother
sbyaccumul ati
onofwax
i
nt heearoruseofcer
tai
ndrugse.g.qui
nine.
Treatmenti
sbyr emov
alofwax,stoppi
nguseofthe
causati
vedrug.
Ver
ti
go-Gi
ddi
ness
Thisisdisor
ientat
ionofbodyinspace-oneoft
he
causesisdilat
ionofendoly
mph.
Correct
ions:Useofappropri
atedrugs.
Deaf
ness.
Thisi
sinabili
tyt
ohear .
Iti
spresentedinvar
iousdegreesi
nv ar
ious
i
ndivi
duals,somehav epar
ti
alhear
ing,other
sar
e
completel
ydeaf.
Thi
smaybeasar
esul
tof
:
Chronici
nfecti
onofcochlea.
Lackofsensorycell
s.
Excesswaxi next
ernalaudit
orycanal
.
Fusionofearossi
cles.
Ot
it
isMedi
a
Thi
sist
hei
nfl
ammat
ionofmi
ddl
eearduet
obui
l
d-
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upoff l
uid.
Iti
smar kedbyt heswell
ingoftissuessur r
ounding
theEustachiantubeduet oinf
ectionorsev er
e
congesti
on.
Ast r
ongnegat i
vepressurecreatesav acuum inthe
middleear.
Treatment-useofant i
bioti
csorsur gery
.
STRUCTUREANDFUNCTI
ONOFPARTSOFTHE
HUMANEYE
Thehumaney eisspher
icali
nshapeandsi t
uated
wit
hinasocketororbi
tintheskul
l.
I
tisatt
achedtotheskullbythr
eepair
sofmuscl e,
whichal
socontroli
tsmov ement.
I
tismadeupoft hreemainlayer
s;scl
erot
iclayer
,
choroidandt
hel
i
ghtsensi
ti
ver
eti
na.
Scl
erot
iclayer
Out
ermostwhi
tepar
tsi
tuat
edatt
hesi
desandback
oft
heeye.
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Madeupofcol
lagenf
ibr
es.
I
tprot
ect
stheeyeandgiv
esit
sshape.
Cornea
Thisi
sthet
ranspar
entf
rontpar
toft
hescl
erat
hat
all
owslighttopassthrough.
Iti
scurved,bul
gingatthefront.Itt
husref
lect
sli
ght
rayshencehelpstofocuslightraysont
othereti
na.
Chor
oid
Thesecondormiddlelayer
.
I
thasmanybl oodvesselsthatsupplynutr
ientsto
theeyeandremovemet aboli
cwast esfrom theeye.
I
thasdarkpigmentstoabsor bstr
aylightand
prev
entit
srefl
ecti
oninsi
det heeye.
Ci
l
iar
ybody
Isglandularandsecretesaqueoushumour.
Ithasbloodv essel
sforsupplyi
ngofnutri
ents
excreti
onandgaseousexchange.
Ithascil
iarymuscles-whichcontractandrel
axto
changet heshapeofl ensduri
ngaccommodat i
on.
Suspensor
yli
gament
s
Arei
nelast
icandat
tachthelensont
otheci
l
iar
y
bodyholdi
ngiti
nposit
ion.
Lens
Biconvexinshape,t
or efr
actli
ght.
Crystal
li
neandtransparenttoall
owlightt
opass
throughandfocusitont otheret
ina.
Aqueoushumour
Foundbet
weenl
ensandt
hecor
nea.
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Transparenttoal l
owlightt
opasst hr
oughit
.
I
tiswat erythushel pi
nginfocusi
ng.
Helpsmai nt
ai nshapeofeyebal l
.
Toconv eynut ri
entsandoxygentocornea,
and
removewast eproducts.
I
ri
s
Thecol our
edpartoftheeyehasanopening-t
he
pupilatthecent
re.
Iri
shasci r
cul
arandradialmuscl
eswhi
chcontrol
s
sizeofthepupil
,hencetheamountofl
ightent
eri
ng
theeyet hr
oughthepupil.
Vi
tr
eoushumour
Iti
saf lui
d.
Foundbet weenlensandreti
na.
I
sv i
scousandgi veseyetheshape.
I
tistransparentandref
ract
slight
.
Foveacent
ral
i
s
Foveacentr
ali
s(yel
lowspot)i
st hemostsensi
ti
ve
partofther
eti
na.
Consist
smainlyofconesforaccurat
evi
sion(v
isual
acuit
y).
Ret
ina
Retinacontai
nslightsensit
ivecel
lsandissi
tuat
ed
atthebackoft heeye.
Ther ear
etwot ypesoflightsensi
ti
vecell
sinthe
reti
na:
Rods-ar esensit
ivetolow-int
ensi
tyli
ghtanddetect
blackandwhi t
e.Nocturnalmammal shav emore
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r
ods.
Cones-aresensit
ivet
ohighi
ntensi
tyofl
i
ght
;
Theydetectbr
ightcol
our
.
Diur
nalmammal shavemorecones.
Opt
icner
ve
Opt
icner
ve,
hasneur
onsfortr
ansmissi
onof
i
mpulset
othebr
ainf
orint
erpr
etat
ion.
Bl
i
ndspot
Bli
ndspotisl
ocat
edatt
hepointwher
etheopti
c
nervel
eavest
heeyeonit
swayt ot
hebrai
n.
I
tisnotsensi
ti
vetol
i
ghti
thasnorodsorcones.
Eyel
i
d
Eyeli
disalooseski
nt hatcover
stheeye.I
tcl
oses
byref
lexacti
on.
Prot
ectsitfr
om mechanicaldamageandfr
om too
muchlight.
Eyel
ashes
Pr
eventdustandot
herpar
ti
cl
esf
rom ent
eri
ngey
e.
Conj
uct
iva
Iti
stransparentandthinandal
lowsl
ightt
opass
thr
ough.
Iti
sat oughl ayert
hati
sconti
nuouswit
hthe
epi
thelium oftheeyeli
ds.
Itprotectsthecornea.
Accommodat
ion
Accommodati
onref
erst
othechangei
ntheshape
ofthel
ensi
nordert
ofocusi
mages.
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Raysf rom adi st

antobj ectwoul dbef ocusedata
pointbehi ndt heret i
naift hel
enswer enotadj usted
appropr i
ately.
Whent heey ei sfocusingatadi stantobj ect,t
he
cil
li
arymuscl esar erelaxedandt hesuspensor y
li
gamentar est retchedt ight
.
Thelensi spul l
edt hi
n, t
husal l
owi nglightr aysfrom
adistantobj ectt obepr operl
yfocusedont othe
reti
na.
Whent heey ei slookingatnearobj ect,theci l
iary
muscl escont ractandt hesuspensor yli
gament
becomesl ack.
Thelensbecomesmor econv ex.
 Thi
sal lowsl i
ghtr aysf rom nearobj ecttobe
focusedont ot her et
ina.
Cont
rolofl
i
ghti
ntensi
tyent
eri
ngt
heeye
Inbri
ghtlight( hi
ghintensi
ty)thecir
cularmusclesof
their
iscont ract.
Thediamet erofthepupildecreasesandl essli
ght
enter
s.
Thisprotect sret
inafr
om damagebyt oomuchl ight
.
Indimlightci r
cularmusclesofi r
isrel
ax( r
adial
onescont ract).
Pupil
'
ssi ze( di
amet er
)increases,morelightenters
theeye.
I
magef
ormat
ionandI
nter
pret
ati
on
Li
ghtray
sfr
om anobjectentert
hecorneaandar
e
di
rect
edont
othelensthroughthepupi
l.
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Theyar erefr
actedbyt hecor neaandt helens.
Thelatterbri
ngst heray sintof i
nefocus.
Itmakest hel i
ghtraysconv ergesothatani mageis
focusedatapoi ntont heretina.
Theimageont her eti
nai sinv er
ted.
Thisstimulate,therodsandconesont hereti
naand
i
mpul sesgener atedaret r
ansmi t
tedthroughthe
opti
cner vetothebr ain.
Thebr ai
ninterpretstheimageasupr i
ght.
CommonEyeDef ect
sandthei
rCor
rect
ion
Shor
t-
sight
edness(Myopi
a)
Ashor tsightedpersoncannotf ocusdistantobj
ects
properly.
Lightraysf rom adistantobj
ectfallatapointin
frontoft her et
ina.
Thismaybeduet otheeyeballbei
ngt oolong.
Thisdef ectcanbecor r
ectedusingspectacleswith
concav el enses.
 Thelensesmaket heli
ghtraysdivergebeforethey
reachtheey e.
Long-
sight
edness(
Hyper
met
ropi
a)
Al ong-si
ghtedpersoncannotf ocusnearobj ects
properly.
Lightraysfrom theobjectarenotf ocusedont he
retina.
Thismaybeduet otheey ebal
lbeingt ooshort.
Thisdef ectmaybecor rectedbyusi ngspectacles
withconv exlenseswhichmakel i
ghtr aysconverge
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bef
oret
heyr
eacht
heey
e.
Ast
igmat
ism
Astigmati
sm referstoacondi t
ioni nwhi chthe
corneaort helensisunev en,sot hatimagesar enot
focusedproper l
yont her etina.
Thisdefectcanbecor rectedbywear i
ngspect acl
es
withspecialcyli
ndri
cal lenses.
Presbyopiaisacondi ti
oni nwhichl ightraysfr
om a
nearobjectarenotf ocusedont her eti
na.
Thisiscausedbyhar deningorl ossofel ast
ici
tyof
l
enseduet ooldage.
Thisdefectiscorrectedbywear ingconv ex
(conver
ging)lenses.
STI
MULUSANDRESPONSEREVISI
ONQUESTI-
ONS
1. Thedi
agr
amsbel
owrepent
saner
vecel
l
a)I
denti
fythenervecell
. (1mark)
(b)(i)Giveareasonf oryouranswerin(a)above
(1mark)
(i
i)Showbyuseofanar rowthedirect
ionoffl
owoft he
nerveimpul
ses. ( 1mark)
2. Bel owi
sadi agram showingpartsofasynapse
observeandotherthequestionsthatfol
l
ow.
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(a) Namet hepart

slabel
ed:A,
B.
(2mks)
(b) Whati stherol
eofpartl
abeledC.
(1mk)
3. Ast udentsetupanexperi
mentasshownint
he
di
agr
am below.
Li
ght
Boxwi
thbl
ackpai
nt
Thesetupwasl eftfor4day s.
a)Whatwast heai m oftheexper i
ment . (1mk)
b)i)St atet heexpect edr esultsaft
er4day s (1mk)
i
i)Accountf orther esultsy ouhav estat
edi n(b)(i
)
above. (4mks)
c)Inanot herexper i
ment ,ast udentplacedaseedl i
ng
hori
zont allyonmoi stcot t
onwool .Latertheshootgrew
upwar dswhi letheRadi clegr ewdownwar ds.Expl
ain
whyt her adicl
eshowedadownwar dcur vat
ure
(2mks)
4. Descr ibehowdi fferentty pesoftropismsadapt
pl
antsf orsur vi
val i
nt hei
rhabi tat
s. ( 20mks)
5. Di agr am belowshowst hest r
uctureofmot or
neuron.
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(a) Namet hepartslabell

ed. A, B
(2mks)
(b)St at
et hreeadapt ati
onsthatenabletheneuroneto
carr
youtitsf uncti
onsef fi
cient
ly.( 3mks)
(c)St at
et wof eatur
est hatwoul ddi
sti
nguishsensor
y
neuronefrom t heabov eneurone. ( 2mks)
6. Thedi agr am bel
owshowst hestr
uctur
eofi t
s
humanear .
C
D
G
J H
E
a)Statethefunctionsoft heear . (
2mks)
b)Givethenamesoft hestructurelabell
edC,Gand
F.(3mks)
c)(i
)Whati sthefunct i
onoft hestructurel
abeledH?
(1mk)
(i
i
)Namet hest r
uctureintheeart hatdetects
soundwav es. (1mk)
d)I nwhi chstructur
eoft heeari sthevelocit
yoft he
soundwav esfastest? (1mk)
7. Thedi agram belowr epresentsaner
P
vecell
.St udyit
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andanswert
hequest
ionst
hatf
oll
ow.
a)(i)Identi
fythecell (
1mk)
(i
i)Givear easonf oryouranswerina(i)abov
e ( 1mk)
b)Namet hepartslabell
edN, P,QandR. ( 4mks)
c)Statethefunctionsofthepartslabel
ledNand
Q.(
2mks)
8. Uset hediagram belowt oanswerthequesti
ons
t
hatfoll
ow
a)(i
)Namet heeyedef ectr
epresent
edabov e(1mk)
(i
i)Whati sthecauseoft hi
sdefect (1mk)
(i
ii
)Howcant hedefectyouhavenamed( a)(i)be
corrected? (
1mk)
9 Thedi agram bel
owshowst hr
eediff
erentt
ypesof
neuronesalongar efl
ex arc
a)Ident
if
yt heneuronl
abelled1, 2and3( 3mks)
b)Usingarrowsshowt hedi r
ectionofimpulse
tr
ansmissionont hedi
agram ( 1mk)
c)Namet hepartofthespinal cordwherethecell
bodiesofneurone2and3ar elocated(1mk)
d)Descri
bet hetr
ansmissionimpul seacr
osst he
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par
tlabel
ledP (
3mks)
10 Aresponseexhi
bit
edbyacert
ainpl
antt
endr
ili
s
i
ll
ust
rat
edbelow
(i
) Namet het ypeofr esponse
(1mk)
(i
i
) Expl ainhowt heresponsenamedi n(i
)above
occur s. (
3mks)
(i
i
i)Whati st heimpor tanceoft acti
cresponses
tomi cr oscopicpl ants? ( 1mk)
11 Descr ibehowt hemammal ianeari sadaptedto
perf
or mitsfunct i
ons. (20mks)
12.a) Descr i
behowt hest ructureoftheeyei s
adaptedtoi tsfunct ion. (
16mks)
b) Ident if
yt wodef ect
soft heeyeandhowt hey
canber ectifi
ed. (4mks)
13 Di f
ferentiatebet weenner vousandendocr i
ne
communi cationi nanimal s (
3mks)
14.Thedi agr am bel owr epresent sasect i
onthrough
themammal ianear .Studyi tandanswert he
questionsthatf oll
ow.
(
a) Namet
hest
ruct
uresl
abel
edHandJ
(
2mks)
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(b) St
atehowt hestruct
ureslabeledH, M andN
areadaptedtothei
rfuncti
ons ( 3mks)
(c) St
atewhatwoul dhappeni fthestr
ucture
l
abeledKwascompl etel
ydamage( 1mk)
(d) Namet hefl
uidcontai
nedi nstruct
ureN
(1mk)
(e) Apar
tfrom hear
ing,stat
et heotherrol
e
perf
ormedbyt hehumanear ( 1mk)
15 Thef
oll
owingexperi
mentwassetupi nachamber
madefrom t
woconnect edPetr
idi
shes.Housefl
y
maggotswereint
roducedatthecent
reofthe
chamber,
sothemaggot scouldmovetoeitherPet
ri
dishAorBasshownbel ow.
(a)Namet
het
ypeofr
esponsebei
ngi
nvest
igat
edi
nthe
setup. (
1mk)
(b)Stat
ethesur
viv
alv
alueoft
her
esponsenamedi
n(a)
above. (1mk)
(c)Gi
vether
oleofcal
cium chl
ori
dei
ntheexper
iment
above. (
1mk)
16 (a)Whati saccommodati
on? ( 1mk)
(b)Descr
ibethesequenceofeventst
hatoccuri
nthe
eyeforonetobeabl et
oseeclearl
y
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(
i)adi
stantobj
ect (
4mks)
(
ii
)ifonemov
edf
rom adi
mli
troom t
obr
ightl
i
ght
.
(
3mks)
MARKI NGSCHEMESTI MULUSANDRESPONSE

