i

sabokemi
cah@gmai
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com

BI
OLOGYESSAYS
QUESTI
ONS&ANSWERS
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCont
act070555657
1
.Expl
aint
hevar
iouswaysi
nwhi
chat
ypi
calcel
lisadapt
edt
oit
s
f
unct
ions
Hasacel lmembr ane;wi thpor es;thatr egulatess ubs t ancesent er i
ngandl eav i
ngt he
cell;cyt oplas m;cont ains ugar sands alt
s;formai ntai ningi tsos mot icpr essur e;als o
hasal i
quidmedi um;f oral lbiochemi calreact ions ;nucl eus ;cont ainchr omos omes
havingher edi tarymat eri
al;andcont r
olsal ltheact ivitiesoft hecel l;ribosomes ;ar e
sitesf orpr oteins ynt hesi
s ;golgibodi es/appar atus ;f ors ecreti
onofhor monesand
enzymes ;f or mation ofl ys osomes ;lysosomes ;cont ainl yticenzymesf orbr eaking
down wor n- outor ganel l
es ;s ecretory ves i
cles ;f or med f rom gol giappar atus f or
secr eting s ubs t
ances ;s moot h endopl asmicr eticul um;s ynthesizes and t rans ports
li
pids ;r ough endopl asmicr eti
culum;t r
ans por tpr ot eins;nucl eol us;cont rolst he
activiti
esoft henucl eus ;pr oducesr ibosomes ;mi tochondr ia;forms it
esf orener gy
product i
on;cent rioles ;format i
onofci liaandf lagel la;f ormss pindlef i
br esus edi ncel l
division;pl ants ap vacuol es;s t
ores alt
sand ot herdi s s
olved s ubs tances;c ontrols
osmot ic pr es sure and t ur gi
dity ofcel ls;food vacuol es involved i n diges tion of
engul fedf ood;chl or oplasts;forms it
esf orphot os ynt hes i
si nplantcel ls;Max.20mks

2.Expl
ainhowthevari
ousspeci
ali
zedcel
lsar
emodi
fi
edt
ocar
ryoutt
hei
r
funct
ionsi
npl
antsandani
mals
Ani malcells:Sper m cel l
;hasacr osomecont aininglyti
cenzymes ;thatdi ges tt
heegg
membr anesf orpenet r
ationdur ingf ert
il
izat
ion;hasal ongt ail
;cont ai
ni ngnumer ous
mitochondr i
a;t ogener atemaxi mum ener gyf orpr opuls
ion/ s wi mmi ngi nt hevagi nal
f
luidaf terejaculation;Redbl oodcel l
s;aref l
attened,circul ar/s pher i
calbi concavei n
shape;t oincr easet hes ur f
acear eaf orpackagingofhaemogl obi n;hashaemogl obi n;
thatcombi neswi thr espirator
ygas es;fortransportt oandf rom bodyt issues;Whi te
bloodcel ls
;ar eamoeboi di ns hapehenceabl et ochanges hape;t oengul fpathogens
throughphagocyt os i
s;lymphocyt espr oduceant ibodiestof i
ghtpat hogens ;Nervecel l
;
has ext ensions /
dentrit
es ;t or eceive and s end information f ors ensat i
on;Ci l
iated
epitheli
alcel ls;have ci li
af orpr opul s
ion ofmucus t hatt raps dus tand mi cro-
organismsi nt her espiratorytract;Mus cl
ecel ls
;elongated,s triatedandcont racti
le;to
bringaboutmovement ;Pl antcel l
s:Guar dcells;bean-shaped;t or egul atet hes i
zeof
thes tomataal lowinggas eousexchange;andcont rolwaterl os s ;haschl oroplast
swi th

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chlorophyl
l;forphotosynthesis;Roothai rcell
;elongat ed;t hin-wal
led;with dense
cytoplasm for absorpt
ion ofwat er and mi nerals alt
s ;Epi dermalcell;thin;for
protecti
onofi nnerti
ssuesfrom mechanicalandmi cro-organism at t
ack;Pali
sadecell
;
containsnumer ouschloroplastswithchlorophyl
l;forphot osynthesi
s;elongated;to
increases ur
faceareaf ortrappi
ngmaxi mum amount sofl ightener gy;Meristemat
ic
cell
;t hi
n-wall
ed;withdens ecytoplas
m;f orprimaryands econdar ygrowth;Max.20
mks

3.Descr
ibehowt
hemammal
ianbodypr
otect
sit
sel
fagai
nsti
nfect
ions
Pat hogeni cmi crobesar ef oundont hes kin,r espiratoryt ract,mout h,vagi naandt he
intestinalt ract;t hes kin;hasaker atinisedandwat erproofcor nifiedout erl ayer ;that
prov i
desamechani calbar r
iert omi crobes /prevent sent ryofmi crobes ;s ebaceous
gland;pr oduces s ebum;whi ch has ant i
septic pr operties;t he r es pir
at oryt ract;
producemucuss ecr et i
onst hatt rapdus t
;ci l
ias weep/ waft/propelt hemi crobest ot he
phar ynx f or s wal lowi ng or t o be coughed out ; r ef l
ex act ions of
coughi ng/ sneezi ng/ vomi t i
ng hel pr emove f oreign mat er i
alsf rom t he r es pir
atory
tract/diges ti
vet r act;l ysozymes /enzymesi ns ali
va/nas als ecret i
ons /t
ear s;di ges twal l
s
ofbact eriades tr oyingt hem;gas tri
cs ecretionss uchashydr ochl or i
caci dl ower st he
pH i nt he s tomach k il
ling mi cro-or ganis ms;cl otting ofbl ood;pr event s ent ry of
mi crobesaf terdamage ofbl ood ves sels;phagocyt osis;byphagocyt esengul fand
des troymi crobesandot herf or eignbodi es ;lymphocyt esar es timul atedt opr oduce
ant i
bodi es ; by pr ot eins pr es ent i n mi crobes pr otecting t he body; ant ibodies
des troy/killmi cro- or ganis mst hr ough var i
ousways :aggl uti
nins ;bi nd t o pat hogens
maki ngt hem cl umpt oget her;ki l
lingt hem;Lys i
ns;bi ndt opat hogensandmaket hem
bur stordi s i
ntegr at e;ops onins;bi ndt opat hogensmaki ngt hem eas il
yr ecogni zed
henc ebeengul fed/ des t
royedbyot herl ymphocyt es ;anti-toxins ;bi ndandneut rali
ze
toxinspr oducedbymi cro- organis ms ;vagi nai sacidic;hencemaki ngi tnotconduci ve
forgr owt handr epr oduct ionofmi cro- organi sms;Max:20mks

4.Howar
ethel
eavesofhi
gherpl
ant
sadapt
edt
othei
rfunct
ions
?
Broadandf l
attenedl amina;toi ncr eases ur f
acear ea;f orabs orpti
onofl ight;thin
blade;t or educe di stance fordi ff
us ion ofgas es and penet rati
on ofl i
ghtwaves ;
transparentepi der misandcut i
cle;t oal l
owl i
ghtt openet r
atet ot i
ssues;cuticlelayer
abs entons tomat a;toal l
ow forgas eousexchange;one- cellthickepidermall ayer;to
reducet hedi stanceoverwhi chs unlightpenet rates
;pal isadecel lshavenumer ous
chloroplas tscont ainingchl orophyll;tot r
apmaxi mum amount sofl i
ghtener gy;have
stomat aont heepi dermis;toallow f orgas eousexchange;andcont r
olofwat erloss
throught rans pi
rat i
on;pal i
sadel ayerhaveel ongatedcel lslocat edatr i
ghtangl est o
thel eafs urface;f ormaxi mum abs orptionofl ightener gy;s pongymes ophyl
l;c onsis
ts
ofs pher i
calandl oos el
y-packedcel ls
;t ocreat eairspaces ;whi chcommuni cat ewith
theat mos pher et hroughs tomat a;f orpur posesofgas eousexchangeandcont rolof
wat erl oss ;vei ns have conduct i
ng t i
ssues:xyl em;f ormovementofwat erand
dissolvedmi nerals alts;phloem;f ort r
ans l
ocationofmanuf acturedfood;Max.20mks

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5.Expl
ainhowt
hevar
ioust
eet
hadaptmammal
sfornut
ri
ti
on
Inci
sor;sharp;chis el
-shaped;forbiting;andcut ti
ngf ood;oner ootf orsuppor tinthe
j
aw bone;Cani nes;long;sharp;pointed;forhol dingpr ey;pier
ci ng;andt ear
ingf l
esh
f
rom prey;s i
ngl eroot;f
ors upportint hejawbone;Pr emol ar
s;lar ge/wide;toincrease
surf
acear eaf orgr i
ndingfood;hi ghlycus ped;toi ncreases urfacear eaf orgr i
nding
f
ood;t wor oots ;f
orf i
rms upport/anchoragei nt hejaw bone;mol ars;large/wide;to
i
ncreases urfacear eaforgr i
ndingf ood;hi ghl
ycus ped;t oincreas esur f
acear eafor
gri
ndingfood;Max.20mks
6.Descr
ibewhathappenst
oamealofoilybeansandmai
zef
rom t
het
ime
ofi
ngesti
onuptothetimeofabs
orpt
ion
Int hemout h;s t
archi nmai ze;i sdiges tedbys ali
var yamyl as e/ pt yal
in/ dias tasei nto
mal t
os e;foodi schewedandmi xedbyt eethandt het ongue;r ol ledi nt obol us esby
perist
al si
s;i tent er si ntot he s tomach vi at he car di acs phinct er ;int he s tomach,
gastri
cj uicecont ainingpeps inogent hati sact i
vatedt opeps in;di ges tspr oteinsi nt he
beans ;intos horterpept i
des ;foodi schur nedandal lowedi ntot heduodenum;vi at he
pylori
cs phinctermus cle;int heduodenum;bi lej uices ecretedbyt hegal lbl adder ;
emul sif
iestheoi l
si nt hebeansi ntotinyoi ldroplet s;pancr eat i
cj uice;s ecr etedbyt he
panc r
eas e;cont ainspancr eat i
camyl as e;t hatdi ges tss t
archt omal tos e;pancr eati
c
li
pase;t hatdi ges t
st heoi li nt hebeanst of attyaci dsandgl ycer ol;t ryps in;di ges t
s
proteinsi nt
os horterpept ides ;foodent ersint ot hei leum;wher es uccusent eri
cusi s
secreted;i tcont ainsmal tas eenzyme;t hatdi ges tst hemal tos ei nt ogl ucos e;thati s
absorbed;pept idas e;di ges t
spept i
desi ntoami noaci ds ;li
pas edi ges t
st her emai ning
li
pids( oil
)int ofattyaci dsandgl ycerol;whi chi sabs orbedt hr ought hel act eal soft he
vil
li
;Max.20mks