REVI SIONQUESTI ONS
1( a)Mot orneur on/ Mot orner vecel l
;
(b)( i)cel l bodyi st ermi nallysi tuat ed/ locatedatt he
endoft heaxon;
(i
i)Ar rowshoul dpoi ntawayf rom t hecel lbody
2.(a) A- Sy napt icclef t
B-Mi tochondr i
a
(b) Cont ainst het r
ansmi t
tersubst ance/Acet yl
chol ine.
3. a) Showt heef fectofuni later allightongr owt hof
seedl i
ng/pl ants; (1mk)
b) ( i
) Cur vatur eoft het ipoft heshoott owar dthe
sourcel ight ;
(i
i) Auxi ns/I AA/Gr owt hhar mones; pr oducedbyt he
apical bud; mov eawayf rom light/mov et othedar kside;
causi ngf ast erelongat i
on; hencecur vat ure;
c) I nt her oots/r adiclehi gherconcent r
ationofauxi ns
/IAAi nhi bitsgr owt h;hencet heuppersi dewi thl ess
auxi nsgr owsf astert hant hel owersi de; (hence
cur vat ur edownwar ds)
(2mks)
4.Phot ot ropi sms; -enabl espl antshoot st ogr owandget
l
ightf ormaxi mum phot osy nthesi s; All
owsf orl eaf
mosai c;
Chemot ropi sm;- Growt hcur vatur ei nr esponset o
contact /har dsur face;
-Makepl ant swi thweakst emst ogetsuppor tonl arge
plants/ trees; t
hismakest hent or eachandgetl ightf or
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maximum phot osy nt hesi s;

Geotropi sm; - Gr owt hcur vat ureinr esponset ogr avit
y;
enablespl antr oot st ogr owdeepi ntot hesoilt o
Maximum suppor t/anchor age;
Hydrot r
opi sm; -Gr owt hcur vatur einr esponset o
moistur e/wat er;
-Enabl epl antr oot stogr owandf indwat erinthe
soi l;wat erist henusedasar awmat eri
alDur i
ng
phot olysisst age;
Chemot ropism; -Gr owt hcur vat ureinr esponset o
chemi cal concent rat i
ongr adient ;
-Enabl espol l
ent ubest ogr owdownt hest yl
eand
int otheov ar yf orf ertil
izat i
ont ooccuri npl ants
flower s;
Thermot ropism; -Gr owt hcur vat ureinr esponset o
temper at urechanges;
-Enabl essomepl antst ogr owt owher etheycan
acqui r
eopt i
mum t emper at uref oref fect
ivepl ant
processes; e.g.( Sunf l
oweror i
ent atestowar dsthe
direct i
onsoft hesun.
5 (a)
A- Dendr i
tes
B- Cell body
(
b)
-Hasl ongaxont oconducti mpul sesfrom CNst o
effector s/muscl es/gl ands;
-Axonencl osedwi thmy eli
nsheat hwithnodesof
ranv i
est oenhancespeedofi mpul seconduct ion.
-Hasdendr iteswhi chrecei veimpul sesf r
om
adjacentneur ones.
(
c)
S.N M. N
-Cel
lbodyhasno -
Cel
lbodyhasdendr
it
es
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dendr
it
es
-Cel
lbodyatapoi
nt -
Cel
lbodylocatedatt
he
t
opofner
vefiber;
al
ongner
vef
ibr
e;
6 a) - Hear i
ng/det ect i
onofsound;
Bodybal ance/post ure;
(2mar ks.
)
b) ( i) C-Earcanal /External auditory
meet as;
(ii
) G-Semi –Ci rcul
arcanal s;
(ii
i)F-Audi t
or ynerve; (3marks)
c) ( i) Equal iseairpressur ebetweenmi ddl
eearand
outerear/pr eventdamageofeardr um;
(1mar k)
(ii
) Cochl ea/E; (1mark)
d) - Earossi cles/D; (1mar k)
7. a) i ) Sensor yneurons/af f
erentneur one
ii
) Cel l
bodyl ocatedof ftheaxon
b) N- Axon
P- Cel l
body
Q- My eli
nSheat h
R- Schwanncel l
c) N- Tr ansmi ssionofi mpulse
Q- I nsulati
on/speedupi mpul se
transmi ssion.
8a)Longsi ghtedness/Hy permetropia 1mk)
b) Shor tey eball;
Weakl ens( anyone);1mks
c) Wear ingofconv exlens/conv eyingl enses;1mk
r
jifa(i
)iswr ong
9a)1-Sensor yneurone/Af fer
entneur one
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2-Relayneur one /i nt er
medi ateneur one
3-Mot orneur one/ef ferentneurone 3mks
b) Checkont hedi agram ar r
owsshowpoi ntstowards
neur
one3f rom 2and1: 1mk
c) Greymat ter 1mks
d) Impulse reachi ng t he dendr i
tes end ofr el
ay/
Neurone2causest hesy napticv esicl
es,rel
eases
acetyl
choline /t ransmi tt
ersubst ances;i ntothe
synaptic cl eft;the acet yl
choline /t r
ansmitt
er
chemicaldi ff
usesacr osst hecleft;andcausest he
depolari
zationoft hemot orneuron/neur one
(i
)Namet hetypeofresponse(1mk)
10 Thigmotropi
sm/ Haptot
ropi
sm;
(i
i)
Explainhowtheresponsenamedin(
i)abov
e
occurs.(
3mks)
Contactwi t
hsuppor t
;causesmi grat
ionofauxi
nsto
theoutside;causi
ngf astergrowthonthesideaway
from contactsurf
ace; (
Causingdendril
stocurl
aroundthesuppor t)
;
NB( a)(i
i)ist
iedto(i
)
(
ii
i) Whati st heimpor tanceoft
acti
cresponsesto
mi
croscopi
cpl ants?(1mk)
Escapei njur
ioussti
muli
/seekfavour
able
habit
at
Rej
.Seekmat
eandobt
ainf
ood
11.Descr ibehowt hemammal ianearisadapt edto
per
formi tsf uncti
ons.(20mks)
Thepi nnai sflapmadeofski nandcarti
lage; f
or
coll
ect i
onandconcent rati
onofsoundwav es;
Audi torycanal /meatusisat ubeli
nedwi thhairs
whicht rapsol i
dpar t
icl
eslikedust
;Ithaswax
secretingcells;thatsecret
ewaxf ortrappingsoli
ds
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andi nsect sent er i

ngt heear ;
Theear drum/ tympani cmembr aneist hi nwith
doubl elay erofepi der mi s; I
tv ibratest ranslating
soundwav esi nt osoundv ibrat i
ons; Sound
vi
brat i
onsar et ransmi ttedt oearossi cles;
Earossi clesar emal leus, i
ncusandst apes; they
ampl if
yandt ransmi tv ibrationst ot heor alwindow;
Theov alwi ndowi sat hinmembr anewhi ch
tr
ansmi tssoundv ibr ationst ot hef l
uidoft heinner
ear;per i
lymphandEndol ymph;
Eustachi ant ubeconnect smi ddleearwi t
hphar y
nx
equal i
zingai rpr essur ei ntheearwi that mospher ic
pressur e;topr ev entdi stortionoft heear drum;
Thecochl eai shi ghl ycoi l
edt ubewi thsy stem of
canals( andsensor ycel l
s)t ooccupyasmal l
space/ increaset hesur facear eaf or
accommodat ingmanysensor ycel l
st odet ect
soundsv ibrat i
ons; andgener ateimpul ses
tr
ansmi tt
edt ot hebr ai n;
Auditor yner vet r ansmi tsner v eimpul sest ot he
brainfori nterpr et ation;
Semi circularcanal sar et ubul arcav it
iescont aini
ng
fl
uid;
Thecanal sar ear r
angedatr ightangl est oeach
otherint het hr eepl anesofspaces; todet ect
changesi nposi tionoft hebody ;
thecanal shav e
ampul la:ut ri
cul usandsaccul us; t
odet ectposi ti
on
ofbodyi nr elationt ogr av i
ty;
Utri
cul ushasot ol i
thsat tachedt osensor ycel ls
whichgener atei mpul seswhi char et hen
tr
ansmi tt
edt ot hebr ai nt hrought heaudi toryner ve;
Theper il
ymphandendol ymphf l
uidint heinnerear
absor bmechani cal shock/ transmi tsound
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v
ibr
ati
ons/
prot
ectdel
i
cat
epar
ts;
Tot
al25max20mar
ks
12 a)i ) Conj unct ivat ranspar ental lowl i
ghtt oent er
eye
ii
) Cor neat ranspar ent/cur v
edal lowl ight/
refractslightent er i
ngey e;
ii
i) Aqueous/v itreoushumour–cl ear/al lowli
ght
pass/r efractl ight ,hy dr ost aticpr essur e–
Mai nt ai
nshapeofey eball
.Cont ai nssugar s/
proteins/sal ts–pr ov idenut ri
ent st oey e.
iv)I ri
s–cont ract i
le–cont rolsl i
ghti ntensi ty/
amountofl i
ghtent er ingey e;
v) Ci li
ar ybodygl andul ar–secr eteshumuor
vi)
Ci li
arymuscl econt r actile–cont rolscur vatureof
l
ens;
vii
)Suspensor yligament–f ibrous–hol dsl ensi n
posi ti
on
vii
i
) Lenst ranspar ent/Bi conv ex–al l
owl ightgo
throught or eti
na/r ef ractl ight/f ocusl i
ght .
i
x) Ret ina–r ods-r hodopsi n–f ordi ml ightv i
sion;
-I odopsi n–f orbr ightl ightv i
sion
x)Fov eacent r
alis–hi ghconcent rationofcones–f or
accur atev ision
xi)
Chor oi
dl ayer–bl oodv essel spi gment ed –f or
nutriti
on
-r educel i
ghtr ef l
ect i
on/absor bst rayl ight
xii
) Scl er a–f ibrous–pr otect i
on/gi veey eshape;
xii
i) Opt ical nerv es–sensor yneur one–t ransmit
i
mpul sef rom r etinat obr ain.
xiv) Ext ernal ey emuscl e–cont ract i
le–mov e
eyebal lwit hinsocket
xv) Bl indspot–coneandr odsabsent–noi mage
i
sper ceived
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Corr
ecti
on
b)i)Shortsightedness; biconcave/
di
v ergi
nglens
i
i)Longsightedness; conv
ergi
nglens/convex
l
ens
i
ii) Asti
gmat ism; useofcy l
indr
ical
l
ens
i
v ) Squint
ing; surgery (any2
i
dent
if
ycor
rect
ion4mks)
13.Ner vouscommuni cat ion Endocr i
ne
communi cation
-Ner vei mpul setoev okear esponse-Chemi cal
subst ance/ hor monet oev oke
Response
-Highspeedoft ransmi ssi on-Lowspeedof
transmi ssion;
-Rapi dr esponse -Responsedel ayed
-Impul set ransmi ttedt hr oughneur one -Hor mones
transmi tt
edi nbl ood
-Responsesspeci ficandl ocal i
zedt oone -
Responsesaf fectssev er al par t
soft he
Targetor gan body;
Not e: Compar i
sonshoul dcomeoutcl ear l
yt oaward.
14.a) H–Eust achi ant ube;
J–Semi -circul arcanal s;
b) H–Tubeopen/connect iont othephar ynxandt o
themi ddleear /opensdur ingswal lowing/y awni ngand
vomi tingt oequal izet heai rpr essurei nthemi ddleear
wi t
ht heat mospher icai rpr essur e;
M –( pinna)cur ved/f unnel shapedt or ecei veor
collectanddi rectsoundwav esintot heear;
N–( cochl ea)–l ong/ highl ycoi led/spi r
ali
nf ormt o
i
ncr easesur f
acear eaf orsoundPer cepti
on;
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-Hassensoryhairs/cel l
swhi
chconv er
tsound
vi
brati
onstoimpul ses/gener
ateimpulses;
-Hasendolympht ot ransmi
tvi
brati
ons;
c) Totaldeaf ness;
d) Endolymph;
e) Balance;accbodybalance/posture.
15 (a)Tacti
cresponse;
(b)Mov eawayfrom ahar
shenv
ironment
/mov
eto
favorabl
eenvir
onment;
(
c)Toabsor
banymoi
stur
efr
om Pet
ridi
shA/
OWTTE
16. (
a)Ar efl
exmechani sm/abili
tyoft heey et oadj ustto
bringani magef rom nearorf arobjectint oshar p
focusont hereti
na;
(b)Circularmuscl esoftheiriscontract; whilethe
radialmuscl esrelax;
Cil
iarymuscl esr elax;incr
easi ng
tensiononsuspensor yli
gament s; l
ensbecome
thi
nneri ncreasi
ngt hefocallength;imagef ocused
ont other et
ina;
(i
i)Circularmusclesoft heiri
scont ract;pupi l
const r
ict/becomesmal ler
;andal lowsenoughl ightfor
(sharp)i magetobef ocusedont ot her etina;
SUPPORTANDMOVEMENTI NPLANTSANDANI MALS
Supporti
stheabili
tyofor gani
smst obeartheir
weightandmai nt
aintheirbodyforms.Iti
nvolves
hol
dingbodypar t
sint hei
rposit
ionandallowf or
mov ement.
Mov ementisthedispl
acementofpar tsofthebody
ofanorganism e.
g.growt hmov ementsinplants
andlimbsinanimals.
Locomotionismov ementoft hewholeorganisms.
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Suppor tandMov ementi nPl ant s

Thi scanbeatcel l l
ev ele.g.gamet esi nbryophytes
andPt eridophy tesorator ganl evelintropicand
nast icr esponses.
I
mpor t
anceofMov ementi nPl ant s
i
. Enabl epl antstoobt ainr esour cessuchassunl ight,
wat erandnut rientsduet ot ropi candnast ic
responses.
ii
. Enhancesf ert
ili
zat i
oni nbr yophy t
esand
Pter idophy t
es
i
ii
. Enhancef ert
il
izationi nflower ingpl antsbygr owt h
ofpol l
ent ubet owar dst heembr yosac.
i
v. Hel pspl antstoescapehar mf ul sti
mul isuchashi gh
temper ature
I
mpor t
anceofSuppor tinPl ant s
i
. Hol df lower sinposi ti
onf orpol l
inationt ooccur.
ii
. Hel ppl ant stowi t
hst andf orcesoft heenv ir
onment
suchasgr avit
yandai rcur rent s.
i
ii
. Fr uitsar eheldi nappr opr i
ateposi tionf ordi
spersal
tooccur .
i
v.I ncreaset heef fi
ciencyofphot osy nthesisasthe
leav esar efir
m andar rangedi nmosai cpatter
nf or
maxi mum absor ptionofl ightandcar bon( i
v)oxide.
ArrangementofTi ssuesi nPl ant s
Diagrams
Parenchyma.Thecel l
sar espheri
calorelongated.
Theyar eunspeciali
zedcel l
sformingthepacki ng
ti
ssues.Whent urgi
d,theyhelpinprovidi
ngsuppor t
i
nher baceouspl ant
s.
Coll
enchyma.I t’
sunder neaththeepidermis.They
aresimilarinappearancet oparenchymaandt hey
containli
vingprotoplasm.Theyhav edeposi t
ionof
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celluloset opr ovidemechani cal suppor t

.Theyar e
mai nl
yf oundi ny oungl eavesandst ems.
Scl erenchyma.Theyappearasl ongf ibresi nst ems.
Cel lsaredeadandt heyhav eli
gni n.Mai nlyf oundi n
stemsandmi dribofl eaves.Thewal lsar epi tt
edt o
allowexchangeofsubst ancesbet weencel ls.
Xy lem vessel sandTr acheids.Xyl em v essel sare
l
ongt ubel i
kest ruct ureswithlignifiedwal lsusedf or
transpor tingwat erandmi neral saltsandal sogi ve
plantmechani cal support.Trachei dsar elongcel l
s
wi thtaper ingendswhosewal l
sar elignifiedt ogi ve
thepl antmechani calsuppor t
.Bot hxy lem v essel s
antt r
achei dsar emadeofdeadcel l
smanl ypr esent
i
nwoodyst ems.
Tendr il
sandCl i
mbi ngst ems.Someher baceous
plant ssuppor tthemsel vesbyuseoft endr i
lse. g.
pumpki ns, gar denpeaset c.Other sobt ainsuppor t
byt winningr oundot herhar dobj ectssuchasst em
ofpassi onf ruit,mor ninggloryet c.
Spi nesandThor ns.Somepl ant susespi nesand
thor nst oat tacht osol idobjectsf orsuppor te.g.in
rose.
Pr
act
ical
Act
ivi
ty3
ToObser veWi l
ti
nginPlants
SupportandMov ementinAnimal s
Ani malshav eafi
rm andr i
gidframewor
kfor
supportcall
edtheskeleton.
I
mpor tanceofMov ementi nAnimals
1.Enablesearchi
ngoff ood,mateandshelt
er.
2.Mov etoavoidpredators.
3.Tocolonizenewar eas
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4.Movefr
om areaswit
hunf av
ourabl
econdi
ti
onssuch
asf
ir
e,ear
thquakes,
floodetc.
Ty
pesandFuncti
onofSkeletons
1.
Hydrost
ati
cskel
eton
Iti
sfoundinsof
tbodiedani
mal
ssuchast
he
ear
thwor
m.
2.
Exoskel
eton
I tismadeoft heext er nalcov er
ingfoundi n
arthropods.
I t’
smadeofwat erpr
oofcut icl
ewhichcont ainsthe
proteinChi tinsecr et
edbyt heepidermal cells.
Functionsoft heExoskel et on
i
. Reduceswat erl oss
ii
. Pr otectionagai nstmi crobial i
nfect
ionsand
mechani calinj
ur y
i
ii
. Suppor tbodyt i
ssuesandor gans.
i
v. Pr ovidepoi ntf orat t
achmentofmuscl esal l
owing
l
ocomot iont ot akepl ace.
v. Enhancef li
ghti ninsect sbymeansofwi ngswhi ch
arethef lattenedpar t soft heexoskel eton.
vi
. Enhancewal ki
ngi ninsectsusi ngjointed
appendages.
NB/
. 1.Exoskel etonhasadi sadvantageasitlimit
s
growth.Toovercomet hi
slimitat
ioniti
speriodical
ly
shedt hr
oughmoul t
ing(ecdysi
s).
2.Insectst
hatjumporhophavepower f
ulhi
nd
l
imbs.Thef emuroft hehi
ndl i
mbhaspower ful
antagonist
icmuscles.
Di
agr
ams
3Endoskel
eton.
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Iti sf oundi nallvert

ebrates.
Muscl esar eexternaltothehar dframewor k.
Iti smadeofl iv
ingtissueseit hercarti
lageorbone
whi chi ncreaseinsizeast heani malgr owsand
theref oreneednott obeshedasi nexoskel eton.
Functionsoft heEndoskel eton
i
. Suppor tstheanimal ’
sbody
ii
. Gi vest hebodyi tsshape
i
ii
. Pr ot ectsinnerdel i
cateorganssuchast hel ungs,
hear t,li
veret cfr
om mechani cal i
njur
ye. g.ribs.
i
v. Pr ov idesur faceformuscl eat tachmentf acili
tati
ng
mov ement .
v. Pr oduct i
onofbl oodcel l
si.e.t helongandshor t
bones
vi
. Act sasar eservoirofcalcium andphosphat eions
i
nt hebody
Locomot ioninFi nnedFish( Ti
lapia)
Di
agr
ams
Pr
act
icalAct
ivi
ty5
Pr
act
icalAct
ivi
ty6
Howaf innedf i
shisadapt edt olocomot i
oni nwat er
1.Streaml i
nedbody /taper edant er
iorl
yandpost eriorl
y;
tomi nimizewat erresi stance;
2.Infl
exi blehead; t
omai nt ai
nf orwardthr
ust;
3.Ov erlappingscal esf acingpost eri
orend;tobr i
ng
aboutl essresist
ance; Ov er
lappingofscalesal so
prev ent swetti
ngoft heski n;
4.Sli
my /oilysubstancet omoi st
enscales;hencer educe
resistancebet weenwat erandf i
sh;
5.Swi m bl adder;ai
rf i
l
ledcav itywhichcontrols/brings
buoy ancy ;anddept hatwhi chitswims;
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6.Flex i
blebackbone/ seriesofv ertebr aewi th
My ot omes/muscl esbl ocks; whi chcont r
actandr elax
alternatelybr i
ngingaboutt hr
ust /force;whichpr opels
fi
shf orwar ds;
7.Pect oralandpel vicfins( pair
edf ins);whichbr i
ng
aboutbal ancingef f
ect; braki
ng; andchangi ng
direction;theyal socont rolpit
chi ngi .e.control upward
anddownwar dmov ement ;
8.Dor sal f
in,caudal fi
nandanal fin( unpai r
edf ins);to
i
ncr easev erti
cal surfacear ea; andt hereforepr event
rolli
ngf rom sidet oside; andy awi ng;
9.Tai lfi
ns/caudal fi
nst hatar elongandf l
exible;for
steer i
ng/mor ef orce/t hrust;
10.Lat erallinehassensor ycells; whi chenabl est o
per ceivev i
brations; hencecanl ocat eobject ssot hatit
escapes/changesdi rection;
Suppor tandMov ementi nMammal s
Di
agr
am ofahumanandr
abbi
tskel
eton
Theskel etoni sdi v idedinto:

Axi al(skul l
, ster num, r
ibcageandv ert
ebralcol
umn.)
Appendi cular(consi stsofgi r
dlesandt heli
mbs
attachedt ot hem)
AxialSkelet on
1.Skull
Madeupofmanybonesf usedtogethertoformthe
cranium.
Thebonesar ej oi
nedt ogetherformingimmov abl
e
j
oinscal l
edSut ures.
Cr anium encl osesandpr ot
ectsthebrain,ol
fact
ory
organs, t
heey es,middl eandinnerear .
Faci al skelet onhasaf ixedupperjawcal l
edmaxill
a
andamov abl el owerjawknownast hemandi bl
e.
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Att hepost eriorend, ther ear et wosmoot hr ounded

proj ect i
onscal ledocci pi t
al condy l
es.These
articul atewi tht hef ir
stboneoft hev ertebral column
(atlas)f or mingahi ngej oint.
Thi sj ointper mi tsnoddi ngoft hehead.
2.Ribcageandst er num
Ri bcageencl osest hethor aci ccav itypr otecting
delicat eor ganssuchast hel ungsandhear t.
Cagei smadeupofr ibst hatar ti
culat ewi th
vertebr al columnatt hebackandst ernum t ot he
front .
I nbi rds, thest er num ismodi fiedt of ormt hekeel
whi chgi v esal argesur f acear eaf orat tachmentof
fl
ightmuscl es.
Ri bcageandst er num hel pdur ingbr eat hi
ngbecause
theyof fert hesur facef orat tachmentoft he
i
nt er cost alsmuscl es.
3.Ver tebr al col umn
Consi st sofbonescal ledv ertebraet hatar e
separ atedf rom eachot herbycar tilagecal l
edi nter-
vertebr al discs.
Thedi scsabsor bshockandr educef ri
ction.Ital so
makest hev ertebr alcolumnf lexible.
Ther ear ef i
v ety pesofv ertebr aei nt hev ertebral
column;
1.Cer v i
cal ver t
ebr ae
2.Thor acicv ertebr a
3.Lumbarv ertebr ae
4.Sacr al ver t
ebr ae
5.Caudal v ertebr ae
Allt
hev er tebr aehav eacommonbasi cpl an.
Str
uct ureofaVer tebr a
Eachv er tebr ai smadeupoft hef ol l
owi ngpar ts.
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i.
) Cent rum ( body ).Itsuppor tsthewei ghtofthe
ver tebr aandt hewei ghtoft heent ir
ev ert
ebr al
col umn. .
i
i.
) Neur al ar ch.I tencl osest heneur al canal.
i
i
i.
) Neur al spi ne.Pr ov idessur f
acef ormuscl eand
l
igamentat t
achment .
i
v.
) Neur al canal .Itpr otectst hespi nal cordwhi ch
passest hr oughi t.
v.
) Tr ansv ersepr ocesses.Pr ovidessur faceformuscl e
andl igamentat tachment .
v
i.
) Zy gapophy sis( f
acet s).Thesear esmoot hpat ches
forar ti
cul at i
onwi tht heot herv er tebrae.(Theonei n
frontandt heot heronebehi nd) .Thef r
ontfacet sar
e
cal l
edPr e- Zygapophy siswhi lethebackpai rfacet
s
arecal ledPost -Zy gapophy sis
Diagram
1)Cer vical v ertebr ae
a)At l
as( Fi r
stcer vical v
ert ebra)
Di st inct ivef eat ur es.
i.
)NoCent r
um
i
i.
)Br oadandf l
att ransv ersepr ocesses.
ii
i.
)Hasv er tebr ater ial canal i
neacht ransv er
sepr ocess
forv er tebr al ar t
er iest opasst hrough.
iv.
)Fr ontf acet sar el ar geandgr oov edt oar t
iculatewit
h
condy lesoft heskul ltoal lownoddi ngont hehead.
v.
)Neur al spi nei sv er ysmal l.
Diagram
Funct ions
i.
)Pr otectt hespi nal cor d.
i
i.
)Pr ov idesur f acef ormuscl eat tachment .
ii
i.
)Al lowsheadt onod.
b)Axi s( second)
Di st inct ivef eat ur es.
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i.
)Cent r
um pr ol ongedt of rom t heodont oidprocess.
i
i.
)Hasv er tebr ater ial canal ineacht ransv erse
processf orv er tebr al ar teriestopass.
ii
i.
)Smal lwi ngl i
ket ransv ersepr ocesses.
iv.
)Wi deneur al canal .
Funct i
ons
i.
)Pr otect st hespi nal cor d.
i
i.
)Al l
owst heheadt or otat e.Odont oidprocess
formsapegwhi chf it
si nt otheneur al canalof
theat las.
ii
i.
)Pr ovidesur f acef ormuscl eattachment
Diagram
c)Theot hercer v i
cal ver tebr ae.
Di stinctivef eat ur es
i.
)Shor tneur al spi ne
i
i.
)Tr ansv ersepr ocessdi v idedandbr oad.
ii
i.
)Hasv er tebr ater ial canal ineacht ransv erse
processf orv er tebr al ar teriestopasst hrough.
iv.
)Wi decent rum
Di
agram
Funct i
ons
i.
)Pr ovidesur f acef orat tachmentofneckmuscl e.
i
i.
)Pr otectt hespi nal cor d.
ii
i.
)Suppor tst hewei ghtoft hehead.
2)Thor acicv ertebr ae
Di stinctivef eat ur es
i.
)Longneur al spi nepoi nt ingbackwar ds.
i
i.
)Lar gecent rum.
ii
i.
)Shor tt ransv ersepr ocesses.
iv.
)Tuber cularf acet soneacht ransversef or
arti
cul ationwi t
ht uber cul um oft herib.
v.
)Twopai rsofcapi tul ardemi -f
acet sforar ti
cul
ati
on
withcapi tulum oft her ib.
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Diagram
Funct ions
i.
)Hel pst of or mt her i
bcage.
i
i.
)Pr ov idesar ticul at
ionf oroneendofeachr ib.
i
i
i.
)Pr otect st hespi nalcor d.
i
v.
)Pr ov idessur facef ormuscl eat tachment .
3)Lumbarv er tebr ae
Di sti
nct ivef eat ur es
i.
)Lar gebr oadcent rum toof fersuppor t.
i
i.
)Br oadneur al spi ne.
i
i
i.
)Br oadandl ongt ransv ersepr ocesses.
i
v.
)Hav eext rapr ocessesl ikemet apophy sis,
anapophy sisandhy papophy si
s.
Funct ions
i.
)Pr otect st hespi nal cor d.
i
i.
)Pr ovidessur facef ormuscl eattachment .
i
i
i.
)Pr otectandsuppor ttheheav yor gansint he
abdomi nal cav ity.
i
v.
)Suppor tst heheav ywei ghtoft heupperpar toft he
body.
4)Sacral v er t
ebr ae
Di sti
nct ivef eat ur es
1.Allsacr al v er t
ebr aef usedt oform sacr um
2.Transv er sepr ocessesoff ir
stsacr alvertebralarge
andwi ngl i
kef orar t
iculat ionwi thpelvicgirdl
e
3.Pairsofhol esont helowersur facef orthespi nal
nervest opasst hr ough.
4.Sacrum i sbr oaderont hef r
ontsi deandnar r
ow
towardst het ail
.
Funct
ions
1.
Prot
ectsal
i
mentarycanal
ondor
sal
side.
2.
Prov
idesat
tachmenttohi
pgi
rdl
e
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3.Prot
ectst
hespinal
cord
4.Provi
desat
tachmentf
orthemuscl
es
Di
agram
5.
Caudalvertebrae
Dist
inct
ivefeatures
1.
Verysmall i
nsize
2.
Noneural canal
Functi
ons
1.Provi
desatt
achmentfort
ailmuscl
es
2.Helpsint
hemov ementofthet
ail
REVI ONQUESTI ONS