7.Howar
ethes
mal
lint
est
inesi
nmammal
sadapt
edt
othei
rfunct
ions
?
Smal li ntest
inescons i
s tsoft heduodenum andt hei leum;mos tdi ges tionoff ood
occur si ntheduodenum;bi lef r
om t hegal lbladderoft hel iveriss ecretedt hrough
thebi leduct s;andi tisus edt oemul sif
yf ats/breakf atpar ti
clesi ntot i
nydr opl et s;to
increas et hes urfaceareaf orenzymeact ion;thepancr eas es ecretespancr eat icj uice
tot heduodenum;t hejui cecont ainspancr eat
icamyl ase;t hathel pst obr eakdownt he
remai ning s t
arch i nt
o mal t
ose;t r ypsin;( t
hati ss ecr et
ed i ni t
si nact ive f or m,
tryps nogen,andact
i iv
at edbyent erokinas eenzyme) ;hydr olysespr oteinsi nt os horter
pept ides ;pancr eati
cl ipas e;conver tsl ipids intof att
y aci ds and gl ycer ol;s odium
hydr ogen car bonatei s al so pr oduced;t o neut ralize the aci dic chyme f rom t he
stomach;andpr ovi
deas uitablealkal i
nemedi um f orpancr eat i
candot heri ntes ti
nal
enzymes ;thei leum isl ong;andnar row;t oincreas et hes ur f
acear eaf orcompl ete
diges tionoff ood;andmaxi mum abs orptionofdi ges tedf ood;hi ghly-coiled;t or educe
speedoff oodf low;formaxi mum di ges tion;andabs or pti
on;pr esenceofvi l
li;and
mi crovilli
;t oi ncreases urf
ace ar ea;f ormaxi mum abs orption;dens e net wor k of
capillaries;tot ransportbl ood;foref fi
cientt rans por tofabs orbedf ood;pr es enceof

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actealsinthevi ll
i;forabsorpti
onoff at
tyac i
dsandgl ycerolmol ecules;presenceof
enzymes :Lipas e;fordi gesti
on oflipi
dsi ntofatt
yaci dsand gl ycerol
;mal t
as e;for
di
ges t
ionofmal toset oglucosemol ecul
es;peptidase;forbr eakdownofpept i
desi nto
aminoaci ds;sucr ase;fordigesti
onofs ucroseintoglucos eandf ruct
ose;lactase;for
di
ges t
ion ofl actos einto glucose and galac
tose;gobl etcel l
s;pr oduce mucus ;t o
l
ubricatethewal lsoft heil
eum;f ors moothflow offood;coat sthewal lsofileum t o
preventdigestionbypept i
das eenzyme;Max.20mks

8.Out
li
neandexpl
aint
hevar
ioushomeos
tat
icf
unct
ionsoft
hel
iveri
n
mammal
s
Deami nat i
on;pr oces sofr emovalofanami nogr oupf r
om anami noaci dmol ecul e;t he
pr oc essget sr idofex ces sami noaci dsi nt hebody;ast hebodyi snotabl et os tore
them;t heami nogr oupent er st heor nithinecycl e;wher ei ti scombi nedwi thcar bon
(IV)oxi de t of or m ur ea;whi ch i s excr et ed i n urine t hr ough t he ki dney;Heat
pr oduct i
on;manymet abolicac ti
vit i
est akepl acei nt hel iver ;r eleas i
ngheatener gy;
that i s di s t
r i
but ed by t he bl ood t o ot her par t
s oft he body;t his hel ps i n
ther mor egul ati
on;St or ageofvi t
ami nsandmi ner als alts;Vi tami nsA,B,D,EandK;
ares t
or edi nt hel iver ;wor n-outr edbl oodcel ls
,ar ebr okendownt oyi el diron;whi ch
iss tor ed i nt he l iveri nf orm off er ri
tin;t hisi sus ed l ateri n cas e ofs hor tage;
For mat i
onofr edbl oodcel l
s;occur si nt hel iveroft hef oet us ;t hel iveral sobr eaks
downol d/exhaus tedr edbl oodcel ls;l eadi ngt of or mationofmor ei nthebonemar r ow
tor eplacet hewor n- outcel ls;t oenhanceoxygenandcar bon( IV)oxi dedi s tribut i
on;
Regul ationofbl oods ugarl evel ;livercel lsconver texces sgl ucos ei ntogl ycogenand
fats under t he i nfluence ofi ns ulin hor mone;t he s tor ed gl ycogen i s however
conver tedbackt ogl ucos e;whengl ucos el evel sar el ow;byt hel ivercel l
s;undert he
influenceofgl ucagonhor mone;Regul ationofpl asmapr otei ns ;pl asmapr oteinss uch
aspr othrombi nandf ibri
nogenar emanuf act uredi nt hel iverus ingt heami noaci ds
foundi nt hel i
ver ;t heypl ayamaj orr ol ei nbl oodcl otting;t hatpr event sex ces s i
ve
bloodl ossandi nf ect ionatt hei njur edar ea;ot herpl as mapr otei nspr oducedbyt he
li
v ers uchass er um andal bumen;cont ribut et ot hemai ntenanceofos mot icpr ess ure
int hebody;non- es s ent i
alami noaci dsar eal sos ynthes izedbyt hel iver ;forus eby
thebody;St orageofbl ood;t hel iveri shi ghl yvas cularis ed;hencei ti scapabl eof
hol dingal argevol umeofbl oodwhent hebl oodves selsdi latedur i
nghotcondi tions ;
whent het emper at ur esar el ow,t hebl oodves s elscons tr i
ctundert hei nfluenceof
the endocr i
ne and ner vouss ys t
ems ;hence l es sbl ood i ss tor ed int he l i
ver ;t his
cont ri
but est ot her mor egul ation;Det oxi f
ication;t hisi st he pr oces swher e har mf ul
compoundss uchasdr ugsandpoi s ons ;ar ec onver tedt ol es st oxi ccompoundsi nt he
li
v er ;t oxici t
yi s caus ed by medi cat ion, dr ugs and mi cr oor ganis ms ;t he t oxi c
compoundsar el aterexcr et edi nur ine;det oxificationpr event st heaccumul at i
onof
toxi nsi nbodycel ls ;whi chcoul dl eadt odeat hormal f
unct ioni ngoft hebodycel l
s;
Max.20mks

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9.Expl
ainwhyt
hef
oll
owi
ngcondi
ti
onsar
eneces
sar
yforphot
osynt
hes
is
a)Car
bon(
IV)Oxi
de
Requiredint hedar kst
ageofphot os
ynthesis;i
tcombineswiththehydr ogeni on
f
r om thel
ights t
age;tof
orm gl
ucos
e,proteinsandli
pids
;lowconcentrat
ionsr educes
ther ateofpr oduct
ionofenergyandf ood;whil
ehighconcentrat
ionsl eadst oan
i
ncreas ei
nt heamountofenergyandfoodf or
med;
b)Li
ght
I
tisus edtobreakdownwatermol
ecul
es(t
hroughphot
olys
is)
;int
ohydr
ogeni
ons,
oxygenandenergy;t
heener
gyandhydr
ogenionsf
ormedareusedint
hedar
kst
age;
c)Chl
orophyl
l
Greenpigmentthatt
rapsl
ightener
gyf
rom t
hes
un;t
hati
sus
edi
nphot
olys
isof
watermolecul
es;
d)Sui
tabl
etemper
atur
eandpH
Temper at
ure aff
ectsthe enz ymes involved i
n photosynthesi
s;s ui
tabl
e/optimum
temperaturesacti
vateenzymes ;f
ormaxi mum producti
onoff ood;whi l
eext remel
y
l
ow temper at
uresinact
ivateenzymes ;l
eadingtolessornopr oduct
ionoffood;high
temperatures denatur
e enz ymes ;s topping the pr ocess of phot osynthesi
s;
photosynthet
icenzymeswor kwel linlow pH;s other ateishigh;whi l
ehi gherpH
reducesenzymeact i
vit
y;loweringtherateofphotosynt
hesis;
e)Wat
er
Formsamedium f
orthechemi
calreact
ions;i
tisspli
ttoyiel
dhydrogenions,oxygen
and ener
gy for use i
n the darks tage; s
olvent f
or the materi
als used in
photos
ynt
hes
is;Max.20mks

1
0.Howi
sthei
leum adapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ions
?
Long;andnar row;t oi ncreas et hesurfacear eaf orcompl etedi ges ti
onoff ood;and
maxi mum abs orptionofdi ges tedfood;hi ghly- coil
ed;t or educes peedoff oodf low;
f
ormaxi mum di ges ti
on;andabs orpti
on;pr esenceofvi l
li
;andmi crovil
li
;toi ncr eas e
surfacear ea;formaxi mum abs orpti
on;dens enet wor kofcapi ll
ar i
es;tot rans port
blood;f oreffi
cientt rans portofabs orbedf ood;pr esenceofl acteals ;f
orabs orptionof
f
at t
yaci dsandgl ycerolmol ecules;pres enceofenzymes :Li pas e;fordi ges tionof
l
ipidsi nt ofattyaci dsand gl ycerol
;mal tase;f ordi ges t
ion ofmal toset o gl ucos e
mol ecules;pept i
das e;f orbr eakdown ofpept idesi nt o ami no aci ds;sucr ase;f or
digestionofs ucros eintogl ucos eandf ruct ose;l actase;fordi ges tionoflact os ei nto
glucoseandgal actose;gobl etcells;produc emucus ;tol ubr i
cat et hewal l
soft he
i
leum;f ors moot hf l
ow off ood;coat st hewal l
sofi leum t opr eventdi ges t
ionby
pept i
das eenzyme;Max.20mks