1.
a)i)Def inethet erm geneti
cs
thest udyofher edity(i
nheri
tance)andv ariat
ionor
studyofmechani smsbywhi chchar act
erist
icsar
e
passedf rom parentst ooff
spring
i
i
i)Listsomechar acteri
sticswhichar einheri
ted
size
height/length
colour /
type
shape
y i
eld
i
i
i)Statethei mportanceofgenet i
cs
helpst oexplaindi f
ferencesbet weenorganismsof
thesamespeci es
helpst oexplaint hetransmissionofchar act
ers
from gener ati
ont ogener at
ion
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i mpr ov ementi nliv estock

i mpr ov ementi ncr ops
canbeusedt ot r
eatsomedi ff
icultdi seases
b)i)Expl aint hemeani ngoft hef ollowi ngt erms
Heredity
t her esembl anceamongi ndi vi
dual sr elatedby
descent
t ransmi ssionoft raitsf r
om par ent stoof f
spr i
ng
Trait
al socal ledchar act er
Achar acteroft heor gani sm e. g.ty peofear ,colour
ofey es, height ,yieldet c.
Gene
uni tofi nher it
ance
i tist heher edityf act orwhi cht ransmi tst rait
sf r
om
par ent st oof fspring
genesar el ocat edatf ixedpoi ntsonchr omosomes
eachpoi nti scal l
edal ocus( l
oci )
All
ele
genescanexi stinaser iesofal ternativef ormsata
par ti
cul arlocus
al leler eferst oal ter nativef ormsofgenes
cont rol l
ingapar ti
cul archar acteristic
Chromosomes
t hreadl ikest ruct uresf oundi nnucl eiofal l pl
ants
andani mal s
t heycar r
ygeneswhi char eher editarymat erial
s
t heyconsi stofsubst ancescal ledDNAandpr otei
ns
cal l
edhi stosones
DNA
deoxy ribonucl eicaci d
subst ancest hatmakeupchr omosomes
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doubl ehel i
x( strand)mol eculet hatcont ai nsgenes
DNAconsi stsofnucl eot i
des
Anucl eot i
deconsi stsofani nor gani cphosphat e,
ribosesugarandabase
Ther ear ef ourbasesi naDNAmol ecul ei.e.
Adeni ne(A) ,guani ne( G) , thymi ne( T)andcy stosine
(C)
Ri bosesugarhasf ourbasesat tachedt oi ti .
e.
adeni ne, cy stosi ne, guani neandt hy mine
Adeni nepai r
swi tht hymi newhi leguani nepai rswith
cy stosine
Nucl eot i
dei nit
iat esandcont rolspr oteinsy nthesis
i
i)Listt het ypesofchr omosomes
somat i
c( body )chr omosomesal socal l
ed
aut osomes
sexchr omosomes( relat edt or epr oduct ion)
c)i)Whati sv ariat i
on?
sequenceofdi fferencesoccur r
ingamong
indi v
idual soft hesamespeci es
i
i)Stat ethecausesofv ariationi nor gani sms
r andom assor tmentofgenesdur i
ngmei osis
cr ossingov er
f er t
il
ization
doubl i
ngofchr omosomenumber s( mut ation)
env ironment alcondi tions
i
ii
)Namet het ypesofv ar i
at ion
Cont i
nuousv ariat i
on( di fferencesnotcl earcut )e.g.
hei ght,lengt h,wei ght , ski ncol our ,intel
ligenceet c.
Theyar equant itativ eandshowi ntermedi ates
di scont inuousv ar iation( di f
ferencesar ecl earcut )
e.g.abi li
tyt or oll tongue, ABObl oodgr oupi ng
sy stem, RHf actor ,pat ternsoff inger prints, and
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abi
l
itytot
ast
ePTC.Theyar
equal
i
tat
iveandhav
e
noint
ermedi
ates
i
v)Expl aint hef ollowingt erms
Acquiredchar act eristi
cs
t heyar easar esultofadapt ati
onsduet othe
env i
ronmentandar enotinher it
ed
I
nheritedchar act erist
ics
ar epasseddownt oof f
springdur ingsexual
reproduct ion
Genot ype
genet icconst itut
ionofani ndivi
dual/genetic
makeup
Phenot ype
char acter isticsofani ndivi
dualobser vedor
discer niblebyot hermeansi .e.observablecharact
er
Domi nantgene( char acter)
expr essedi nt hephenot ypewhenhomozy gousor
heter ozy gous
Recessi vegene
onl yexpr essedi nhomozy gousst at
e
Homozy gous
whent woal lelesar eidenti
cal e.g.LL,l
l
Heterozy gous
whent woal lelesar ediff
erentatapar ti
cularl
ocus
e.g.Ll
F1andF2
F1meansf irstf i
l
ialgenerat i
oni .
e.thefir
st
gener ationpr oducedwhent wov ari
eti
escanbe
crossed
F2meanssecondgener ati
oni .e.productof
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offspr i
ngorf r
om F1gener ati
on
d)i
)Expl ainMendel sf irstlawofi nher i
tance
al socal ledl awofsegr egat i
on
itst atest hatgenesar eresponsi blefort he
dev elopmentofi ndi vi
dual characters
t hesechar act er sar et r
ansmi ttedindi vi
dual ly
withoutanyal t
er ations
Onl yonechar act erf rom acont r
astingpai rcanbe
carriedinagamet e, henceonl yonechar act ercan
bei nherited.
i
i)Giveanexampl eoft hislaw
I nanexper i
ment ,Dr osophi l
a(fruitfl
y )wi thl ong
wingswer ecr ossedwi t
ht hosehav i
ngshor twi ngs.
Assumel etterLdenot esgenef orwi ngsi ze.The
genef orlongwi ngsi sdomi nantt othatf orshor t
wings
t hegenesf ordomi nantar eLLandf orr ecessi vell
.
St atet heexpect edr esultsforthef ir
stcr oss
i
ii
)Whati smonohy br idinher i
tance?
wheni nheritanceofonechar act erisst udi edoneat
at i
mee. g.wi ngsi zeonl y
t heF2gener ation( whensel fed)al way sgi v esa
phenot y
picr at ioof3: 1andagenot ypi crat ioof1: 2:
1
i
nacompl etedomi nance
i
) Whati scompl etedomi nance?
r eferst owher eonl yonedomi nantchar act eri s
expr essedwhi let heot herchar acterwhi chi s
recessi veisnotexpr essedi nthehet erozy gous
statee. g.thecaseofwi ngsi zeabov e
e)i
)Whati smeantbycodomi nance?
Whengenespr oducei ndependentef fect swhen
heter ozygous/ noneoft hegenesi sdomi nantov er
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theot her/wher et woormor eal lelesdoesnotshow

compl et edomi nance/ r
ecessi venessduet othe
fail
ur eofanyal l
elet obedomi nat eina
het erozy gouscondi tion.
i
i)Gi veanexampl eofcodomi nance
Inacer tainpl antspeci es, somei ndiv i
dual plantsmay
hav eonl ywhi te, r
edorpi nkf lower s.I nanexper i
menta
plantwi thwhi t
ef lower swascr ossedwi thapar entwi th
redf lower s.Showr esultsofF1gener ation.Usel etterR
forredgeneandW f orwhi tegene.
Ifthepl ant sf or m F1wer esel fed, wor koutt he
phenot y per at i
of ort heF2gener ation
Phenot ypicr atio 1r ed:2pi nk:1whi te
Genot ypicr atio1:2: 1
f)i)Whati sat estcr oss?
-Acr ossbet weenani ndiv idual showi ngachar act erfor
adomi nantgene( t hatishomozy gousorhet er
ozy gous)
withahomozy gousr ecessi vei ndividual
OR
acr ossbet weeni ndiv idual(organi sm)ofunknown
genot ypewi t
hahomozy gousr ecessi veindivi
dual
i
i)St atet hei mpor tanceofat estcr ossi ngenet i
cs
hel psi ndet ermi ningt hegenet ic
const itution/genot ypeofanor gani sm
i
ii)Whatar emul tipleal l
eles?
asetofmor et hant woal lelest hatmaydet ermi nea
char act er
exampl ei sbl oodgr oupwhi chcanbedet ermi nedby
anyt wooft hr eeal l
el esi .
e.A, BandO
i
v )Expl aint hei nher itanceofABObl oodgr oups
i nhumansbl oodgr oupsar edet ermi nedbyt hr ee
all
el esi .
e.A, BandO
i tisonl ypossi blet ohav et wogenesatat i
me
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genesAandBar eco- domi nantwhi l

egeneOi s
recessi v
et ogenesAandB
Giveawor kedexampl eusi ngpar entswithhet erozygous
bloodgr oupsAOandBO
ii
) Expl ai
nt hei nheritanceofRhesusf act or( Rh)in
humanbei ngs
i nhumansbl oodi sei therRhposi ti
veorRhnegat iv
e
peopl ewhohav eRhant i
genar eRh(+v e)whi l
e
thosewi t
houtRhant igeni nt heirbl
oodar eRh( -ve)
Rh( +v e)isduet oadomi nantgenewhi let he
recessi v
egenecausesl ackofRhf actor .Whena
personwhoi shomozy gousdomi nantmar ri
esa
personwhoi shomozy gousr ecessivet her esultis
asshownbel ow
Letthegenef ordomi nantRhf actorbeRwhi legenef or
recessiveber
ii
i) Howi ssexdet er minedi nhumanbei ngs?
t herear etwosexchr omosomesi nhumans, xandy
mal esar exyandf emal esar exx
i nfemal esal lov ahav exchr omosome
i nmal es50%ofsper mscont ainxchr omosomes
while50%ofsper mscont ainychr omosome
whenasper m cont ainingxchr omosomef useswi t
h
anov um t hisresul tsint oagi rl
whenasper m cont ainingychr omosomef useswi t
h
anov um t her esultisaboy
anexampl ei sgiv enbel ow
g)i)Whatdoest het erml i
nkagemean?
-Thesear egeneswhi choccurt oget herona
chromosomeandar epassedt oof fspri
ngwi thoutbei ng
separated
i
i)Def i
net heterm sex- l
inkedgenes
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genescar ri
edi nt hesexchr omosomet hatar e
transmi tt
edal ongwi thgenest hatdet erminesex
i
ii)Whati smeantbyt het er m sexl i
nkage?
genesar elocat edont hesexchr omosome
t heyar etransmi ttedal ongwi ththoset hat
det ermi nesex
i
v )Namet hesex- li
nkedt raitsinhumans
col ourbl i
ndness
haemophi li
a
Hai ryear s.pinna, nose
Bal dness
Duchenemuscul ardy strophy( DMD)muscul ar
wast i
ng
v)Giveanexampl eofasexl i
nkedt raitinhumanson:
YChr omosome
t uftofhai rspr out ingf rom pi nna/bal dness
XChr omosome
col ourbl i
ndness/ haemophi li
a
vi)I
nhumansr ed- greencol ourbl indnessi scausedbya
recessiv egeneC, whi chi ssex- l
inked.Anor mal man
mar r
iedt oacar rierwomant ransmi t
st het raittohis
chil
dren.Showt hepossi blegenot ypesoft hechi l
dren.
LetCr epr esentt hegenef ornor mal colourv i
sion
(dominant )
Letcr epr esentt hegenef orcol ourbl i
ndness
Parental phenot y peNor manmanxcar ri
erwoman
iv) St atet heimpor tanceofsexl i
nkage
possi blet odet er mi nesexofdayol dchi cks
v) Haemophi li
ai sduet oar ecessiv egene.Thegene
i
ssex- l
inkedandl ocat edont hexchr omosome.
Thef igurebel owshowsswor nof fspringfrom
phenot ypical l
ynor mal par ents
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Whatar et hepar ental genot ypes?

h
XYandXX
Wor koutt hegenot ypesoft heof f spr i
ng
h)i)Whati smut ati
on?
suddenchangei nt hest ruct ur eofDNAata
par ti
cul arl ocus/chr omosome/ gen
i
i)Descr i
behowmut at i
onsar ise
mut ationsar i
seduet oal terat ionsi nnor mal number
ofchr omosomes
changei napor tionofachr omosomeaf fectingone
ormor egenes
bychr omosomal aber r
at i
one. g.
dlel t
ion/ dupl i
cation/ subst itut ion/ i
nver si
on/ t
ransloc
ation/ cr ossingov er
causedbymut ageni cagent se. g.r
adi ati
on( x-rays,
ultrav ioletl i
ght,gammar ays)andchemi calse. g.
must ar dgas/ colchi ci nes
i
ii
)St atet hef actorsthatmaycausemut ation
t hesear echemi cal sandr adi at ions
Radi ations Ef fect s
X-ray s gene/ chromosomeal terati
on
Ultrav ioletr ays st ruct ur aldistorti
onofDNA
Chemi cal s Ef fect
-colchi cines pr event sspi ndlef ormat ion
Cy cl
amat e chr omosomeaber r
ations
Must ardgas chr omosomesaber r
ations
Nitrousaci d adeni nei nDNAi s
deami nat edsobehav esl ikeguani ne
Acr i
doneor ange addi ti
onandr emov alof
basesofDNA
For mal dehy de
i
v )St atet hechar act er isti
csofmut ati
ons
ar isesuddenl y
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ar eunpr edictabl e

r andom
gener al l
yr are
maybr eedt r ue
somear edesi rabl ewhi l
eot hersar el ethal
v)Expl ainchr omosomal mutat i
on
-Changei nnat ure, structureornumberof
chromosomes
vi)Expl ainhowt hef ollowingt ypesofchr omosomal
mut at ionsoccur
Dupl icat ion
asect ionofachr omosomei sr epeat ed/repli
cates
t her ef oregenesar erepeat ed
Inversi on
occur swhenchr omat idsbr eakat2pl acesand
whenr ejoiningt hemi ddlepi ecer otatesandj oinsin
ani nv ertedposi tion
Delet ion
por t
ionofachr omosomei sl eftoutaf teritbreaks
of f
al ter snumberandsequenceofgenes
Transl ocat ion
occur swhenasect i
onofachr omat idbreaksof f
andbecomesat t
achedt oanot herchr omat i
dof
anot herchr omosome
Non- di sjunt ion
Failureofhomol ogouschr omosomes/ sisterchromat i
ds
tosepar ate/ segr egat edur ingmei osis
Poly ploi dy
wher enumberofchr omosomesdoubl eortri
ple
benef icial i
npl antsduet othef ol l
owi ng
i ncr easedy ields/hy bri
dv igour /
/ heterosis
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r esist ancet opest s

ear l
ymat ur i
ty
r esist ancet odr ought
r esist ancet odi seases
vi
i)Whatar egenemut ati
ons?
anal ter ationi nt hest ruct ureofagene
i
) Expl ainhowt hef ollowi ngoccurdur i
nggene
mut ati
on
Delet
ion
somebases/ nucl eotidesofagenear eremov ed
I
nv er
sion
theor derofsomebases/ nucl eotidesofagenei s
rever sed
I
nsertion
addi ti
onofabasebet weent woexi sti
ngbases
Substitution
apor tionofagenei sr eplacedbyanewpor t
ion
i
i) Namet hedi sor der si nhumanscausedbygene
mut ati
on
al binism
si cklecel l anaemi a
achondr opl asia/ chondor dy storphicdwar f
ism
haemophi lia
col ourbl indness
pheny lket onur ia
I. St at ethepr act i
cal appl icationsofgenet ics
i. Br eedi ngpr ogrammes( research)
hi ghy ielding/ hy bridv igour /het erosis
r esist ancet odi seases
r esist ancet odr ought /sal init
y
ear l
ymat ur i
ng
ii. Genet icengi neer ing
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genet icmani pul at iont opr oducedesi red

char act er i
st ics
ii
i. Law
-l
egal quest ionsofpat ernityknowl edgeofbl oodgr oups
orbloodt ransf usi on
i
v)Genet i
ccounsel ing
ai medatr educi nghar mf ul t
rai tse.g.al binism,
congeni tal i
di ot s, colourbl i
ndnesse. t.c
v)Ot hers
-Pre-sexdet er mi nat ion
Under standi nghumanev olut i
onandor i
gi nofot her
species.
2.a)i )Expl ai nt hemeani ngofev oluti
on
agr adual changei nlivingor gani smsf rom si mpl e
lif
ef or mst omor ecompl exf or msov eral ong
per iodoft i
me.
i
i)Differ ent i
at eor gani cev olut i
onf rom chemi cal
evolutionast heor iesofor iginofl ife
or gani cev olut ionr eferst ot heemer genceof
pr esentf or msofor gani smsgr adual lyfrom pr e-
exi stingf or ms( someofwhi chnol ongerexi st)
chemi cal ev olut ionexpl ainst heor i
ginofl ifeas
hav i
ngoccur redwhensi mpl echemi cal compounds
react edt of or mt hesi mpl estl ifeforms
i
ii
)Whati sspeci al cr eat i
on?
mai nt ainst hatt hewhol euni v erseandal lli
v i
ng
or gani smscamei ntobei ngduet otheactofa
super nat ural bei ng
b)Discusst hev ar iouski ndsofev idencef orev olution
i
) Fossi ls
f ossi lsar er emai nsofor gani smspr eser v edi n
nat ur allyoccur ringmat er i
alsf ormanyy ear s
t heygi veev idenceoft ypesofpl ants/ animal st hat
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exi
stedatcertaingeologi
calage/
longago/mill
i
ons
ofyearsago
giv
esev i
denceof
morphologi
cal/anatomical
/str
uct
uralchangesthat
havetakenplaceov eralongperi
odoftimee.g.
humanskull,l
egofhor se
i
i
) Compar at i
v eanat omy
gi vesev idenceofr el
at ionshi pamong
organi sms/ giv esev i
denceofacommonancest r
yof
agr oupofor gani sms
or gani smshav esi mi l
arst ruct ures/or gans
perf ormi ngt hesamef unct ione. g.di gest ive
syst em/ur inar ysy stem/ ner v oussy stem/ vest i
gial
struct ur esandv ertebr atehear t
Di ver gencewher ethebasi cst ructur alfor mi s
modi fiedt oser vedi f
f erentf unct i
onse. g.v ertebrate
forelimb/ beakst r
uctur ei nbi rds/ birdsf eet/ partsof
aflower .Thesear ecal ledhomol ogousst r
uct ures
homol ogousst ructureshav eacommonembr yonic
ori
gi nbutar emodi fi
edt oper form di fferent
funct ionse. g.t hepent adact yllimb
adapt i
v er adi ationi sasi tuat ionwher eor gani sm
hav eahomol ogousst r
uct ur ewi thcommon
embr yoni cor iginwhi chi smodi fiedt oper f
or m
dif
f erentf unct ionst oadaptor ganismst odi fferent
ecol ogi cal niches/ habi tatse. g.beaksofDar winian
fi
nches( bi rds)
Conv er gencei swher edi ffer entst ructur esar e
modi fiedt oper form asi mi larf unctione. g.wi ngsof
bir
dsandi nsect s/eyesofhumansandoct opuses.
Thesear ecal ledanal ogousst ructur es
Vest igial struct uresar egr eat lyreducedi nsi zeand
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hav eceasedt of unct i

one. g.human
appendi x /caeci um/ cocci xi nhumans, wingsofki wi
(fl
ightlessbi rd) ,pr esenceofhi ndl imbpadi npy t
hon,
haltersini nsect s,humanhai rnictitatingmembr ane
i
nhumaney e, humanearmuscl e, pelv i
cgi rdlein
whal eandt hi rddi gitofwi ngofbi rd.
i
i
i) Compar ativeembr yology
someembr yosofdi f
ferentani mal sappearv ery
similarthusshowi ngr elationshi pandpossi bil
it
yof
acommonancest r y
e. g.differentcl assesofv ertebr atesl ar vaeof
annel i
daandmol l
uscaar esi mi l
ar( tocopher e)
i
v) Compar ativeser ology /phy siology
t heseshowbi ochemi cal andi mmunol ogical
compar isonsofbl oodgr oups/ component st oshow
i
mmunol ogi cal si milarit
iesoft i
ssuest heref ore
showi ngr elat ednessofdi ffer entor gani sms
e. g.ant i
genant ibodyr eact ions, humanbl ood
groups/ Rhf act orr eveal somephy logeni c
relati
onshi pamongor gani sms/ commonancest ry
v
) Geogr aphi cal distribut i
on
or gani smsdi fferi nv ar i
ousgeogr aphi cal regions
pr esentcont i
nent sar et houghtt ohav ebeenal arge
l
andmassj oi ned
together /pangea/ Eur asia/ Gondwanal and
pr esentcont i
nent sdr ift
edapar tf rom onel and
mass/ cont i
nent al dri
ft
asar esultofcont inent al driftisolat i
onof
organi smsoccur redbr i
ngaboutdi ff
er entpat t
erns
ofev olution
or gani smsi neachcont inentev olvedal ongdi f
ferent
l
ineshenceemer genceofnew
species/ diver gence/ conv ergence
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Exampl es
mar supi alsinAust ralia
i l
lama, j
aguar ,pant heri nS.Amer i
ca
l i
on, camel inAf rica
t igeri nAsi a
vi) Cel lbiology( cy t
ol ogy )
st ructuresandf unct ioningofcel lsar esi milar
occur renceofor ganel lese.g.mi tochondr i
ai nall
cel ls/bot hpl antandani mal cel ls
t hesepoi ntatacommonancest ry
c)i)St atet heev olut i
onar ychar act er i
st i
cst hatadopt
humanbei ngst ot heenv ironment
-Brain
-Eyes
-Uprightpost ure/ bipedal locomot i
on
-prehensi blear m/ hand
-Speech
i
i)Stat et heway si nwhi chHomosapi ensdi ffersf r
om
Homohabi li
s
st andi ngupr i
ght /er ectpost ur e
i nt ell
ect ualcapaci ty /highert hi nkingcapaci ty/bigger
br ain/ hi
gherbr aincapaci ty
communi cat iont hroughl anguage/ speech
d)i)Expl ainLar mar ck’ st heoryofev oluti
on
-I nher i
tanceofacqui redchar act eristi
cs/ environment
inducespr oduct i
onofaf av or ablet raitwhichi st hen
inher ited
i
i)Expl ainwhyLamar ck’ st heor yofev olutionisnot
accept edbybi ologi st st oday
-ev idencedoesnotsuppor tLamar ck’stheor y
-acqui redchar act erist i
csar enoti nher i
ted/inherited
char acteristicsar ef oundi nr epr oduct ivecellsonl y
i
ii
)Expl ainDar win’st heor yofev ol ut i
on
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-i nher i
t anceofgenet icallyacqui redchar acteristics
-achar act erhappenst oappearspont aneousl y
whi chgi vesadv ant aget oanor gani sm t herefor e
adapt edt heni nher i
tedt hr oughnat ural sel
ect i
on
e)i)Whati snat ural select ion?
-Or ganismswi thcer tainchar acteristicsar efavour edby
theenv i
r onment
Suchor gani smst endt osur vi
v eandpr oducev iable
offspr i
ng
Other snotf av oredar eel imi nat edf rom subsequent
gener ations
i
i)Wi thexampl es, explai nhownat ural sel ect i
ont akes
place
-or gani sm wi thcer tainchar acter i
st icsar efavor edby
theirenv ironment
-suchor gani smst endt osur viveandpr oducev i
able
offspr ing
-ot her snotf av oredar eel imi natedf rom subsequent
gener ations
-ast heenv i
ronment al condi tionschanget hesur vi
val
valueofachar actermayal terwi tht imesot hat
char act er i
st i
cswhi chwer efav or edmaynol onger
hav eadv ant ageandot herchar act er smayt hen
becomef avor able
-i faf av or abl echar act erisi nherited, thenof fspr ing
producegener ati
onswhi char ebet teradapt edt o
surv ivei napopul at i
on
-mor eof fspr i
ngar epr oducedt hancansur vivewhi ch
resul tsi nst ruggl ef orsur v i
val
-t hef ittestsur v ive
i
ii)Stat et headv ant agesofnat ural sel ect iont o
organi sms
-assi stt oel imi natedi sadv antageous
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char act er i
st ics/ perpet uat esadv ant ageous
char act er i
st ics
-al l
owsbet teradapt edor gani smst osur viveadv erse
changesi nt heenv ironment /lessadapt ed
or gani smsar eel i
mi nat ed
i
v )Stat et heway si nwhi chsexual repr oduct ioni s
i
mpor tanti nt heev ol utionofpl ant sandani mal s
-br ingsaboutusef ul var i
at i
ons/ desirabl echar act ers
-v ariationsmakeof fspr ingbet teradapt edf or
sur v i
v al/ mor er esist antt odi seases
-mayl eadt oor igi nofnewspeci es
v)Expl aint hesi gni ficanceofmut at ioninev olution
-Mut at i
onbr ingaboutv ariat ionwhi chcanbei nher i
ted
-Someoft hesev ariationsar eadv ant ageoust ot he
organi sm
-Other sar edi sadv ant ageous
-Theadv ant ageousv ariationsf av ourt heor gani sm t o
compet ebet teri nt hest ruggl ef orsur vival
-Thisr esul tsi nt oamor eadapt edor gani sm toi ts
environmentornewspeci es/ var i
et ies
-Thosewi thdi sadv ant ageouschar act erswi llbe
discri
mi nat edagai nstt her ef oreel i
mi natedf rom t he
popul ation/ deat h/ per i
sh
vi)Plainwhyi ti sonl ymut ationsi ngenesofgamet es
thatinf l
uenceev ol ut i
on
-gamet esf or mt henewof fspr ing
vii
)Howwoul dy oupr ov et hatev olut ioni sst i
lltaki ng
place?
-r esi stanceofor gani sm t oant ibiotics, pesticides
anddr ugs
-newv ar i
et iesofbact eriaar er esi stantt ocer tain
ant i
biot icssuchaspeni cil
lin
-housef liesandmosqui toesar er esistantt oDDT
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vii
)Expl ainwhysomebact eriadev elopr esi stanceto
adr ugaf tert heyhav ebeesubj ectedt oi tfor
somet i
me
-bact eriamut ates/ dev elopsanewst rain/chemi cal
composi ti
oni sal ter edhencei sabl et opr oduce
enzy mes/ chemi cal swhi chdegr adet hedr ug
render ingi tnon- suscept iblet ot hedr ug
-t henewst raini sf av our edbysel ectionpr essur e/
nat ur alsel ect i
on
f)Howhasi ndust rial mel aninism i .e.pepper edmot h
cont ribut edt owar dst hemechani sm ofev ol ution
-Thi si sanexampl eofnat ural sel ect ion
-Thepepper edmot hexi stsi nt wodi st i
nctf or ms, t
he
speckl edwhi tef orm( nor mal f orm)andamel ani cf or
m
(thebl ack/ dar k)
-Theyusual lyr estonl eav esandbar ksoft reest hat
offercamouf l
agef orpr ot ect i
on
-Or iginal l
yt he“ speckl edwhi te”f or m pr edomi nat edthe
unpol lut edar eaofEngl and
-Thi scol our ationof fer edpr otect ionagai nstpr edat ory
birds
-Duet oi ndust rial pol l
ut iont reebar kshav ebl ackened
wi thsoot
-Thewhi tef orm under wentmut ation
-Abl ackv ar i
et y/mut antemer gedsuddenl ybymut ati
on
-Ithadsel ect iveadv ant ageov ert hewhi t
ef ormst hat
wer epr edat eduponi nt hei ndust rial areas
-Thespeckl edwhi tef or mi sabundanti nar easwi t
hout
soot /smoke
3.a)i )Def i
nei rritability, stimul usandr esponse
i
r r
itabi l
ity
-alsocal ledsensi ti
vity
-Responsi venesst ochangei nenv ironment
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Sti
mul us
Achangei nt heenv ironmentofor gani sm whichcauses
changei nor gani sm’ sact ivi
ty
Response
-changei nact i
vityofanor gani sm causedbya
stimul us
i
i)Statei mpor tanceofi rri
tabilit
yt oliv i
ngorganisms
-Adj ust i
ngt oenv ir
onment al condi t
ions.
Sensi t
ive/ defect /respondi ng
iii
) Li sttheexampl esofext ernal sti
mulito
or gani sms
-ai r/oxy gen( aero)
-l i
ght (phot o)
-osmot i
cpr essur e( osmo)
-cur rent( Rheo)
-chemi cal concent rat i
on( chemo)
-\ wat er/
moi sture( hy dro)
-Touch/ cont act( hapt o/ t
higmo)
-Gr av i
ty/soi l(geo)
-Temper atur e( t
her mo)
b)i)Whatar et act i
cr esponses?
-r esponsei nwhi chwhol eor gani sm oritsmotil
e
par tsmov ee. g.gamet e
i
i)Whatcausest act icresponses?
-causedbyuni directional st i
mul us
-usual l
ydoesn’ ti nvolv egr owt h
-r esponsei sei therposi tiv
eornegat i
ve
-namedaccor dingt osour ceofst imulus
-e. gphot ot axis, aerot axis,chemot axi
s
i
ii
)St atet hei mpor tanceoft acticr esponset o:
Member sofki ngdom pr otista
-mov et owar dsf av orabl eenv i
ronment /moveaway
from unf av orabl eenv i
ronment
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-mov et owar dst heirpr ey /food

Microscopi cpl ant s
-escapei nj uriousst i
mul i
/seekf avorablehabi tats
iv) Namet het ypeofr esponseexhi bitedby :
Euglenawhent heyswi mt owar dsthesour ceofl i
ght
-phot otaxi s
-sper mswhent heyswi mt owar dst heov um
-chemot axi s
v ) St at et headv ant agesoft acticresponsest o
organi sms
-t oav oi dunf av orabl eenv ironment /inj
ur iousst imul i
-escapef rom pr edat ors
-t oseekf av or ableenv i
r onment
-t oseekf orf ood/ prey
c)i)Definet het ermt ropism
-gr owt hmov ementofpl ant sinr esponset oext ernal
unilater al/uni directional stimul i
i
i)Explaint hev arioust y pesoft ropism inpl ant s
Phototropi sm
-gr owt hmov ement sofpl antshoot si nr esponset o
unilater al sour cesofl ight
-t het i
poft heshoot spr oduceauxi nsdownt he
shoot
-l i
ghtcausesauxi nst omi gratet oout ersi de/darker
sidecausi nggr owt hont hesi deawayf rom light
hencegr owt hcur vaturet owar dssour ceofl i
ght
rootsar enegat ivelyphot ot rophic
Geotropism
-r esponseofr oot s/par tsofapl antt ot hedi r
ection
offor ceofgr avity
-aux i
nsgr owt owar dst hedi rectionoff or ceof
grav i
tycausi ngposi t
ivegeot r
opi sm inr oot swhi l
e
shootgr owsawayf rom f orceofgr avity( negativel
y
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geot
rophi
c)
Thimot ropi sm/ Hapt otropi sm

-gr owt hr esponseofpl antwheni ncontactwi than
obj ect
-cont actwi thsuppor tcausesmi grati
onofauxi nst o
out ersi decausi ngf ast ergr owt hont hesideaway
from cont actsur f
ace
-t hiscausest endr il
s/ stem t ot winar oundasuppor t
Hy dr
ot ropi sm
-gr owt hmov ementofr oot sinr esponset ouni lateral
sour ceofwat er/ moi sture
-t her ootgr owst owar dst hesour ceofwat er/
posi ti
v elyhy drotropi cwhi l
el eavesar enegat ivel
y
hy dr ot ropic
chemot ropi sm
-gr owt hmov ementofpar tsofpl antt ouni
later al
sour ceofchemi cals
-t hechemi calsf orm agr adientbet weent wor egions
e.g.pol lent ubegr owi ngt owar dstheov arythr ough
thest yle
i
ii
)St atet heway sinwhi cht ropismsar ei mportantt o
plant
s
-exposel eav es/ shoot si nposi t
ionsf ormaxi mum
absor ptionofsunl ightf orphot osynthesis
-enabl esr oot sofpl antst oseek/ look/searchf or
wat er
-enabl espl antst ems/ t
endr i
lstoobt ainmechani cal
suppor tespeci al l
yt hoset hatlackwoodyst ems
-enabl esr oot stogr owdeepi ntothesoi lf
or
anchor age
-enabl espol l
ent ubegr owt oembr yosact of acil
itate
fertilizat ion
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i
v )Explai
nthedifferencesbetweent r
opicandt acti
c
responses
Tropisms Taxes
-gr owthcurvaturein -l ocomotoryresponse
response -f ast
-sl ow -ext er
nalinf
luence
-i nfl
uencedby
hormones
d)Thedi agram belowr epr
esentsgrowingseedl i
ngs
whichwer esubjectedt ounil
ater
alli
ghtatthebegi nni
ng
ofanexper i
ment
R
i) St atetheresult
sofP, QandRaf t
er5day s
-Pwi l
lbend/growt owar dsl i
ght
-Qwi l
lremainstraight/hav eli
t t
leornogr owth
-Rwi l
lremain/growst r
ai ght/growupwar ds
ii
) Accountf ory ourresul t
sin( i)above
P-Growt hsubstance/growt hhor mone/ I
AA/auxinare
producedbyt hestem tip
-t heymov e(downwar dsandgetdi st
ri
buted)tothe
sideawayf r
om l i
ghtwher etheycauser apid/more
growth/cel
ldivi
sion/elongat ionthatresult
sin
bending
Q-Sour ceofauxinhasbeenr emov ed
R-Theauxi nscannotbeaf fectedbyl ightbecausethe
ti
phasbeencov ered
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ii
i)I ft het i
nf oi
lwer er emov edf rom t het ipof
seedl i
ngR, whatr esul t
swoul dbeobser vedaf ter
twoday s
-i twill bend/growt owar dsl ight
iv) St atet heexpect edr esultsaf ter3dayi sifthebox
wer eremov ed
-al lseedl ingswi l
lgr owst raight/upwar ds
e)Inanexper imenttoi nv est i
gat eacer tainaspectof
plantresponse, aseedl ingwaspl acedhor i
zont allyas
showni ndi agram Ibel ow.Af tersev enday st he
appear anceoft heseedl i
ngwasasshowni ndi agr am 2
Accountf orthecur vatur eoft heshootandr ootaf terthe
sevenday s
i) Shoot
-aux i
nsaccumul ateont hel owersi deoft heseedl ing
duet ogr avi
ty
-hi ghconcent r
ati
onofauxi nsi nshootst imul ates
fastergr owt hcausi ngmor eel ongat i
onont hel ower
sidet hant heuppersi dehencecur vat ureoccur s
upwar ds
ii
) Root
-t hehi ghconcent rationofauxi nsinhi bit
sgr owt h
hencet heuppersi dewi thl essauxi nsgr owsf ast
er
thant helowersi det her efor ethecur v atureoccur s
downwar ds
f
)Whati setiol
ati
on?
-phenomenonexhi bi
tedbyplant
swhengrownin
darkness
-suchpl antsarepaleyel
l
owduet oabsenceof
chlorophyll
,havesmalll
eaves,l
ong
stems/ hypocotyl
eandslenderst
ems
-plantsexhibitet
iol
ati
ontoreachli
ght
/obtai
nli
ght
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-t hisi sasur vivalresponse