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1
1.a)Whati
shomeos
tas
is?
(
Mechanis
msof)controland mai
ntenance ofacons
tanti
nter
nalenvi
ronment
r
egar
dlessoft
heext
ernalcondi
ti
ons;2mks
b)Nameanyt
hreef
act
orst
hatmus
tbemai
ntai
nedcons
tanti
nmammal
ianbodi
es
Temperatur
e;Water
;Sal
tori
on cont
ent
;Car
bon (
IV)oxi
de;Gl
ucos
e;ami
no
aci
ds;Max.3mks

c)Expl
ainhowendot
her
msr
espondt
oheatandcol
dcondi
ti
onsi
nthei
renvi
ronment
Heat /hotcondi ti
ons :Increas ed sweat i
ng;t ol ose heatt hrough l atentheatof
vapor i
zation;di l
ationofar teriolesundert hes kin;tobr ingmor ebl oodt ot hes ki
n
sur facet ol os eheatt otheat mos phere;decr easedbodymet abolism;t oreduce
heatgener at ion;er ectorpi limus clesr el
ax;maki nghai rf oll
iclest or elaxhence
hai rliesflatons kin,noai rist rapped;toloseheat ;slow/ reducedmus cul aracti
vit
y
duet os lowmet abol ism;t or educeheatpr oduction;pant i
ngt oexpos et ongueand
mout h;t or eleas eheat ;movi ngt os hadest oavoi ddi rectheat ;aes tivati
on;to
es capet heext r
emeheat ;f l
appi ngofear stocr eatecur rent stocar ryawayheat ;
Col dcondi tions :s tampi ngoff eet;t ogener ateheat ;bas kingi nt hes unt ogain
heatdi rectly;l esspr oductionofs weat;toreducewat erlos sthroughl atentheatof
vapor i
zation;vas ocons tri
ction ofar t
eriol
es;hence l essbl ood flow t ot he ski
n
sur face t or educe heatl oss;i ncreased met aboli
sm t hr ough rel eas e ofmor e
thyr oxinehor mone;t ogener ateheat ;erectorpi l
imus clescont ract ;pul li
nghair
follicl
eshencehai ri sr aised;t ot rapal ayerofmoi s tai r;topr eventheatl oss;
shi vering/rapi dcont racti
onofmus cles;toyieldheatt owar m body;Max.1 5mks

1
2.Des
cri
bet
her
out
etakenbywat
erf
rom t
hes
oilupt
otheevapor
ati
ngs
urf
aceofa
pl
ant
Wat eri s drawn i ntot he roothai rcel ls by osmos i
s;due t ot he pr esence of
dissolveds ubs t
ancesi nt hecel lsapofr oothairs,t heconcent r
ationofcel lsapi s
greatert hant hatoft hes urr
oundings olutionint hes oil
/concent rati
ongr adient;this
exertsahi gheros mot icpr essure,thusdr awingt hewat ermol eculesacros st hecell
wallandcel lmembr anei ntot heroothai rcells;morewat erdr awni ntother oothair
cell
sdi l
utest hecel ls ap;maki ngi tles sc oncentratedt hant hati ntheadj acent
cortexcel lofther oot ;duet oos moticgr adient,watermovesf rom t headjacentcel l
s
tothenextbyos mos is;unt i
litentersthexyl em ves selslocatedi nt hecent eroft he
root;t he xylem ves selsoft he roott hen conductt he wat erup i nt
ot he xylem
vesselsi nthes tem i ntot heleaves;therei saf orceint her ootswhi chpus heswat er

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com
upt hes tem;t hisforcei sknownasr ootpr es sure;andcanbecons i
der abl yhi ghi n
somepl ant s ;ener gyf rom t heendoder malc ellsoft her ootisr es pons i
blef ordr iving
thisf or
ce;i nt hexyl em ves sels,wat erwoul dr iseupbycapi llarit
y;t os omeext ent
bec auset heves selsar enar r
owerandt herei s ahi ghat tr
act ivef orcebet weent he
wat ermol ecul esandt hecel lwal l
s ;thecohes ive;andadhes ivef orcesar ei mpor tant
int hemai ntenanceofacont i
nuousanduni nterrupt edwat ercol umni nt hexyl em
ves selsupt het r
eet ot heleaves ;wat ervapor izesf rom t hes pongymes ophyl lcel ls
;
theircel ls apbecomesconcent ratedt hant headj acentcel ls .Thisi ncr eas est he
os mot i
cpr es sur eoft hes pongymes ophyllc ells;asar esul
toft his,wat erf lowsi nto
thecel lfrom ot hers urroundi ngcel l,whichi nt urnt akesi nwat erf rom xyl em ves sels
wi t
hint hel eafvei ns;t hiscr eatesapul l/s
uct ionf or cet hatpul l
sas t
ream ofwat er
from xyl em ves selsi nt hes t
em andr oots.Thi sf or ce,knownast r
ans pirat i
onpul l
;
helpsi nmai ntainingacont i
nuouscol umnofwat erf rom ther ootst ot hel eaves ;
wat erflowsf rom t hemi dribi ntoleafvei nsf rom wher eitent er sleafcel ls;f r
om t he
mes ophyllcel ls,itent er st heai rspaces ;thent hes ubstomat alai rchamber s ;from
wher eitevapor atest hrought hes tomat a;tot heat mos phere;Max.20mks

1
3.Howi
sthemammal
ianhear
tadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ions
?
Hear ti sencl os edi naper i
car dialmembr ane/ per icardium;t hatpr oducesaf luid;t o
l
ubr icatei t;themembr aneal s okeepst hehear ti npos ition;I tiscover edi naf att y
l
ayer ;thatact s as a s hock abs orber;made up ofcar diac mus cles;whi ch ar e
i
nt er connect ed/ i
nteract ed hence cont ractand r elax wi thoutf at igue orner vous
stimul ati
on/ myogeni c;f orcont inuouspumpi ngofbl oodt hr oughoutt hel if
es panof
theani mal ;t hemus clesar es uppl i
edbynut rientsandoxygen;byt hecor onar y
art er i
es;andt hecor onar yvei nst akeawaywas tesandcar bon( IV)oxi de;hear ti s
divi dedi nt o4chamber s ;foref fi
cientdoubl eci rculation/avoi dmi xi ngofoxygenat ed
anddeoxygenat edbl ood/ car ryl argevol umeofbl ood;hasi nt ervent riculars eptum;
tos epar at eoxygenat edanddeoxygenat edbl ood;vent riclesar et hick/mus cular;t o
gener at
ehi ghpr es suret opumpbl oodoutoft hehear t;l eftvent ri
cle hast hick
mus cles/mor emus cular;t opumpbl oodt oal lbodyt issues ;hear thasbi cus pid;and
tricus pid val ves ;to pr eventbackf low ofbl ood t ol eftaur icle;and r ightaur icle
res pect ively;val veshave t endi nouscor ds /valve t endons ;t o pr eventt hem f rom
tur ningi nsideout ;s emil unarval vesl ocat edatt hebegi nningofmaj orar teries ;
preventbackf low ofbl oodi ntot hevent ricles;hass i
no- ar tri
onodel ocatedi nt he
mus cles of t he r ight aur icle; t o i nitiate hear t beat /
cont ract ions of hear t
mus cles/cardiacmus cles ,rateofhear tbeati scont rolledbyner ves ;vagusner ve;
slowsdownhear tbeat ;whi les ympat heticner ve;s peedsupt hehear tbeat ;hasaor ta;
tot rans portoxygenat ed bl ood t o allbody par ts;has pul monar y ar tery;t hat
trans portsdeoxygenat edbl oodf rom rightv ent riclest ol ungsf oroxygenat ion;has
pul monar yvei n;thatt r
ans por tsoxygenat edbl oodf rom l ungst ot hel eftvent r
icles ;
fordi s t
ributiont oal lbodypar ts;hast hevenacava;t hat r ecei vesdeoxygenat ed
bloodf r
om al lbodypar tst or ightvent r
icles ;Max.20mks

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1
4.Des
cri
bedoubl
eci
rcul
ati
oni
nmammal
s
Deoxygenat edbl oodfrom bodyt i
ssues( exceptlungs);ent er st heheartviathe
rightauricle;throught hevenacava;i tfl
owst ot herightvent ricle;viathetri
cuspi
d
valve;the r ightvent r
icle contr
acts;pumpi ng blood;vi at he s emilunarvalves;
throught hepul monaryar t
ery;tot helungsf oroxygenation;t heoxygenat edblood
from thelungs ;f
lowthrought hepul monaryvei n;t
othel eftaur icle;vi
athebicuspi
d
valve;tot hel eftventr
icle;theleftventr
icl
econt r
act
s ;pumpi ngbl oodviathesemi
lunarvalves ;throughtheaor ta;t
ot herestoft hebodyt i
ssues ;Max.20mks