3.a)i )Whati scoor dinationi nani mal s
4.-Thel inki ngt oget herofal l phy siologicalact i
viti
es
thatoccuri nthebodysot hatt heyt akepl aceatt he
rightt i
meandi nthecor rectpl ace
i
i)Namet hemai nsy stemsf orcoor dinat i
oni nanimal s
-Ner voussy st em/ sensor ysy stem
-Endocr ine( hor monal system)
i
ii)Listt hecomponent soft hemammal i
ansensor y
system
-Cent ral ner voussy stem ( CNS) , brain&spi nal cord
-Per i
pher al ner voussy stem ( PNS)cr anialandspi nal
nerves
-Senseor gans
-Aut onomi cner voussy stem ( ANS)ner vef i
bersand
gangl i
a
i
v ).
Expl aint het ermsr ecept ors,conduct orsand
effector s
-Recept or sar est r
uct urest hatdet ectst imulii.
e.sense
organs
-Conduct orst ransmi timpul sesf rom r ecept orst o
effector se. g.neur ons
-Effector sar et her espondi ngpar tse. g.muscl es, glands
v)Whatar et hef unct ionsoft hecent ral nervoussy stem?
-prov i
desaf astmeansofcommuni cationbet ween
receptor sandef fector s
-coor dinat est heact i
v i
ti
esoft hebody
vi)Statet hedi fferencesbet weensomat icand
autonomi csy stemsofper i
pher al ner voussy stem
-Somat ici sconcer nedwi thcont rolli
ngt heconsci ousor
voluntar yact ionsoft hebodyi .
e.ski n,bones, jointsand
skeletal muscl es
-theaut onomi c( automat i
c)ner voussy stem cont rols
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i
nvol
unt aryacti
onsofi nt
ernalor
gans,digesti
vesyst
em,
bl
oodv essels,cardiacmuscl esandglandularpr
oducts.
b)i
)Whati saneur one?
thebasi cunitoft henervoussyst
em
alsocal l
edner vecell
conduct simpul ses
includemoni torsensor yandrel
ayneur ons
i
i
)Namet hepar t
sofat ypical neuroneandst atethe
f
unct i
onsofeachpar t
cel lbody /cent roncont ainsnucleusandcy toplasm
axont ransmi tsimpul sesawayf r
om cellbody
dendr itesr elay simpul sesacr ossadjacentneur ons
my eli
nsheat hi nsulatesaxonandspeedsup
tr
ansmi ssionofi mpul ses
schwancel l
sf ormsmy el
insheathandai din
nutri
tionandr egenerat ionofaxon
nodeofr anv ieroccurbet weenschwancel ls,where
axoni snotcov ered,speedsupi mpulse
tr
ansmi ssion
ni ssil
sgr anul escont ainmi tochondri
athatprov ide
cellbodywi thener gyf ormet aboli
cprocess
i
) Descr ibet hest ructur eandf uncti
onofamot or
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neur
one
motorneuronerel
aysimpul
sesfr
om CNS
(
brain/
spinalcor
d)toeff
ect
ors(muscl
es/
glands)
i
i
) Descr ibethest r
uctureandfunct
ionofsensory
neur
one
sensoryneur onerelaysimpul
sesfrom r
eceptor
s
(
senseor gans)toCNS
i
i
i) St atestr
ucturaldif
ferencesbet weenmot orand
sensoryneurons
Cel lbodyinmot orneuronei sterminal(
attheend)
andinsidecentralnervoussy stem.
Cel lbodyinsensor yneuronei stermi
nalbuthas
axonatbot hends( bi
polar)
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i
v) Descri
bethest
ruct
ureandf
unct
ionofar
elay
neurone
al socal led

i
nt ermedi ate/
inter
nuncial
/associ
ate/connect
or/
int
e
rneur one
locat ei nsidecentral
nervoussystem andspinal
cor d
usual lylackmy eli
nsheath
c)Statet hef uncti
onsoft hemajorpartsofthehuman
brai
n
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i
)Cerebrum
cal l
edf orebrai
n
occupi esmostoft hebrain
consi st soff ourl
obeseachwi thspeci fi
cf unct
ion
tempor al lobecontrol
st astesmell hearinglearni
ng
andmemor y
par t
ial lobecont r
olssensor youtputandt ouch
occi pitallobecontrolsvision,motorout putand
speech
front allobecont r
olsper sonali
ty,l
earningt hought
andspeech
alsohaspar t
scall
edt halamusandhy pothalamus
thalamushel pstosortsensor yinformat ion
hy pot halamuscont rolshunger,hear tbeatbody
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temper atur eandaggr essi on

i
i)Midbr ain
qui t esmal linhumans
r elaycent r ef oraudi oandv isualinformat ion
al soi nv olv esi nsomesi ght,hearingandor i
entat
ion
responses
i
) Hi ndbr ai n
consi stsofcel lebralandmedul laobl ongat a
cer ebellum i sr esponsi blef orcoor dinatingimpulses,
post ureandbal ance, mot orcoor dinat i
onand
muscl et one
medul l
aobl ongat acont r
olshear tbeat ,blood
pressur ebr eat hingr at
e, coughi ngandsneezi ng
a)i)Whati sr eflexact ion?
anaut omat icr esponset oanext ernal stimuluse.g.
sneezi ngorwi t hdrawinghandf rom ahotobj ect
i
i)Descr ibear eflexact i
ont hatwi l
lleadt ot he
wit
hdr awal ofahandf rom ahotobj ect
Recept orsi nt heski nr espondt ost i
mul i.Are
stimul ated
ani mpul sei st ransmi t
t edt hrought hesensor y
neur one, acr ossasy napset othecent ralnervous
syst em ( whi temat ter)
, throught her elayneur one
i
nt ogr eymat ter ,
thent ot hemot orneur oneand
fi
nal lytot heef fectmuscl ewhi chcont racts
t hehandi st henwi thdrawn
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i
ii
)Explainhowani mpulseistransmitt
edacr ossthe
synapse(gap)
impul seini
ti
atesrel
easeoft r
ansmittersubstance
acetyl
choli
neattheendoft hesensor yneurone
acet yl
choli
nediff
usesacrosst hesynapseand
generatesanimpulseint
henextneur one
i
i
) Br iefl
ydescr i
bethet ransmi ssi
onofaner vous
i
mpul seacr ossaneur o-muscularjunction
impul sear rivesatsy nopt i
cknobandcausesv esi
cle
tomov et ot hepr e-
synapt icmembr ane
v esi cledi schar gestransmi tt
ersubstancei nto
sy napt i
ccl ef t
t ransmi t
t ersubst ance/acet y
lcholi
nedi ff
uses
acr osst hecl eftandat t
achest opost-synapt
ic
membr ane
t hemembr anei sdepolarized,generatingtheacti
on
pot ent i
al
i
i
i) Whatar ethef unctionsofasy napse?
al lowst ransmi ssi
onofner veimpulsesf rom
neur onet oneur one
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ensur esner vei mpul sest ravel inonl yonedi rect

ion
i nthebr aint heyst or ei nf ormat i
on/ memor y
b)i
)Whati sacondi t
ionedr eflex?
Ar esponsecausedbyauni lat eralstimul us
(associ atedst i
mul us)whi chsubst itutest henor mal
stimul us
i
i)Explainacondi tionedr ef lex
i ti
saut omat ic
i ti
nv ol vest hespi nal cor d
i ti
susual lylear nede. g.wr it
ing, cycli
ng, danci ng
i ti
nv ol vest hei nter act ionofhi ghlyspeci alized
cent er soft hebr ainwi t
hal ar genumberofneur one
necessar yt obr i
ngaboutcondi t
ioning
exampl eisexper iment scar riedoutbyPav l
ovusi ng
dogs
i
ii)Compar easi mpl er eflexact i
onwi t
hacondi ti
oned
refl
ex
Simpler ef l
ex Condi ti
onedr efl
ex
i ndependentof dependenton
exper ience exper ience
onest imul ust o bot hsubst i
tuteand
evoker esponse or i
ginal refl
exev oke
somesensor yand response
mot orneur onsused sensor ycomponent
r efl
exi ssi mpl e replacedbutmot or
remai nsunchanged
r eflexi smodi fi
ed
c)i
)Whatar eendocr inegl ands?
duct lessgl andst hatpr oducehor monesi nani mal s
hor monesar echemi cal subst anceswhi chhel pto
coor di natet hef unct i
onsoft hebody
i
i)Statet hef unct ionsofhor monesi nani mal s
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regul
ategrowthanddev el
opment
control
behav i
orduri
ngbreedi
ng
properfunct
ioningofcel
ls
regul
atemetabol i
cacti
vi
ti
es
i
ii
)Namet hemainendocrinegl ands,t
heirsecr etions
andf uncti
onsi
nthehumanbody
Gland Hormone Funct ions
Thy roid Thyroxi
ne Increasesr ateof
met abol i
sm
Par athyroi
d Par athyr
oidhor mone Regul at es
calci um and
phosphat el evels
Pituitary Hormonegr owth Regul at egr owt h
ofbody
Gonadotrophi c Stimul at est he
hormone dev el opmentof
mal eandf emal e
sexor gans
Lactogeni
chor mone St imul at es
(pr
olacti
n) secr et ionofmi lk
afterchi l
dbi r
th
Thyrotr
opic -pr oper
hormone(TSH) funct ioni ngof
thyroi d
gland/ thy roxine
product ion
Adrenocorthicotropi
c -st i
mul at es
hormone( ACTH) releaseofadr enal
cor texhor mone
Oxytoci
n r egul ates
bl ood
pr essur e
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st imul ates

smoot h
muscl es
st imul ates
cont raction
ofut er us
dur i
ng
childbi rt
h
ai dsi nf l
ow
ofmi l
kf rom
mammar y
glands
Foll
icl
est i
mulati
ng causes
hormone( FSH) mat ur ation
ofeggi n
femal es
st imul ates
sper m
product i
oni n
mal es
Vasopr essi
n(ADH) -r egulateswat er
Antidureti
chormone balanceby
ki
dney s
Adr
enal Adrenaline f or
(epi
nephr i
ne) emer gency
pr epar es
bodyt ocope
upwi th
stress
Aldosterone -mai ntains
balanceofsal t
andwat erin
bl
ood
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Cor
ti
sone breaksdown
stored
proteinsto
ami noaci ds
aidsin
breakdown
ofadi pose
ti
ssue
regulates
sugarl evelin
blood
prevent s
i
nf l
ammat ion
Sexhor
mones suppl ements
sex
hormones
producedby
gonads
promot es
dev elopment
ofsexual
char acter
ist
i
cs
Pancr
ease I
nsul
i
n regul at
es
l
ev el ofsugar
i
nbl ood
enabl esli
ver
tost ore
sugar
Gl
ucagons regul at
es
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l
ev el ofsugar
i
nbl ood
Ovar i
es Oestrogen causes
sexual
secondar y
char acteristi
csi nf emal es
pr epar es
uterusf or
pregnancy
Progester
one gr owt hof
mucusl ining
ofut erus
mai ntains
uterusdur ing
pregnancy
Testes Androgens(t
estoster
o causes
ne) secondar y
sexual
char acteristi
csi nmal es
Stomach Gastri
n st i
mul ates
cells rel
easeof
gast ri
cjui ce
Int
est i
nal Secreti
n st i
mul ate
cells rel
easeof
pancr eat i
c
j
uice
iv)Givethediff
erencesbetweennervousand
endocr i
ne(hormonal)communi cat
ion
Ner vous Hormonal (
endocr ine)
Responseconf inedto Responsemor e
effectororgans(l
ocali
zed wi despr
ead( v
ar i
ous
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targets) targets)
Speedofr esponsei s Responsel essrapid
rapid
Ner vousimpul se Hor monest r
ansferr
ed
thro\\ughner ves/nerv
e throughbl ood
cell/neur
ons
Dur ati
onofr esponsei s Per si
stforlong
shor t
Speedoft ransmissionis Speedoft ransmissi
onis
rapid slower
Transmi ssioniselectri
cal Transmi ssionischemical
v)Statetheeffectsofov ersecr
eti
onandunder
secretionofadrenal i
neandt hyr
oxinei nhumans
Hormone Ov ersecr et i
on Undersecr etion
Adrenaline t hin lowbl ood
toneless pressur e
muscl es inabi lityto
hi ghbl ood withst andst ress
pressur e f ati
gue
weakbones muscul ar
obesi ty weakness
ear lyonset muscl ewast ing
ofsexual incr easeddar k
devel opme pigment ati
onof
nt skin
Thyroxine i ncr eased cr etinism( r
etarded
met abol i
sm growt handl ow
i ncr eased ment al
hear tbeat dev elopment
phy si cal lower ed
restlessnes met abol ism
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s l
owv entil
ati
on
ment al rateoflungs
restl
essnes l
owbody
s temper ature
protrudi
ng l
ower edment al
eyeballs activ
ity
enlarged coarsehai r
thyroid puffyey es
gland enlargedt hyr
oid
gland
g)i)Def inet hef ollowingt erms