1
5.Des
cri
bet
hepr
oces
sofur
inef
ormat
ioni
nthemammal
ianki
dneys
Theaf ferentar ter i
olewhi chi sabr anchoft her enalar terys uppl i
esbl oodt ot he
glomer ulus;t he af ferentar teriole hasawi derl umen/ diamet ert han t he ef f
erent
arter i
ole;whi ch t akes away bl ood f rom t he gl omer ulus ;t he di ff
er ences i nt he
diamet eroft heaf ferentandt heaf fer entves s elscaus eshi ghpr es sur e;l eadi ngt o
ultrafi
ltrati
onofbl ood;t hewal l
soft hebl oodcapi ll
ar i
esar eone- cellt hick;hence
glucos e,ami noaci ds ,vi tami ns ,hor mones ,s al
t s,cr eat i
ne,ur eaandwat erf i
lterinto
theBowman’ scaps ule;t of orm gl omer ul
arf i
ltr
at e;whi tebl oodcel ls,redbl oodcel ls
,
plas mapr oteinss uchasgl obul i
nandpl atelet sar et ool arget opas st hr ought he
capi l
larywal l
;hencer emai nint hebl oodcapi l
laries ;us efuls ubs t
ancesi nt hehuman
body ar es elect ivel yr eabs orbed;back i ntot he bl ood s tr eam att he pr oximal
convol ut ed tubul e;t he t ubul ei shi ghl ycoi led;t oi ncr easet he s ur face ar eaf or
reabs or pti
onoft hes ubs tances ;t heus efuls ubs tancesi ncl udeami noaci ds ,gl ucose,
vitami ns ,hor mones ,s odi um chl or i
deandwat er;manymi t
ochondr iaf oundatt he
proxi malconvol utedt ubul e;pr ovideener gyf orr eabs or ptionoft hes es ubs tances
agai nstaconcent rationgr adient ;thegl omer ularf iltratef lowsi ntot hedes cendi ng
and t he as cendi ng l i
mb oft he l oop ofHenl e;bl ood i nt he capi l
lar iesand t he
glomer ularfil
t r
at ei nt hel oopofHenl emovei noppos i
tedi rections /
count er-cur r
ent
fl
ow;t hispr ovidesas teepconcent rationgr adientt hatl eadst omaxi mum abs or pt
ion
ofwat ert hroughos mos is;s odium chl oridei sact ivel yabs orbedf rom t heas cendi ng
li
mb i ntot hebl oodcapi llari
es ;undert hei nfluenceofal dos t
eronehor mone;t he
glomer ularf il
trat ef l
ows i ntot he col l
ect i
ng t ubul ef rom wher e,mor e wat eris
reabs or bedi ntot hebl oods tream;ant i
di uretichor monei nfluencest heamountof
wat ert o be r eabs orbed dependi ng on t he os mot i
c pr ess ure oft he bl ood;t he
glomer ularf i
ltratef r
om s everalcol lecting t ubul es now r ef err
ed t o as ur i
ne;i s
empt i
ed i ntot he col lect ing duct ;the ur ine pas s est hrough pyr amid,pel vi sand
uret eri ntot hebl adder ;wher ei ti ss t
or edf ors omet ime.Thes phinct eront he
uret hrar elaxest oal l
owur inet ober el eas edf rom t hebody;Max.20mks

1
6.Expl
aint
her
oleoft
hef
oll
owi
nghor
monesdur
inghomeos
tas
is
a)Ant
idi
uret
icHor
mone(
ADH)
Secret
edbythe(posteri
orl
obe/
end)pit
uitar
ygl
and;inres
ponsetoani ncr
ease
i
nt heosmot
icpr
es s
ur eofbl
ood;t
hehor monesti
mulat
esthedist
alconvolut
ed
tubul
esandthecoll
ectingduct
s;toincr
eas et
heirper
meabil
it
ytowat er;thi
s

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i
ncreasesthereabsorpt
ionofwaterint
othebl oods
tream;concentrat
edandl ess
uri
nei sexcr
eted;whent heosmoticpr
ess ur
edecreases,les
sornohor monei s
produced;hence the tubul
es become impermeablet o water;less wat
eri s
reabsorbed i
nto the bloodst
ream; hence mor e dil
ute urine is excr
eted;
f
luctuat
ionsi
nt heosmoticpres
sureisdetectedbythehypothalamus;

b)I
nsul
in
Secr eted by t
he pancrease;inr es
pons et oar isein blood sugarlevel;it
sti
mul atesli
vercell
stoconver ttheexces sglucos
ei ntoglycogenandf at
sf or
storage inthe li
verand mus cl
e cells;incr
easesthe oxidati
on ofglucosei n
respirati
ontoyiel
dwat erenergyandcar bon( I
V)oxide/
incr
easesmet abol
ismi n
thebody;t hi
sleadstoaf al
linbloodglucosetonormallevel;
c)Gl
ucagon
Sec r
etedbythepancrease;inr esponsetoadeclineinbl
oodglucoselevel;it
stimulat
esl
ivercel
lstoc onver
tt hes t
oredgl
ycogenandfatsbacktoglucos e;
stimulat
est
heconversi
onofami noacidstoglucos
e;andstopst
heoxidationof
glucoseinthebodycell
s ;theglucoseformedisreleas
edtothebloodsteream
causingari
seofbloodglucoseleveltonormal
;Max.20mks

1
7.a)Di
sti
ngui
s weenDi
hbet abet
esmel
li
tusandDi
abet
esi
nsi
pidus
Di
abetesmelli
tusisacondi t
ion/diseasecausedbyf ailur
eofthepancreaseto
produceadequateinsuli
nhormone;l eadingtoexcessgl ucosel
evel
sinthebody
someofwhi chisreleasedi
nur inewhi l
ediabetesinsi
pidusisacondit
ioncaused
byfail
ure/i
nabi
li
tyoft heki
dneyt ubulest ocontr
oltheamountofwat erinur i
ne
asar es
ultofadef ectinproductionofant i
diur
etichor mone(ADH)leadingto
producti
onofmor edilut
euri
ne;Max.2mks

b)Expl
ainhowmammal
ianbodi
esr
egul
ategl
ucos
eandpr
otei
nlevel
sint
hei
rbl
ood
Whengl ucosel eveli shi gh( above90mg/ 00cm3)
1 ,t hebr ai
ns endsi mpulsest o
the( cel lsofis letsofLanger hans )pancr eas ecel ls ;toreleas eins ulinhormone;
thehor mones ti
mul ateslivercel l
st oconver tt heexces sgl ucos ei ntoglycogen
andf atsf ors tor agei nthel iverandmus clecel ls ;increasest heoxi dationof
glucosei nr espirat i
on to yi eld wat erener gyand car bon ( I
V)oxi de/i
ncr eas es
met abolismi nt hebody;t hisl eadst oaf allinbl oodgl ucos et onor mall evel;
3
However ,whent hegl ucos el evelf all
sbel ow nor mal( below 90mg/ 100cm ) ;t he
brains endsi mpul sest othe( cel lsoft hei sl
et sofLanger hans )pancr easecel ls
;
whichar es ti
mul atedt or eleas egl ucagonhor mone;t hehor mones timulatesl iver
cell
st oconver tt hes t
oredgl ycogenandf at sbackt ogl ucos e;s timulatest he
conver sionofami noaci dst ogl ucos e;ands topst heoxi dationofgl ucosei nt he
body cel l
st o avai lmor e gl ucos e;t he gl ucos ef ormed i sr eleas ed t ot he
bloods t
ream caus i
ngar iseofbl oodgl ucos el evelt onor mal;Thel evelofpl as ma
proteinss uchaspr othrombi n,gl obulins,al bumi nsandf ibrinogen;whi chpl aya
majorr olei n os mor egulation and bl ood cl otting;ar e cont r
olled byt he liver;
whichmanuf actur est hem us ingt heami noaci dsf oundi nt hel iver ;whent heir
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levelsreduce,mor ei sproduced;butwhent heleveli
shi gh,les
softheproteins
ispr oducedint heliver
;exces saminoacidsar edeaminated;asthebodyisnot
ablet os torethem;t hepr ocessinvol
vesr emovalofanami nogroupfrom an
ami noaci dmolecule;theami nogroupent erstheornithinecycl
e;wherei tis
combi nedwi t
hcar bon(IV)oxidetoform urea;whichi
sexcr et
edinuri
nethrough
theki dneys;Max.18mks

1
8.Expl
ainhowt
hevar
iousabi
oti
cfact
orsmayaf
fectpl
ant
s
Temper ature;af fectss oi
lf ormat i
onanddi st
ri
but i
onofpl ant s;af f
ectt r anspi r
at ion
rat
eashi ght emper aturesl eadt ohi ghr atesoft ranspi
rati
on;I tal soaffect st her ate
ofphot osynthes iswi tht he di recti nf
luence on enzyme act ivity;Lighti nt ens ity;
aff
ect st her at eofphot os ynthes is;Wi nd;i ncreas ethet rans pir
at i
onr ates;af f
ect s
dispersalofs eedsandf ruits;agent sofpol li
nation;aff
ectdi str
ibutioni nt er msof
winds torms /breakages ;At mos pher i
cpr essure;highatmos pher i
cpr es sur eleadst o
l
ow r atesoft rans pi
ration;hi ghoxygenandcar bon( I
V)oxi deconcent rati
on;hi gh
photos ynthet i
cr ates;whi l
el ow at mos phericpres sureleadst ohi ght r anspi r
at ion
rat
es ;les sconcent r
ationofoxygenandcar bon( IV)oxide;l eadingt ol ow r atesof
photos ynthes is;Wat er/Rainf all
;f ormsar aw mat eri
alforphot os ynthes is;hel psi n
suppor ti nplantt iss
ues ;affectsdi s tri
but i
onofpl ants;Humi dit
y;l ow humi di
t yl eads
tohi ght rans pirationr ates ;whi l
ehi ghhumi di
tyleadst olow r atesoft r anspi ration;
pH;af f
ect sdi stributi
onofpl ant s;s omegr ow inaci dicsoil
s ;other si nal kali
nes oils;
Edaphic/ soilfact ors;affect spl antdi str
ibut i
on;int ermsofbei ngs ourcesofwat er
andmi nerals alts;provi deas ubs tr
at um foranchor ageofpl ant s;Max.20mks

1
9.Di
scus
sthecaus
es,ef
fect
sandcont
rolmeas
uresf
orwat
erpol
lut
ion
Caus esofwat erpol luti
onar evar i
ed:i ndus tri
alef fl
uents ;haveheavymet alst hat
poison aquat i
c or gani s ms ; untreated organi c mat t
er has
phos phat es/sulphates /nit
r ates /s al
ts;thatcaus eeut rophicat i
on;caus ingal galbl oom
thatdepr i
vest hewat erofnut rient s
;whent heal gaedi e,t heyl eadt oani ncreasei n
putrefying bact eri
a whos e decompos it
ion act iviti
esl ead t ot he r eleas e ofawf ul
smel l
s /odours ;oi lef f
luent scl og r espiratorys urfacesofaquat i
cor gani sms /
deat h
due t os uff
ocat ion;domes t
icef f
luents/sewage;f or m ahabi tatofpat hogenst hat
spread wat er bor ne di seas es ;decompos i
ng s ewage pr omot es eut rophication
l
eadi ngt oalgalbl oom;deat hpr omot es /attr
act ss aprophyt icbact eriat hatus eup
oxygen i n wat er ; caus ing s uffocat i
on/ deat h t o aquat i
c or ganis ms ;
agrochemi cal
s /ferti
li
zer s;phos phat es/nitrates;caus eeut rophi cation;heavymet als
i
n agr ochemi cals ( herbi cides /
pes t
icides) ; af f
ect r es pi
r ator y s ur f
aces /
caus e
breathing pr obl ems ;Hotwat er ;r ai
set emper atur e ofwat er ;ki ll
ing or ganis ms ;
dissolvesl essoxygen;r educ ingi t
scont enti nwat er;Oi ls pillage;i noceansf rom
tanks/refineries ;soakf eat her sofmar inebi rdspr eventingf light ;clogsr espirator y
surfaces l eading t o deat h;coat s phot osynt hetic phyt oplankt ons ;r educes l ight
penet rati
onhamper ingphot os ynt hesis;Sedi ment s;f r
om s oiler os i
onmakeswat er
dirt
y;maki ngi tunf itforcons umpt ion;clogsr espirat orys ur f
aceshi nder inggas eous

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exchange;r educesl i
ghtpenet rati
on hi ndering phot osynt
hesis;Cont r
olmet hods:
Enforcementofenvi ronment all aws ;Us e ofunl eaded fuel/petr
oleum pr oducts;
Propert reatmentanddi spos alofs ewagewas tes;Tr eat
mentofi ndus t
ri
aleffluent
s
beforer eleas e;Publ i
c educat ion on cor rect us e ofi norganicf ert
il
izers and
agrochemi cals; and us e of al ternati
ves s uch as bi ologi
cal cont rol of
weeds /pests/organic manur e;Us e ofunder sea pi peli
nes i
ns t
ead oft anker sto
tr
ans portoilpr oduct
s;Coolinghotwat erbef orer eleaset owat
erbodi es;Max.20

20.Howar
exer
ophyt
esandhydr
ophyt
esadapt
edt
othei
rhabi
tat
s?
Xer ophyt es:thi ckwaxycut icl e;mi nimi zewat erl os s;leavesar efoldedandr educed
ins ize;t o mi ni mize s tomat alt r
ans pirat i
on;s unken s t
omat a;tor educe r ate of
trans pi r
ation;t hick/succulentl eaves ,s i
de br anchesors t
ems ;forwat ers torage;
sheddi ng ofl eavesdur ing t he dr yper iods ;t or educe s ur f
ace areaexpos ed for
trans pi r
ation;r ever sed s t
omat alr hythm;pr eventexces sive loss ofwat er;deep
penet rati
ngr oot s;t oabs orbwat erf rom deepbel owt hes ur f
ace;s uperfi
cialroot s;to
abs or bs ur f
acewat err un-of
f;l eavescover edi ns cal es /hairs;t otr
apamoi stlayerof
air;t or educe t he r ate oft rans pirati
on;dr ought -res i
stants eeds;t hatr emai n
dor mantt il
lf avour able weat herr esumes ;under ground or gans( cor
ms /bulbs );for
stor ageofwat erandr eproduct ion;mos ts tomat al ocat edont helowerl eafs ur f
ace;
toavoi dexpos ur etodi rectlight ;tor educeevapor ation;r educednumberofs tomat a;
tor educet her ateoft r
ans piration;Hydr ophyt es :s tomat aont heuppers urfaceof
leaves ;topr ovi deal arges urfacear eaf orgas eousexchange;andl os sofexces s
wat er ;poor ly-devel opedr oot st hatl ackr oothai rs;t or educe/ avoidabs orptionof
wat er ;aer enchymat i
ssuei nl eaves ,s temsandr oot s;tos t
or eair;andf orbuoyancy;
deepl y-dissect ed l eaves ;to pr ovide al ar ge s ur f
ace ar eaf orabs or
ption ofl i
ght ;
highl y- s
ens it
ive;and numer ouschl oropl as t
s;f orphot osynt hesi
s;gr eatly-reduced
vas cul arbundl e;t oavoi dabs orptionofwat er ;flower sr ais edabovet hewat er;to
allow f orpol linat ion;lackofacut i
cleorver yt hi ncut icl
e;f orfasterlos sofwat er;
Max.20mks

21
.Out
li
net
hedi
ff
erencesbet
weenwi
ndandi
nsectpol
li
nat
edf
lower
s
Fl
ower sofwi ndpol li
nat edpl antsar es mal l
;wi thnobr acts,s epal sorpet als;if
pres entt hepet al
sar es mal l
,incons picuous ;of t
enwhi t
eorgr eeni ncol our;whi l
e
insectpol l
inatedf lower sar elarge;of tenwi thbr ightlycol our edpet als,bractsor
inf
lor escence;t oat tracti nsec ts.Fl
ower sofwi ndpol l
inatedpl ant shavenonect aries;
andnos cent ;whilef l
ower sofi nsectpol l
inatedpl ant sar es cent ed;andpr oduce
nectar ;inwi ndpol linat edf lower s
,t heant her sar el arge;andl oos elyat tachedona
fl
exibl efil
ament ;toal l
ow pol l
engr ainst ober eadi lyr eleasedwhenwi ndbl owson
theant hers;whi leant her sofi nsectpol li
natedf l
ower sar eus ual l
ys mal l;andf i
rmly
attachedont hefil
ament s;t hisens ur est hatt hei nsectr ubagai ns ttheant her;as
they cr awli ntot he f l
owercol l
ecting pol l
en gr ains ont ot hei rbodi es ;i
n wi nd
polli
nat edf lower s
,t hes tigmasar ef eather y;wi delys pread;t hisact sasnet st o
catch pol len asi tf loatst hrough t he ai r;whi l
ei ni nsectpol li
nated f lowerst he
sti
gmasar es mall
;s moot h;ands t
icky;andar eal soencl osed;t hisf eatureens ures
thatpol lengr ainsfrom t hebodyofani nsects tickont oit;inwi ndpol l
inatedf l
ower s,

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thef l
ower saresimplewithnopar t
iculars hape;whi les omef l
owersthatarei nsect
polli
natedhavepet alswithgr oovesordar kl ines ;leadingfrom thepetalboardert o
thenect ari
es;somehavet ubularorf unnel-s hapedcor oll
a;andlandingplatf
orms ;to
guidet heinsecttothesour ceoft henect arf ort heirfood;flowersofwindpolli
nat ed
plantsareei t
heronl ongs tal
ksabovet hel eaves ;ordevel opfrom fl
owerbudst hat
openbef oretheleafbuds ;toi ncreaset hef lowerexpos uret oaircurrent
s;whi l
e
f
lower sofinsectpolli
nat
edpl antsar eons hor tstalks;oftenenclosedbyt hecor ol
la;
22.Des cribewhathappensi naf l
owerf r
om t het i
meofpol li
nati
onupt ot het i
meof
seedandf rui
tdevelopment
Afterpol li
nation,thepol l
engr ainabs orbsnut r
ientsf rom t hes tigma;anddevel ops
apol lent ube;i tgrowsdownt hes tylet ot heembr yos ac;t aki ngal ongt hemal e
nucl ei;t he t ube nucl eii niti
ates and mai ntains pol len t ube gr owt h;whi let he
gener ativenucl eusdividesbymi tosis;tof ormt womal egamet enucl ei;whi chf oll
ow
behi nd t he t ube nucleusast he pol len t ube growsdown t he s tyle;pol len t ube
ent erst heovul ethrought hemi cropyle;itst i
pbur s tsopen;whi let het ubenucl eus
disintegr ates ; one of t he mal e gamet e nucl eus f us es wi t
h t he egg cel l
nucl eus /oos phere/megas por e;tof ormt hezygot e;whi let heot herf us eswi t
ht he
twopol arnucl ei;toform at ri
ploidnucl eus ;calledt hepr imar yendos per m nucl eus;
afterf ertil
izati
on,t he zygot e under goes r epeated mi t
otic di visions ;t of orm an
embr yo cons ist
ing oft he pl umul e,r adicle and s eed l eaves /cot yledons ;pr imar y
endos per m nucleusdi vider epeat edl
y,becomes eparat edbymembr anes ;tof orm an
(semi - f
luid nut ri
ti
ve)endos perm;ovar y wal ls change i nt ot he per i
carp;ovar y
changes /developsi nto af rui
t;whi le ovul esl ose wat erand become s eeds ;the
integument s;changei nt os eedcoat s/testa;s tyl
e/fi
lament s/pet als/sepal swi t
herand
fal
lof f( ormayper sist);Max.20mks

23.Di
scus
stheadapt
ati
onsoft
hef
emal
erepr
oduct
ives
yst
em ofhumans
Elas t
ic ut erine wal l
s ;to expand s o as t o accommodat et he gr owing foet us ;
mus cularf ootoft hepel vi
sandbl adders uppor tt heweightoft hegr owi ngfoet us ;
funnel -shapedendsoft heovi duct;dir
ectt heovar el
easedt ot heut erus ;mus cular
uter i
newal l
s;cont ractandr elaxt oexpelt hef oetusatbi rth;longvagi nalcanal ;
all
ows uff
icientent ryofpeni st oavoi dwas tageofs perms;thet woovar iesmaxi mi ze
chances of r eleas i
ng ovum af ter ever y ci rcle (28 days )
; ovar ies are wel l
vas cularised/havegoodbl oods upply;toens urenour ishmentofcel lsinvolvedi n
oogenes is( primor dialmot her /germ cel ls) or egg f ormat i
on;hi gh number of
pot entialmot hercel ls;ens ur esmaxi mum numberofovawhi chdevel opt omat ur i
t y;
plent yofyol ki neggcel ls
;whi chnour i
sht hef oetusbeforet hepl acent abecomes
funct i
onal;t he vi t
elline membr ane of t he ovum t hickens af ter f ert
il
ization;
prevent i
ngf ur t
herent r
yofs per ms ;t
heovi ductwal li
sablet ocont ract ;inordert o
facili
tatemovementofovum downt heovi duct ;hasci l
iatowaf ttheovum f orwar d;
wal loft hevagi na/vulvapr oducemucus ;t ol ubricatethepeni sdur i
ngcopul ation;
cli
tor i
s;hasmanyner veendi ngs ;topr ovidemaxi mum s ti
mul ati
ondur i
ngcopul at i
on
formaxi mum ej aculationandf as t
ermovementofs permatozoa;Max.20mks