Drug
asubst ancet hatcausesachangei nbodyf uncti
on
Drugabuse
i ndiscriminat euseofdr ugswit houtmi ndingt hei
r
sideef fects
mi suseorwr onguseofdr ugs
i
i)Statet het ypesofdr ugs, exampl esandsi deef fect
s
Sedat i
ves
al socal l
eddepr essant
adr ugt hatdecr easest heact i
onoft hecent ral
ner voussy stem
r educeanxi ety ,andt ension,i
nducesl eepandactas
muscl er elaxant s
whenabusedt heycausewi thdr awaleffectssuch
asanxi ety,del iri
um anddeat h
i ncludesbar biturates,othersedat ives,tranquili
zers
andal cohol
Pain-ki
llers
suppr esscent ersofpai ninthebr ain
Hallucinogens
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gi vent opeopl ewi thhal luci nat i

onorment allyill
pat i
ent stocal mt hendown
whenabusedt heyl eadt oaf eelingofconf usion,
agi t
at i
on, depr essi onandv i
ol entbehav i
ort hatcan
l
eadt omur derorsui cide
exampl esi ncludev ali
um, LSD, bhang, nar coticsand
cannabi s
Sti
mul ant s
dr ugst hatt empor ar i
lyincr easet heact ionoft he
cent ral ner voussy stem
t heycr eat eaf eelingofal ertness, wakef ul
ness, a
senseofsel fconf idenceandwel lbeing
usedt odecr easef atigueandmi l
ddepr ession
whenabusedt heycausef eel i
ngsofper secut ion,
hal l
uci nat i
onandaddi ction
incl udeamphet ami nes, cocai ne,caf f
ei ne, miraaand
nicot i
ne
i
ii
)Stat et hegener al effect sofdr ugabuseonhuman
healt
h
damaget obodyor ganse. g.l i
verci rr
hosi s
dr ugaddi ction
impai redj udgmentr esult i
ngi ncl umsi ness
soci o-economi cpr oblemse. g.cr i
me, lossofj obs,
divor ce, prost ituti
on, HIV/ AIDS
maycausepoorheal t
h
h)i)Listt hespeci al senseor gansi nmammal sandt he
majorf unct i
onofeach
-Eyef orsi ght
-Earforhear ingandbal ance
-Nosef orsmel l
-Skinf ort ouch, temper atur edet ection, paindet ection
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i
i
i) Howi
sthehumaney
eadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ion?
conjunctivai st hin/ t
ranspar ent/tought oallowlight
topasst hrough/ topr otecttheey e
Sclerot
icl ay eri smadeupof( collagen)
fi
bers/fi
br ous.I tmai ntainsshapeoft he
eyeball
/pr ot ectst heey e
corneaist ranspar ent /curvedt husr efractsl i
ght
rays/al
lowsl ighttopasst hrough
Choroidi sal ay eroft i
ssuewi t
hbl ackpi gment /
dark
pigment .Pr ev entsi nternalrefl
ect i
onofl ightinthe
eye/cont ainsbl oodv esselst hatsuppl y
oxygen/ nut rients/remov e(met abol i
c)wast esfrom
theey e
reti
nahascones/ rodsf orbrightcol ourv i
sion/l
ow
l
ightv i
sion
yell
owspothasahi ghconcent rationofconesf or
accuratev isi on/ vi
sual acuity
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Blindspothasnoconesandr ods.Pl acewher e

opt icner v el eav es/ ent er st heey e
opt icner v ehas( sensor y )ner v ef i
ber sfor
transmi ssi onofi mpul sest ot hebr ain(for
inter pret ation)
Lensi sbi conv ex/ madeupofel ast i
c
mat er i
al /transpar ent .Adj ustf ocusonf arornear
obj ect sal l
owl ightt opasst hr ough/ forrefr
act i
onof
li
ghtr ay s
cili
ar ybodyi smadeupofmuscl ef ibers/glandular
whi chcont ract /relaxt ochangeshape
suspensor yligament sar einel ast ict oholdl ensin
posi tion/ attachi ttoci liarybody
iri
s( i
st hecol ouredpar toft heey ei t)hasr adialand
circul armuscl eswhi chcont rol sizeofpupi l
pupi l ist hesmal lhol eatt hecent reofi ri
st hrough
whi chl ightpassesi ntot heey e
aqueoushumori saf l
ui dt hr oughwhi ch
ox ygen/ nut ri
ent spasst ot he
cor nea/ lens/ mai ntai nsshapeoft he
ey ebal l/ref ract slightr ay s
vitreoushumori saf luidwhi chmai nt ai
nsshapeof
ey e/r efract sl ightr ay s
i
i
i)Whati saccommodat ionoft heey e?
abi l
ityoft heey et oadj ustt obr ingani magef rom a
nearorf arobj ecti ntoshar pf ocusont heret i
na
i
v)Explai nhowaney ev iewi nganearobj ectadjuststo
v
iewingaf arobj ect
cili
ar ymuscl esr elax
suspensor yligament sbecomet aut /ti
ght
lensdecr easescur v at ur e/becomest hinner
radi al muscl esr elax
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ci rcul armuscl escont ract

si zeofpupi ldecr easest or educeamountofl i
ght
v)Whatchangesoccuri nt heey ei fitchangesf rom
obser vinganobj ectatadi stancet ooneatacl oser
range?
-cili
arymuscl escont ract
-Tensi oni nsuspensor yligament sreduces/ relax/
slackens
-Lensbul ges/ thickens/ i
ncr easescur vat ure
-Radi al muscl escont ract
-Circul armuscl esr elax
-Sizeofpupi lbecomesl arget oal lowi nmor elight.
vii
i)St at ethechangeswhi chwoul dt akepl acei nt he
ey eifaper soni nadar kroom hadl ightsswi tched
on
ci rcul armuscl escont ractandr adi al muscl esr elax
pupi l becomessmal ltoal lowl essl ightintot heey e
ix) Expl ainhowt heey ef ormsani mage
t hemammal i
aney ewor ksl i
keacamer a
l ightr ay sent ert hecor neapasst hr ought hepupi l,
aqueoushumor ,lensandv ir
eoushumor
l ightr ay sar er efract edbyt heaqueousandhumor
andl enses
f i
nal lylightf allsont her et i
nat of or m ani mage
t hei magei sr eal andi nv ertedandsmal lerthan
obj ect ,backt of ront /rever sed
Ret inaf ormsaf inei magewhenl ightr aysr eachi t
.
x) Namet hedef ect soft heey eandst atehowt hey
canbecor rect ed
Shor tsi ght( My opia)
ey ecannotf ocusonf arobj ect s
i magei sf ormedi nf rontoft her etinabecausel i
ght
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raysconvergei
nfrontofreti
na
thelensistoot
hick,cur
veandey eball
toolong
correct
edbywear i
ngconcave/bi
concav e/
lenses
theselensesdi
vergeli
ghtraysontoreti
na
Longsight(Hy
permetropi
a)
eyelensesareunabletof
ocusbecauset heyaref l
at,
thinandweakhenceunablet of
ocusimageont he
reti
na
theyareunablet
oaccommodat e/changet hef
ocal
length
nearimageisformedbehindthereti
nabutadi stant
onei scor
rect
lyf
ocusedont heret
ina
correct
edbywear i
ngconvex/bi
convex/conver
ging
lenses
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Presby opia
occur si noldagehencecal ledol dsight
causedduet olossofel ast icityoflenses,weakness
ofci l
iarymuscl eshencel ackoff ocusofl ightrays
t hiscausesl ongsi ght
cor r
ect edbywear ingbiconv ex/convex/conv ergi
ng
lenses
Squinting
ey ebal lsareuncoor di
nated/ donott urnatt hesame
time
ey emuscl esmov eindiff
er entdi recti
ons
t hismakesaccommodat ionandf ocusingdi f
fi
cult
cor r
ect edthroughsur gery
Asti
gmat ism
sur f
aceofcor neai sunev en
l eadst oweakf ocusofl ightr ai
seonr et
ina
cor r
ect edbyusi ngcy li
ndrical l
enses/lenseswi th
combi nedcur vature
xi
) St atetheadv ant agesofhav i
ngt woey esi n
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humanbei ngs
st ereoscopicv i
sion
gi vesawi derangl eofbinocul
arvi
sion
i foneisdamagedhumani snotbl
inded
Ii
)Whatar ethef unctionsofthehumanear?
hear ing
bal ancing
iv) Howar ethestr uct
uresofthehumanearsui
ted
toper f
ormt hef uncti
onofheari
ng?
shapeoft
heexter
nalear/
pinnaallowscol
lect
ionof
soundwavesandchannel
st hem downtheaudit
ory
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canal / audi torymat eus

audi tor ycanal isat ubet hatconcent ratesand
direct ssoundwav est ot ympani cmembr ane/
tympanum/ ear dr um
Ear drum i st hinandt ight .Itset si nto
vibrat i
on/ vibrat es/conv er t
ssoundwav esi nto
vibrat i
ons
thev i
br at i
onsar et ransmi ttedt otheear
ossi cles/ mal leus, incusandst apest hatampl if
yt he
soundv i
br ations
thev i
br at i
onsar et hent ransmi ttedt othef ennest ra
ov ali
s/ ov al wi ndow
Ov al wi ndowi samembr anewhi ch
ampl i
f i
es/ transmi tsv ibrationst ot hef l
uids
(per i
lymphandendol y mph)t hent ocochl ea.
Thecochl eai scoi ledt ooccupyasmal l spaceand
accommodat eal ar genumberofsensor ycel ls
Thesensor ycel ls/hai rs( int hecochl ea)ar eseti nto
vibrat i
ons/ stimul atedpr oduci ngner veimpul sesi n
theaudi toryner ve
Impul sesi nt heaudi t
or yner vear et ransmi ttedt o
thebr ainf ori nt erpr etationf orhear i
ng
Eust achi ant ubeconnect st hei nnereart ot het hr oat
.
Itequal izesai rpr essur eint hemi ddleearwi tht he
atmospher icai rpr essur e( inout erear )
Fennest rar otundus/ roundwi ndow
dissipat es/ dischar ges/ discar dsv ibrati
onsf rom
innereart omi ddleear
i
i
i)Explainhowt hest ruct ur eoft hehumanearper forms
t
hefunct ionofbal anci ng
ther ear et hr eesemi -
circul ar
canal s/ ut r
icul us/ succul us/ vest i
bul arappar at us
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arrangedi npl anesatr ightangl est oeachot her

att heendofeachcanal isaswel li
ngcal ledampul l
a
whi chcont ainsr ecept ors
t hemov ementoft heheadcausesmov ementoft he
fl
uid/ endol ymphi natl eastonecanal
t hef l
uidmov ementcausesst imul ationoft he
recept ors/sensor yhai rs
sensor yi mpul sesar egener ated
t heaudi tor yner vet r
ansmi tsthei mpul sest ot he
brainf orint erpr etati
onf ort heposi tionof
body /post ur e/ balance
i
v)Stat ewhatwoul dhappeni ft heaudi toryner vewas
compl etelydamaged
deaf ness
lossofbodybal ance
impul senott ransmi tt
edt ot hebr ain
5. a)i)Whati ssuppor t?
t osuppor tist ocar rypar toft hewei ght/massofan
organi sm
i
i)Whati slocomot i
on?
pr ogr essivechangei nt heposi tionofanor gani sm
i
ii
)Stat ethei mpor tanceofsuppor tsy stemsi nliv i
ng
organisms
t heypr ov i
deaf ramewor kfort hebodyofor gani sms
andhel pt odet er minet hei rshape
pr ov i
del andani mal swi thmeansf orsuppor tt o
theirwei ght sagai nstgr avity
or gansar eat tachedt ot heskel etonf orsuppor tand
stabilit
yt oav oi dent angl ementandcr ushingeach
other
t heypr otectv er yimpor tantanddel i
cat eor gans
whet heri nsi deorout sidet hebodye. g.ey es, heart
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inl ar gepl ant st her igidt runksoft r