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24.Des
cri
bet
hepr
oces
sofgas
eousexchangei
nter
res
tri
alpl
ant
s
Gaseousexchangeoccur si nt hes pongymes ophyll;Dur i
ngt heday,ai rdi f
fuses
i
nt olargeai rs pacesoft hes pongymes ophyll;throught hestomat a;thecar bon( I
V)
oxide i nt he ai r di ff
uses i nto phot os ynthet i
c cel ls
;i ns oluti
on f orm;dur i
ng
photos ynt hesis,car bon( I
V)oxi deisus edup;whi l
eoxygeni sproduced;s omeoft he
oxygeni sus edi nr espir
ation;whi l
et her es tdi f
fusesoutoft hel eaf;throught he
stomat a;Dur ingt heni ght,ai rdiff
us esi ntot heai rs paces ;t
hrought hes t
omat a;the
airdiss olvesi ntot hef il
m ofmoi stur e;oxygeni nt heai rdif
fusesi ntothecel l
s ;and
i
sus edf orr espiration;car bon( I
V)oxi depr oduced;di ff
usesoutt hroughs tomat a;
due t o a concent rati
on gr adient/diff
us ion gr adi
ent ;Atni ght,car bon ( I
V)oxi de
accumul ates int he l eafs ince phot os ynthes is does notoccur ;s ome gas eous
exchangeal sot akespl acet hr ought hecut icle;andt hrought heepi dermi sofyoung
l
eaves ,r oots and s tems ;s ome pl ants exchange gas es t hrough br eat hi
ng
roots/pneumat ophor es;olders t
emsexchangegas est hroughlent i
cels;Max20mks

25.Howi
sthemammal
iangas
eousexchanges
yst
em adapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ions
?
Nas alcavi ty;hascel lst hatpr oducemucus ;thatt oget herwi t
hhai rs/cili
a;trapand
propeldus t /microbes t ot he phar ynx t o be br eat hed out /swal l
owed;cavi t yi s
suppl iedwi thcapi l
laries;t hatwar mt heai rf orfas t
erf lowi nt hechannel s;epi glot ti
s;
cover st het racheadur i
ngs wal lowi ng;s ot hatpar ticlesoff oodandwat ermaynot
entert het rachea;t racheaandbr onchi ;hav ecar t
ilager ings ;tokeept hepas sages
open/ pr eventt hem f rom col l
aps ing;s ot hatai rmoves i n and outf reely and
cont i
nuous ly;ar e al sol i
ned wi th mucousmembr aneswhi ch have hai r
s /
ci l
iated;
whos emovement /
waf ti
ngpus houtdus tpar ti
clescol lect edi nt hepas s agesi ntot he
phar ynx;r ichly-suppl iedwi thbl oodves sels ;towar mt heai r;forf asterf low;l ungs ;
havenumer ousal veol i
;t oi ncreas et hes ur f
acear eaf orgas eousexchange;al veol i
have at hin epi thelium;t or educe t he di stance t hr ough whi ch gas esdi f
fusef or
easierandf as t
erdi ffusion;al veol iaremoi st;t odiss olveoxygen f orfas tertrans por t
;
lungsar es pongy;becaus eofmanyai rs acst hatcont ainal argeamountof /vol ume
ofai r;Lungsar eal sos uppl iedwi thmanybl oodves s els ;fort rans portationofgas es;
theyar eals os uppl i
edwi t
hanet wor ks ystem oft rachea,br onchiandbr onchi ol es;
topr ovi deanef f
icients ystem/ larges urfacear eaforgas eousexchange;Lungsar e
enclos edi napl eur almembr ane;whi chs ec r
et epl eur alf luid;t hatpr ot ectthel ung
surface;l ubr i
catet he ches tcavi t
y;al l
owi ng s moot h movementofl ungsast hey
changevol umes ;ribshavei nter cos talmus cles ;thatmoves /contractsandr elaxest o
all
ow f orinhal ationandexhal ation;r i
bsal sopr otectt hel ungs ;hast hedi aphr agm
mus cles whos e cont ract i
on and r elaxation l eads t oi nhalation and exhal ation
respect i
vely;Max.20mks

26.Des
cri
bet
hes
truct
ureandf
unct
ionoft
hemammal
ians
kin
I
thasacor nifi
edl ayermadeupofdeadcel lsandist oughandi mpermeabl eto
water
;toprotectthes ki
nagainstmechanicaldamage;bacteri
alinf
ect
ionsandwat er
l
oss;granul
arlayer;whosecellsdividet
of ormthecornif
iedlayer;malpi
ghianlayer;
whichismadeupofdi vingcell
st hatgi
ver isetoanew gr anul
arlayer;contai
ns
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mel ani n;t o protects kin agai nstul tra-viol etr ays/radiations ;Sebaceous gl ands ;
whi chs ecretes ebum;t omak ethes kins uppl e/sof
tandwat erproof;s ebum isal s o
ant iseptic;Bloodves sels ;dil
atedur inghotweat her;increas ingbl oodf low neart he
skins ur f
ace;heatl os si senhanced;cons tri
ct;in col d weat her;l es sblood f l
ow;
mi nimi ze heatl os s;Sens or
y ner ve endi ngs and r ecept or s;enabl e detection of
ext ernalenvi r
onment alchanges ;Hi ghlyc oil
ed s weatgl ands ;s ecr etes weat;t o
cont rolbodyt emper atur e;when hots weatevapor atescool ing the body;s weat
cont ains excr etor y pr oduct s;s ubcut aneous f at/
adipos et issue i n der mis ;f or
insulat i
on;hai r;tor egul atebodyt emper atur e;incol dweat herer ectorpi l
imus cles
cont ract;hai risraised,ai rtrappedt oi nsul atet hebody;i nhotweat her ,erectorpi l
i
mus clesr elax;hai rl
iesf l
atr educingi nsul ation;dens enet wor kofbl oodcapi l
laries;
suppl ynut r
ients/oxygent os kintissues ;aswel lascar ryi
ngawaywas tesandcar bon
(IV)oxi deawayf r om thes kintissues;adi pos etissue/sub- cut aneousl ayer;servesas
ani ns ulator;helpingint emper aturecont r ol;hel psinmanuf act ureofvi t
aminD;Max.
20mks

27.Des
cri
bet
her
oleoft
hef
oll
owi
nghor
monesi
nthemens
trualcycl
e
a)Lut
eini
singHor
mone(
LH)
Produced byt he pitui
tar
ygl and;undert he i
nfl
uence ofoestrogen hormone;
causet hebursti
ngoft heGraafianfol
li
cle;t
oreleaseamat ureegg/ovum/causes
ovulat
ion;s t
imulatesthe change/conversi
on ofthe Graafi
an fol
li
cle;i
ntothe
corpusl ut
eum;stimulat
esthecor puslut
eum;tos ecr
eteprogesteronehormone;
b)F
oll
icl
eSt
imul
ati
ngHor
mone(
FSH)
Producedbytheanteri
orl
obeofthepit
uit
arygl
and;itst
imulat
esthematurat
ion
ofthe Graaf
ian f
oll
icl
einthe ovar
ies
;s t
imul
ates t
he ovari
an ti
ssue/
wallto
secret
eoestr
ogen;
c)Oes
trogen
Br
ings about
/st
imul
ates t
he heal
ing and repair ofthe uter
ine wal
l;af
ter
menst
ruati
on;st
imul
atest
hepit
uit
arygland;t
os ecret
elutei
nis
inghor
mone;
d)Pr
oges
ter
one
Secreted by t he corpus lut
eum; i ts t
imul
ates the thi
ckeni
ng of t he
endomet ri
um/uter
inewall
;inpreparat
ionforimplant
ati
on;i
nhi
bitssecret
ionof
theF oll
icl
eStimulat
ingHormone;theref
orepreventi
ngfurt
herdevelopmentof
theGr aafi
anf
oll
icl
e;Max.20mks
28.a)Whati
ssecondar
ygr
owt
h?
Typeofgrowt
ht hatoccur
sduet ocambium act
ivi
tyi
nwoodypl
ant
s/s
tems
;
r
es ul
ti
ngi
nan increas
ei ngi
rt
h/wi
dthofpl
ants
;2mks
b)Des
cri
bet
hepr
oces
sofs
econdar
ythi
ckeni
ngi
nawoodys
tem
F
acil
itat
edbymer i
stemat
iccel l
s(cambi
um)l ocatedbetweent hephl
oem and
thexylem (i
ntervascul
arcambi um);itdi
videsradiall
ytoform cambi
um ti
ssues;
wit
hxyl em for
mi ngtheout err i
ng/t
othei ns
ide;whi l
ethephloem for
mingt he
outer r
ing/t
ot he out si
de;divisi
on ofthe cambi um ri
ng;form as econdary

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parenchyma;hencei ncreases /f
or mst hemedul laryrays;otherxyl ems( secondar y
xylem)ar ef ormed;hencepus hest hephloem andcambi um r i
ngout war ds;thi s
createspr ess ureont heout ercel l
s ;resul
ti
ngi ns t
retchi
ngandevent ualrupturing
ofepi dermalcel ls;anew band/ vol umeofcambi um cellsaref ormedi nt hecor tex
beneat htheepi dermi s(corkcambi um cell
s/phell
ogen);tor eplacet heser uptured
cells;thephel logencel lsdivideonei thersi
de;wher ethei nnercellsbecomet he
secondar ycor t
ex;whi lethos epr oducedont heout s
idebecomecor kcel l
s;whi ch
are t ightl
y packed; and become coat ed wi th an oi ly/
waxy wat er-proof
mat erial
/suber i
n;furthermul tiplicat i
onofcor kcel l
s;leadtof ormationoft hebar k;
whichf or
msapr otecti
vel ayer( agai nstwat erlossanddamagebyor ganisms );
seas onsres ultsintoannualr i
ngs ;s omecor kcellsform aloos emas s/l
enticelsthat
all
owgas eousexchanget hrought hes tem;Max.1 8mks
29.Di
scus
sthevar
iousmechani
smsofopeni
ngandcl
osi
ngofs
tomat
a
Phot os ynthet i
ct heor y;dur i
ng t he day,guar d cel l
s car ry outphot os ynt hes is
manuf act uring gl ucos e;Thi si ncr eas est he os mot icpr es sure oft he s apv acuol e;
whichbecomeshi ghert hant hatoft henei ghbour ingepi der malcel ls;guar dcel ls
theref or et akei nwat erbyos mos is;andbec omet ur gid;t heout ert hinwal ls t
retches
eas i
ly;pul lingt het hickeri nnerwal lout war ds ;thust hes tomat aopens ;Atni ght ,
therei snol i
ghthencenophot os ynt hes istakespl ace;pl antcel l
sr espireus i
ngup
mor egl ucos e;t heos mot i
cpr es sur eoft hes apvacuol eoft heguar dcel lsr educes ;
bec omi ngl owert hant henei ghbour i
ngepi der malcel ls ;theguar dcellsl os ewat er
byos mos i
s ;toadj acentepi der malcel ls ;theyt henbecomef laccid;pul l
ingt oget her
the t hi ck i nnerwal ls ;and s t omat a cl oses ;Enzymat ici nter -conver s
ion bet ween
starchandgl ucos e/s ugar;Atdayt i
me,pl antscont inuous lyus ecar bon( IV)oxi def or
phot os ynt hes is;leadi ngt oani ncr eas ei nt hepH oft heguar dcel l
s;t hiscaus es
starch t o be conver t
ed t os ugar /gl ucos e;t he gl ucos ei ncr eases t he os mot ic
pres sur eoft heguar dcel ls;hencewat eri st akeni nbyos mos is;thecel l
sbecome
turgid and bul ge out wards ; caus ing t he s t
omat a t o open; At ni ght , no
phot os ynt hes isoccur sbutr es pirationt akespl ace;car bon( IV)oxi deaccumul atesi n
guar dcel l
s;l ower ingt hepH;t hel ow pHf avour sconver si
onofgl ucosei nt os tarch;
starchi sos mot ical l
yi nactive;t hisl ower st heos mot icpr es sur eofguar dcel ls;guar d
cellst her efor el os e wat erbyos mos i
st ot he adj acentepi der malcel ls;become
fl
acci d;pul lingt oget hert het hicki nnerwal l
s ;andt hes tomat acl oses ;Act i
vei on
exudat ion;dur ingt heday,t her e’sanaccumul ati
onofpot as s i
um ands odi um i ons ;
asar es ultofact i
vepumpi ngoft hei onsbyt heATPf or medt hr oughphot os ynthes is;
carbon( I
V)oxi def i
xat i
onoccur si nt heguar dcel ls ;t heguar dcel lsbecomet urgi d;
ands t
omat aopen;Atni ght,bef oret hes tomat acl os e,t hei onsdi f
fuseoutoft he
guar dcel l
si ntoepi der malcel l
s ;theos mot icpr es sureofguar dcel l
sislower ed;they
losewat ert oepi der malcel lsbyos mos is;andbecomef lacci d;t herebycl os i
ngt he
stomat a;Max.20mks

30.a)Whati
snat
urals
elect
ion?
(
Theoryputf orward byChar l
esDar
winthatexpl
ainst hat
)Natur
es el
ect
sfor
i
ndivi
dual
st hatarewel ladapt
edtoapart
icul
arenvi
r onment;andagai
nstt
hose
t
hatarelessadapted;2mks
b)Di
scus
sthr
eeexampl
esofnat
urals
elect
ioni
nact
ion

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Melanicf or msofpepper edmot hs;i nEur ope,t herear et wof ormsofpepper ed
mot hs;whi te and bl ack;bef orei ndus t
ri
alization,t he t r
ee t runks wer e white;
therefor et hewhi tepepper edmot hswer ewhi te;hencewer ecamouf l
aged;t he
blackvar i
et ieswer eeas il
ynot i
cedandf eduponbypr edatorybi rds;thewhi t
e
formt her efor erepr oducedandi ncr easedi nnumber ;dur i
ngi ndus t
ri
ali
zation,the
smoke f rom i ndust r
ies coat ed tree t r
unks bl ack;t he black variety became
camouf laged;r eproduced and i ncreas ed in popul ation;t he whi t
e variety were
easilynot icedandf eduponbypr edators;theyr educedi npopul ati
on;Res ist
ance
agains tdrugsandant ibioti
cs;wher emi croorgani smsar econt i
nuallyexpos edt oa
certaindr ug;t heircel lss ynthesi
ses peci
ficpr oteins;whi chcount ert hedr ug;this
abili
tyt os ynthesize t he pr ot
eini s pas sed ont ot he of fspri
ng;Res i
stance to
pes t
icidesbyi nsects;i nsectssuchasmos quitoeswhencont i
nuallyexpos edtoa
particularpes ti
cide;s ynt hesi
zeas pecif
icpr oteinwhi chmaket hem res i
stantto
thepes ti
cide;t hisist heni nheri
tedbyt heiroffspring;Max.1 8mks
31
.Di
scus
sLamar
ck’
sandDar
win’
stheor
iesofevol
uti
on
Larmar ck’st heor ys tatest hatwhent heenvironmentdemandst heneedorus eofa
particul
ars tructur ei nt he body;t he bodydevel opsi tinr esponse;f orexampl e
giraff
esus edt ohav es hor tnecks ;whenal lthegr asswasexhaus t
ed,t heys tar
ted
stretchingt hei rneck si ns earchofl eavesont r
ees ;thereforet heydevel opedl ong
necks ;whi cht henwer ei nheritedbyt heiroffs
pr i
ng;however ,whenas tructureis
notcont i
nuallyus ed,i treducesi ns i
zeandbecomesdys f
unctional;thi
st heor yfail
s
toexpl ainhowacqui redchar acteristi
csbecomei nherited;Dar win’stheor ys ugges t
s
thati nnat uret her eoccurs trugglef orexistence;onl yt hosei ndividualswi tht he
des i
red adapt ationss urvive;t hos e poorlyadapt ed failto compet e;and become
extinct;t here al so occur s var i
ation in nature;wher e organisms wi t
h des i
red
adapt at
ionspas sont heirchar acterist
icstoof f
s pri
ng dur i
ngr eproduction;t hose
poor ly adapted f ailtor each mat urit
y;and do notr eproduce;t herefore,nat ure
selectsf ori ndi vidualsbes tsui t
ed t o an environment ;and agai ns tthos e poor l
y
adapt ed( naturals el
ection) ;ast hereoccur ssurvivaloft hefit
tes t
;Max.20mks
32.a)Expl
ainhowt
hef
oll
owi
ngbl
oodcel
lsar
eadapt
edt
othei
rfunct
ions
i
) RedBl
oodCel
l
Presenceofhaemogl obinmol ecules;withahi ghaff
init
ytocombinewithoxygen
as/t
of orm oxyhaemoglobin;bi-concaves hape;toincreasethesurf
aceareafor
packagingofhaemogl obi
n;abs enceofnucl eus;toaccommodatemaxi mum/more
haemogl obi
nmol ecul
es;thinmembr ane;f
orfas t
erdi
ffusi
onofgas
es;Max.6mks
i
i)Whi
tebl
oodcel
l
Ir
regul
arins hape/
amoeboid;which changes t
o enablethe cel
ltos queeze
thr
ought hecapill
ari
es;lymphocyt
esproduceantibodi
es;whichhelptoprevent
dis
eases;phagocytesareamoeboid-s
haped;tochanges hapeandengul
fbacteri
a
cel
ls;Max.6mks

b)Expl
aint
hedi
ff
erentwaysi
nwhi
chCar
bon(
IV)Oxi
dei
str
ans
por
tedbybl
ood
Carbon( I
V)oxidedif
fusesoutoft hetis
suesi nt
ot heredbloodcell
swher eit
reactswith wat
er;i
nt he pres
ence ofcarbonicanhydr
ase enzyme;to pr
oduce
carboni
cacid;Theaciddissoci
atesint
ohydr ogenandhydrogencarbonateions
;
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the hydrogen carbonat eionst hen diffus e outoft he red blood cel l
si ntot he
plasma;wherei tfurtherdissociatest opr oducecarbon( IV)oxi
deonr eachingt he
alveol
arcavit
iesoft hel ungsanddi ffusesi nt ot
healveoli;somecar bon( I
V)oxi de
combines wi th t he ami ne gr oup i n t he haemoglobin mol ecule f orming
carbaminohaemogl obin;whi ch dis soci
at es i nthe l
ungs pr oducing car bon ( I
V)
oxide;somecar bon( IV)oxidedis solvesint hebloodplasmaf or
mi ngcar boni cacid,
whichdissoci
atest ocar bon( I
V)oxi deonr eachi
ngthel ungs;Max.8mks

33.Des
cri
behowt
hef
oll
owi
ngver
tebr
aear
eadapt
edt
othei
rfunct
ions
a)At
las
Hasawi deneuralcanal ;t
oaccommodat ethelar
ges pinalcor
datt heneckr egi
on;
haslarge/broadwi ng-li
kecer vicalri
bs;toi
ncreasethes urf
acear eaf orat
tachment
ofthe neck mus cl es
;hasf acet son the ant
eri
ors ide;forarticulati
on wit
ht he
occi
pitalcondyl
esoft hes kull
;al l
owingupanddownmovement /
noddi ngofthehead;
haspos teri
orfacetsf orarti
cul ati
onwiththeanteri
orf acet
soft heaxi s;f
orminga
j
ointthatallowssidewaysmov ementofthehead;
b)Axi
s
Hasabr oadcent rum;thatprojectstoformt heodontoidprocess;forart
icul
ati
on
withtheneur alcanaloftheatlas;ajoi
ntthatall
owsturni
ngoft hehead;hasalarge
andbr oad/f
latt
enedneur alspi
ne;andf l
atcervi
calr
ibs;toincr
easet hesurf
acearea
forat
tachmentofneckmus cl
es;
c)Lumbar
Has many t r
ans vers
e pr oces s
es; and addi t
ional proj
ecti
ons (met apophys
es,
hypapophyses,anapophys es )
;t o offera large surface ar
ea forattachmentof
abdominalmus cl
es ;broadneur alcanal;t
oallowpas sageofthelargespinalcordat
theupperabdomi nalarea;lar
ge/ t
hickcentr
um;t os upporttheweightoft hebody;
andwithstands t
rains/
upthrustforceduet omovement ;
d)Thor
aci
c
Long/ el
ongatedneur alspine;t ooff
eral ar
ges urfaceareaf orattachmentoft he
l
argebackmus cl
es;haveal argecentrum andneur alcanal;t
oof f
ers upportt othe
thoraciccage;hast ubercularf acetont hetransver seprocesses;toar ticul
atewi t
h
the t ubercul
um oft he ribs ;whilet he capitular demifacets on t he cent r
um;
arti
culateswi t
ht hec apit
ulaoft heri
bs;togetherwi ththeribsandt hes ternum form
thet horacic/
ribcage;f orpr otecti
onofhear tandl ungs;andf orbreathingpr ocess;
Max.20mks