eessuppor tthe
great ermassofl eav esandf ruit
s
i
v)Statet hei mpor tanceofl ocomot i
oninani mals
insear choff ood
sear chf ormat es
escapi ngpr edat ors
b)i)Namet het issuesi nhi gherpl antsthatpr ovi
de
mechani cal suppor t
scl er enchy ma
col lenchy ma( notl ignified)
xy lem/ trachei dsandv essel s
i
i)Statet hei mpor tanceofsuppor tinplants
exposi ngt hesur facear eaofl eaftosunl ightfor
phot osy nt hesis
ensur ef lower sar eexposedt opol l
inat i
onagent s
exposef r uitsandseedst oagent sofdi spersal
t or esistbr eakagesduet ot heirownwei ghtandt hat
ofot heror gani sms
f orpr opert ranspor tandt ransl ocationofmat erials
i
ii
)Namet het ypesofpl antst ems
her baceouse. g.shr ubs
woodye. g.t rees
weakst emsi ncr eeper s,t winingplant sandpl ants
bear ingt endr ils
i
v)Namet het issuesi npl ant st hatar est r
engthenedwi th
l
ignin
scl er enchy ma
xy lem v essel s/trachei ds/ xy l
em
v)Whatmakesy oungher baceouspl antsr emainupr ight?
t urgidity
pr esenceofcol l
enchy ma
vi
)Statet heway sbywhi chpl ant scompensat eforlack
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ofabili
tyt omov ef rom onepl acet oanot her
abi lityt opollinate
r esponset onast i
candt ropi cmov ement
abi lityt oexploi tlocal i
zednut rients
abi lityt odisper seseedorf ruitpr opagat ion
c)i
)Expl aint heway si nwhi cher ectpost ureis
maintainedi naweakher baceousst em
-Thisist hef unctionoft ur gidityandpr esenceof
col
lency ma
Cell
st akei nwat erandbecomet urgi d
i
i)Explainhowsuppor tinpl ant si sachi eved
Tur gorpr essur eduet oabsor pt ionofwat erkeeps
cellsf irm hencehol dher baceouspl antsupr ight
col lenchy maandcl er enchy mat issuesar ecl osely
packedi nstem andr oot st opr ov i
desuppor t
inel ast iccuticleonepi der mi si scov eredbyawaxy
l
ay erhencekeepi ngshapeofpl antandset t
ing
i
nwar dpr essur eagai nstt urgidcel lsandt hiscauses
af orcet ohol dpl antupr ight
xy lem v esselsandt rachei dsar el ignifi
edt opr ovi
de
suppor ttostems, r
oot sandl eav es
cl i
mbi ngpl ant sobt ainmechani cal suppor tfrom
otherpl antsandobj ect s
t heyhav eclimbi ngst ruct uresl iket endr i
l
swhi ch
holdont ootherobj ect s
d)i)Givet her easonswhysuppor tisnecessar yin
ani
mal s
f orat tachmentofmuscl es
Forat tachmentofot herbodyor gans
t opr ot ectdel icatebodyor gans
t omai ntainbodyshape/ form
t oenabl emov ement /locomot ion
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i
i)Whyi smov ementnecessar yinani mal s?
enabl esani mal st osearchf orf ood
enabl esani mal st osearchf orshel t
er
enabl esani mal st oescapepr edat ors/ harmf ul
condi ti
ons
enabl esani mal st osearchf orwat er
enabl esani mal st osearchf ormat es
enabl esani mal st osearchf orbr eedi ngsi tes
e)i)Namet heor ganusedf orsuppor tbyani mal s
-Skeleton
i
i)Namet hedi fferentt ypesofskel etonsi nani mals,
giv
inganexampl eofanani mal foreacht ypeofskel et
on
named
exoskel etone. g.ar t
hropoda( crab, i
nsect )
endoskel etone. g.chor data( cat ,f
ish)
i
ii
)Statet hedi ff
er encebet weenexoskel etonand
endoskel eton
endoskel etoni sar i
gidframewor kcov eredbybody
ti
ssuesofanani mal
exoskel etoni sar i
gidframewor kf oundont he
surfaceofanani mal
i
v)Statet headv ant agesofhav i
nganexoskel eton
suppor ts/ prot ect sdelicateinnerpar ts
wat erpr oof / pr ev entsdryingupofbody
pr ov i
dedsur facef ormuscl eat tachment
v)Explaint hei mpor tanceofhav i
nganendoskel et
on
suppor tt hebody
gi vebodyi t
sshape
pr otectdel i
cat eor ganse. g.skul l
,br ain,ribs
usedi nl ocomot i
one. g.bonesser veasl ever s
r edbl oodcel lsar eformedi nbonemar r
ow
mi ner alsar est or edinbonese. g.cal cium and
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phosphor us
f
)i)Expl ainhowaf i
shi sadapt edt ol ivingi nwat er
st reaml i
nedbodyf oreasymov ementi nwat er
swi m bl addercont rolsdept hofswi mmi ng
f i
nsf ormov ement ,balance, di rect ionandst ability
gi l
lsforgaseousexchangei nwat er
pr esenceofl ateral li
net osensev ibr at i
ons
scal espr ov idepr ot ection
col ourwhi chof f
erscamouf lageagai nstpr edat or s
i
i)Explainhowaf innedf i
shi sadapt edt ol ocomot i
oni n
water
st reaml i
nedbodyt or educer esi stance/ fr
iction) to
swi m smoot hl y
)
t hev ertebr al columnconsi stsofaser iesof
vertebr aehel dt oget herloosel ysot hati tisf lexible
my otomes/ muscl esassoci atedwi thv ert
ebr al
columnpr oducemov ement
t hesi deway sandbackwar dst hr ustoft het ailand
bodyagai nstwat err esultsinr esi stanceofwat er
pushi ngt hef ishsi deway sandf or war dsina
directionopposedt ot hrust
heatnotf l
exi blesoast omai nt ainf or wardt hr ust
pr esenceoff inshel pinpr opul sion/ bal ance/ pair ed
fi
ns( pect or al andpel vic)forcont rollingpi tchand
slowdownmov ement /unpairedf i
ns( dorsal, vent r
al,
anal)f ory awi ngandr ol l
i
ng( caudal )f or
swi mmi ng/ propul sionandst eer ing/ changeof
direction
pr esenceofswi m bl addert omakef ishbuoy ant
scal est i
pt owar dst hebackt opr ov idesmoot h
sur f
ace
bodycov er edwi t
hmucust or educef ricti
on
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f l
attenedsur facef oreasyf loat ing
g)i)Namet hemai npar t
soft hev ertebr alcolumngi vi
ng
thetypesofbonesf oundi neachpar t
Axialskel eton
f ormst hemai naxi soft hebody
f ormedbyt heskul l,sternum, ribsandv ertebr ae
Appendi cul arskel eton
composedofl i
mbsandgi r dles
t hef or elimbsar econnect edt ot het r
unkbyt he
pect or al girdles( shoul derbones)
hi ndl imbsar econnect edt ot hepel vi
cgi rdle( hips)
bonesar escapul ar ,cl
av icle, humer us, ulna, femur ,
ti
bia, fibul a,met acar pals, car pal s, tarsals,
met at ar sals, phal anges, i
li
um, ischi um andpubi s
i
i)Whatar et hev ertebr ae?
bonesoft hev ertebr alcol umn
i
ii)St
at et hef unct ionsoft hev er t
ebr al column
gi vesf lexibility
absor bsshock
pr ot ect sspi nal cor d
suppor tswei ghtofbody
pr ov idesur f
acef ormuscl eat tachment
bet weent hev ertebraear esof tdi scswhi chof fer
cushi oni ngcal l
edi nterv erter bral di scs
i
v )St
at et hegener alchar act eristicsofv ert
ebr ae
hav esol idst ruct urecal ledcent rum t osuppor t
wei ghtofbody
hast ransv ersepr ocessl ater al tocent rum f or
muscl eat tachment
neur al spi nei sdor saltocent rum andpr ov ides
surfacear eaf ormuscl eat tachment
neur al canal apassagef orspi nal cor dandof fers
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prot
ecti
ontoit
hasfacet
sforart
icul
ati
onwithot
herv
ert
ebr
ae
neural
archencl
osesneural
canal
v)Namet hebonesofthev
ert
ebr
alcol
umn
-Cerv
icalvertebra
-Thoraci
cv ertebra
-Lumbarv ertebra
-Sacr
al v
ertebr a
-Caudalvertebra
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vi)Descr
ibehowt
hev ariousvert
ebraeareadaptedt o
theirf
uncti
ons
Bone Str
uct ure Function
Skull cr anium andjaw at tachment
bones ofjaws
madeofsev eral pr otect
bonesj oi
ned brainand
together other
l argeboxcalled delicat
e
cranium and parts
smal l
erpair
ed
boxesf oreyes,
ear s,
nose,j
aws
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hasl argehol e
cal l
edf or amen
magnum f orthe
passageofspi nal
cor d
Cervi
calregi
on ri
ngshaped protect
Atl
as(fi
rst noCent rum spinalcord
cer
vical
) broad, f lat attachment
transv er se ofmuscl es
processes al
low
ver t
ebr at er i
al canal noddingof
forpassageof head
ver t
ebr al ar t
er y
facetf or
articul at i
onof
condy lesofskul l
Axi
s( second adont oi dpeg all
ows
cer
vical) proj ect sf r om headt o
Cent rum rotat e
l
ar gef lat tened prot ects
neur al spi ne spinal cord
ver t
ebr ast er i
al prov ides
canal surfacef or
smal ltr ansv erse muscl e
process attachment
Cervi
cal shor tneur alspi ne suppor t
(ot
hers) branched wei ghtof
transv er sepr ocess head
forneckmuscl es prot ect
ver t
ebr at er i
al spinal cord
canal s neck
wi deneur alcanal muscl e
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attachment
Thor
aci
d l
ongbackwar d formsr ib
poi ntingneur al cage
spi ne arti
culati
on
transv ersepr ocess withone
thatpoi nt s endofar i
b
sideway s protects,
facet sf or spinalcord
articul ationofr i
bs muscl e
not chf orspi nal attachment
ner vest opass
through
Lumbar shor tneur al spine protect
l
ongt ransv erse organsof
processpoi nting abdomen
towar dsabdomen support
l
ar geCent rum upperpart
ext rapr ocesses ofbody
e.g. protect
prezy gapophy si
s, spinalcor
d
hy papophy sis, muscl e
anapophy sis, attachment
met apophy sis
Sacr
al fusedbonest o protects
form sacr um al
iment ary
wel l dev el oped canal
transv ersepr ocess attachment
off irstv ertebr a ofhip
ver tebr at eri
al gir
dles
canal s protect
shor tneur al spine spinalcord
muscl e
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at
tachment
Ri
b l
ong pr
otect
fl
attened i
nter
nal
attachedto or
gans
sternum f
rom f
ront muscle
at
tachment
vi
i)Descri
bethebonest hatf ormt heappendicular
skel
eton
Bone Str
uct ure Functi
on
Pectoralgi
rdl
e Br oadi .e.Flattened Suppor t
scapular blade Muscle
(shoul
derbone) gl enoi dcav ityto att
achment
articulat ewi t
h Art
icul
ateswit
h
humer us humerus
met acr omion/acr omi
onf ormuscl e
attachment
har dt opr ovide
suppor t
socketwi th
car ti
lage/ smoot h
sur facet or educe
fri
ct ion
Humer us longshaf tformuscl e mov ement
attachment muscl e
r oundheadt o at
tachment
articulat ewi t
h
glenoi dcav ity
t rochl eaf or
articulat i
onwi thul na
ol ecr anonf osat o
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prev entar m bendi ng

theot herway
Ul
naandr
adi
us ulnal ongerandon movement
sideofl ittl
ef i
nger muscle
hassi gmoi dnot ch at
tachment
andol ecr anon s
processt of orm
hingej oi ntwi th
humer us
radiusi ssmal l
erand
l
iesal ongt humbsi de
anddoesnotj oin
ulna
allowsar ticulati
on
wi thwr istbones
Pel
vicgi
rdl
e(hi
p composedoft hree mov ement
bone) fusedbones( ili
um, muscl e
i
schi um, pubi s) attachment
upperendf usedt o suppor t
sacr um absor bs
l
owerendhas pressure
acet abal um f or exertedby
articulationwi th ground
femur when
hasabt ur ator animal
foramenf orpassage mov es
ofner v esandbl ood
vessel s
Femur roundedheadt ofitin movement
acet abul um ofpel vis muscle
project i
onscal led at
tachment
trochant erfor
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at t
achmentoft high
muscl es
condy lesatl owerend
forar ticulat i
onwi th
tibi
pat ell
at hatcov ers
kneeandpr ev entsl eg
from bendi ng
backwar ds
Ti
biaandf i
bul a t ibiaisl ongert han mov ement
fibula muscl e
t ibiaisout erbone at
tachment
andf i
bul ai si nner
bone
t ibialiesonsi deof
larget oe
f ibulai sf usedt ot i
bia
(onout ersi de)
6.a)Whati saj oint?
t hepoi ntwher ebonesmeet
ii
)Statethef unct i
onsofj oints
pr ovideapoi ntofar ti
cul ationbet weenbones
ii
i)Namet hemai nt ypesofj oints
immov ablejointse.g.skul l,pel vicgi r
dlesand
sacrum
sl i
ghtlymov ablejointse. g.bet weenv ertebrae
Fr eelymov ablejointse. g.knee, elbow
iv)Gi
v ethef eaturesofmov abl ej oint s
endsofbonescov eredwi thar ticularcar ti
lage
endsboundbycapsul esofl igament s
hav ej ointcav i
tyfil
ledwi thlubr i
cat ingfluidcall
ed
synov i
al f
luidsecr etedbysy nov ialmembr ane
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t heyarecall
edsynov
ialjoi
nts
b)Describethesynovi
alj
oints
i
v) Bal landsocket
al l
owmov ementi
nallpl
anes/ di
rect
ionsi.e.360o
r oundedendofbonef i
tsint
oar oundedcav it
yin
anotherbone
 e. g.
shoulderjoint
andhipj oi
nt
v
) Hi ngej oi
nt
conv exsurfaceofonebonefit
sint
otheconcave
surfaceofanot herbone
t hisallowsmov ementinonl
yoneplane/
dir
ecti
on
180o
e. g.elbowjointandkneejoi
nt
v
i) Pivotjoi
nt
all
owsr otat
ione.
g.wher
eat
laspi
vot
sonol
ecr
anon
pr
ocessofaxis
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c)i
)Whati ssy nov i
al fluid?
lubr icat i
ngf l
uidpr oducedbysy nov i
al membraneat
mov ablej oi nts
i
i)Statet hef unct ionsofsy nov i
al f
luid
absor bsshock
r educesf riction/ giv esl ubri
cat i
on
nour ishment
di stribut espr essur e
d)Expl ai nt hef ol lowi ngt er ms
v) Li gament
connect ivet i
ssuej oi ningonebonet oanother
vi
) Car ti
lage
suppor tingsof ttissuef oundatj oints
t heycushi ont hebonesandabsor bshock
vi
i)Tendon
t i
ssuet hatconnect smuscl etobones
7. Muscl es
e)i)Whati samuscl e?
f l
eshypar tofbody
composedofl ongcel lsencl osedi nasheat h
speci alizedcel lscapabl eofcont racting
i
i)Statet hef unct ionsofmuscl es
cov ert heskel eton
pr ov ideshape
cont ractandr elaxt oenabl ebodyt omov e
f)Descr i
bet hest ruct ureandf unct i
onofv ari
ous
ty pesofmuscl es
i
) skel et al muscl es
al socal ledv olunt ar y/striat
ed/ stri
ppedmuscl es
t heyar eat tachedt oskel et
on
t heyconsi stofst ri
at ed, multinucleated,li
ngfi
bers
andar ecy lindr i
cal shaped
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f oundonl egs, ar ms, ey es, neckwher et heycause

mov ement
i
i
) I nv olunt ar ymuscl es
al socal ledsmoot h/ viscer al/unst ri
ated/ unst r
ipped
t heirmov ementi snotcont rolledbyt hewi ll
t heyar eunst riated, nucl eated, shor tfibredand
spindl eshaped
ar ef oundi nal i
ment arycanal , bloodv essel s,
secr etor ygl ands, othert ubul arv isceral organs,
bladder ,uter us, urinar yt ract,repr oduct ivesy stem,
respi r
at oryt ract ,cili
ar ybody , i
r i
s
i
i
i) Car di acmuscl es
al socal ledmy ocar di um
f oundi nt hewal l
soft hehear t
ar enotundercont r
ol oft hewi ll
composedofl ongcy lindrical cellswithspeci al
j
unct i
ons
my ogeni ci .e.gener at et heirowncont ract i
on
t heyar enotf at i
gued
t heirf unct ioni scont ract i
onoft hehear tt opump
blood
g)Expl ai nhowmuscl escausemov ementoft he
humanar m
t hemuscl eswhi chbr i
ngaboutt hesemov ement s
arecal l
edbi cepsandt riceps
bi cepsar eat tachedt oscapul aandr adi usf or
bendi ng
t ri
cepsar eat tachedt oscapul a, humer usandul na
forst retchi ng
whent hebi cepscont racts, i
tpul lsther adius
(forear m)andt hehandbends
t het ri
cepsr el axesatt hesamet ime
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whent het r
icepscont ractsandbi ceps
relaxes( ext ends)t hear mi sstretched
bi cepsf lexest hear m( f l
exor)andt riceps
extend( ext ensormuscl e)thear m
h)i)St at et hest ructur aldiff
erencesbet weenskeletal
muscl ese. g.bi cepsandsmoot hmuscl ese.g.gut
muscl e
Skel
et al (
bi ceps) Smoot h( gut)muscl e
mul tinucl eat ed uni nucleat ed
st riated/ st ri
pped unst riated
longmuscl ef iber s shor tmuscl efi
bers
bl ock/ cylindrical spi ndleshaped
i
i)Namet hecar ti
lagef oundbet weent hebonesoft he
ver
tebr al column
int erv ertebr al disc
i
v) Whatar et hef unct i
onsoft hecar t
ilagenamedi n
(d)i i
)abov e
act sasacushi on/ absor bsshock
r educesf riction
f l
exi bilit
yofv er t
ebr alcolumn
END
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Bio f4 Notes Final-1

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Bi

offspringst hatr epresentt hefir

DNAwasf oundt obecomposedoft hr

THEFI RSTLAW OFHEREDI TY( LawofSegr egat i

mi ghtunder gonon- disjuncti

1. Plant sandAni mal Breedi ng

broughtt ogetherhy drogen,car bon( IV)oxi deand

suchasbones, teeth, shellsandexoskel etons.

massesonear thf ormedasi nglelandmass

Or ganismswhi chhav ethesamebasi cf eaturesare

All eucar yotic cells hav e organell

In 1809,l amar k published hi

backgr oundoft het r

theygr owt owardst hel i

temperature;ort heymaybel ocatedinaspeci al

Raysf rom adi st

(a) Namet hepart

(a) Namet hepartslabell

MARKI NGSCHEMESTI MULUSANDRESPONSE

maximum phot osy nt hesi s;

andi nsect sent er i

Suppor tandMov ementi nPl ant s

celluloset opr ovidemechani cal suppor t

Iti sf oundi nallvert

Theskel etoni sdi v idedinto:

Att hepost eriorend, ther ear et wosmoot hr ounded

REVI ONQUESTI ONS

i mpr ov ementi nliv estock

theot her/wher et woormor eal lelesdoesnotshow

genesAandBar eco- domi nantwhi l

Whatar et hepar ental genot ypes?

ar eunpr edictabl e

r esist ancet opest s

genet icmani pul at iont opr oducedesi red

hav eceasedt of unct i

-mov et owar dst heirpr ey /food

Thimot ropi sm/ Hapt otropi sm

-t hisi sasur vivalresponse

al socal led

temper atur eandaggr essi on

ensur esner vei mpul sest ravel inonl yonedi rect

st imul ates

g)i)Def inet hef ollowingt erms

gi vent opeopl ewi thhal luci nat i

Blindspothasnoconesandr ods.Pl acewher e

ci rcul armuscl escont ract

canal / audi torymat eus

arrangedi npl anesatr ightangl est oeachot her

inl ar gepl ant st her igidt runksoft r

prev entar m bendi ng

f oundonl egs, ar ms, ey es, neckwher et heycause

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