34.a)Whyi
slocomot
ionneces
sar
yinhi
gherani
mal
s?
Animal
smovei nor
dertolookforfood;mates
;es
capedanger
/pr
edat
ors
;look
f
orshel
ter
/sui
tabl
eenvi
ronment
alconditi
ons
;4mks
b)Expl
ainhowbonyf
ishar
eadapt
edt
othei
rhabi
tat
s

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Haves t
reaml i
nedbodi es ;tor educef r
icti
on;bodyi scover edwi ths cal
es;whi ch
overl
apbackwar ds;tor educef ri
ction;s kinpr oducesmucus ;whi chcover st he
bodymaki ngitslippery;r educingf ri
ct i
on;haves wim bladder ;whichs tor
esai r
;for
buoyancy hence make t he f i
shf loat ;myotomes /mus cle blocks;thatcont ract
alt
ernat
ely;forfor wardt hr ustinwat er;lat
erallines ystem;onei thers i
deoft he
bodywhi chi ss ensit
ivet opr essureandwat ercur r
ent s;pos sessfins;thatar e
usedforlocomot ion:tail
/ caudalfins;f orpropulsion;dor sal;andanalf ins;prevent
rol
li
ng;pect oralfin;us ed f orbr eaki ng/st
eering;pr event syawi ng/side tos ide
movement ;controlspitchi ng;pelvicfins;forsteer i
ng/pitchi
ng;Max.1 6mks

35.Des
cri
behowt
hevar
iouss
uppor
ti
vet
iss
uesi
npl
ant
sadaptt
hem t
othei
rhabi
tat
s
Scler enchymat i
ssue;l ong,s l
endercel lswi thtaperingends ;withwal l
st hickened
withl igni n;pr ovide s upportand pr otect i
on t ot he mor e deli
catet issues ;and
resistancet os tormsands t
rongwi nds ;mai ncons ti
tuentofwood;Xyl em ves sel
s;
l
ongi tudi nal l
y- elongatedcel ls;wit
hper foratedendwal ls;wi thheavil
yl i
gnifi
edwal l
s;
toi ncr eas er igidityands t
rengthtot hepl ant;amai ncons tit
uentofwood;Tr acheids;
mai nlyf oundi nangi osper ms;madeupofl ongt aper i
ngdeadcel l
s;cellwal lsare
highlyl i
gni f
ied;and pi t
ted;cellsl i
ei nl ar ge overl
appi ng groups;t o offerext r
a
suppor t;Col lenchymat issue;longitudinallyel ongatedl ivingcells;locat
edbeneat h
theepi der misandmi dr i
bofl eafvei ns ;thickenedatt hecor nersbycel lulos eand
pect i
n compounds ;to pr ovi
de s uppor ti nl eaves,her baceouspl antsand young
woodypl ants ;Par enchymat i
ssue;l arge;s pher i
calcel l
s ;withthincel l
ulos ewal l
s;
f
or mi ngt hebul kofcor texandpi thofmos tpl ants;becomet ightl
ypackedandr igi
d
when t urgid;t o at t
ain and mai ntai n an er ectpos ture ofpl ants;mai ns upport
struct uresi nher baceouss tems /
plant s
;Max.20mks

36.a)Whati
sar
efl
exact
ion?
Rapi
dandaut
omat
ic;r
espons
etoapar
ti
cul
ars
timul
us;2mks
b)Out
li
net
heact
ivi
ti
est
hatoccuri
nthebodywhenonet
ouchesahotobj
ect
Whent hehotobj ecti stouched,t hepai nreceptors;i
nt heski
noft hef i
ngerar e
sti
mulated;ner ve i mpuls
es ar ei nit
iated and transmit
ted t
hrough t he s ensory
neurone;t othegr eymat ter;ofthes pinalcordtot hebrain;f
orinterpr et
ati
on;t he
i
mpul sesar et hen t r
ansmitted through t he r
elay neurone;viaas ynapse;t he
i
mpul sesf r
om ther el
ayneur onear et ransmitt
edvi athemot orneur one;through
anothers ynapse;tot heef f
ector;whichar et hebicepsmus cl
esoft heupperar m;
makingt hemus cl
est ocont ract
;s tr
aighteningthear m;andthear mi swi t
hdrawn
fr
om thehotobj ect;Max.18mks

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37.Des
cri
bet
heni
tr
ogencycl
e
Thi si st hecycl ingofni tr ogenandi t
scompoundsi nnat ure;plantsabs or bni trogen
inf or m ofni tr
at esandt henas s i
mi lateiti nt opl antpr oteins;ani mal sobt ai nt hi s
nitrogen i n pl antpr ot einst hr ough f eeding on pl ants ;when t he ani mal sdi e and
decompos e,t hey r eleas et he ni trogen i nf or m ofammoni at ot he s oi l;f ree
atmos pher ic ni trogen i s conver ted i nt
o ni trates t hrough a pr oces s known as
nitrogen f i
xat ion;t he pr oces soccur si nt wo ways :bi ologicaland non- bi ologi cal;
biol ogi calf ixationofni t
rogeni sdonebyni t
r ogen- f
ixingbact eria;whi char eei ther
free- li
v ingors ymbi ot ic;s ymbi oticbact eriaar eoft hegenusRhi zobi um;andar e
foundi nr ootnodul esofl egumes( suchaspea,cl overandal falfa);t hebact er ia
conver tat mos pher i
cni t
rogeni ntoammoni a;t hati sus eddi r
ectlybyt hel egumi nous
plant st of or m ni tr
ogencont ai ningor ganiccompounds( aminoaci ds ,nucl eicaci ds ,
pr oteins )
;whenpl ant sdi e,t henodul esr eleas eammoni um compoundsi ntot hes oi l
;
whi char et henconver t
edt oni trites ;byni trifyingbact eriaofgenusNi trosomonas
and Ni trococcus ( nitrite bac t eria)and t hen t o nit
r ates by Ni t
robact er( nitrat e)
bact eria;free- l
ivingmi cro- or gani s mst hatfixni trogeni ncl udeput refying/ s apr ophyt ic
bact eria;( suchasAzobact erspp,Cl ostri
di um andsomeal gaes uchasAnabaena,
Chl or ellaandNost oc) ;t heor gani smsf ixni trogeni ntoammoni abybr eakdownof
pr oteinmat eriali ndeador gani s ms ;t heammoni aisconver tedt oni trites ;t hent o
nitrat es ; However , deni tri
fyi ng bact eria( e.g. Ps eudomonas deni trif
icans and
Thi obaci l
lus deni t
rificans) ;br eak down/ reduce ni trates t o ni t
r it
es , ammoni um
compoundsand even gas eousni trogen;apr ocessknown asdeni tri
ficat ion;t he
pr oces shel pst or eleas ef ree ni trogen i nt ot he ai rf orr ecycling;non- biol ogi cal
nitrogen f ixing i s car ried outby l i
ghtning dur ing t hunder storms ;t he l ight ning
ener gy,caus esat mos pher icni tr
ogen and oxygen t o combi ne f ormi ng oxi desof
nitrogen;whi chdi ssol vei nr ai nwat ert oform ni trousaci d/ni
tricaci d;t hati swas hed
downi ntot hes oil;t heni tricaci df or medr eact swi thot herchemi calcompounds
dis solvedi ns oilwat er ;t of or m ni trates ;t
heni tratesar et henut ili
zedbypl ant s;Max.
20mks

38.Di
scus
showt
hevar
ioust
ropi
smsadaptpl
ant
stot
hei
rhabi
tat
s
Phototropism;gr owth cur vaturei nr espons et o di rection ofl ight;enabl espl ant
shootst ogr ow andgetl ightf ormaxi mum phot os ynt hes i
s;al lowsf orl eafmos aic;
Thigmot r
opis m;gr owthcur vatur ei nres pons et ocont act /hards urface;makespl ant s
withweaks temst ogets uppor tonl ar gepl ant /t
rees ;t hismakest hem tor eachand
getlightformaxi mum phot osynt hesi
s ;Geot ropi sm;gr owt hcur vaturei nres pons et o
gravi
ty; enabl es pl ant r oots t o gr ow deep i nto t he s oi lf or maxi mum
suppor t
/anchorage;Hydr otropism;gr owt hc ur vaturei nr espons et omoi stur e/wat er;
wateri st henus edasar aw mat eri
aldur ingphot olysiss tageofphot os ynthes is;
Chemot ropism;gr owthcur vaturei nr es pons et ochemi calconcent rati
ongr adient ;
enablespol lent ubest ogr ow downt hes t
yleandi nt ot heovar yf orferti
lizati
ont o
occuri nplantflower s;Ther mot ropism;gr owthcur vatur ei nr espons et otemper ature
changes ;enablespl antst ogr ow t owher et heycanacqui reopt imum t emper ature
foreffecti
vepl antpr ocess( e.g.s unfloweror ientatest owar dst hedi r
ectionoft he
sun);Max.20mks

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39.Di
scus
sthevar
iousevi
dencesofor
gani
cevol
uti
on
Compar at ive anat omy/ t
axonomy;member s ofa phyl um/ gr oup s how s imil
ar i
ties ;
organshave s i
mi lars tructur e/ or gansper for mi ng t he s ame f unct i
on s uch ast he
diges ti
ve s ystem,ur i
nar ys yst em,ver tebr ate hear t;homol ogous s truct ures ar e
struct ur eswi tht he s ame embr yoni cor i
gi n buthave been modi f
ied t o per for m
diff
er entand s peci f
icf unct ions ;s how a f orm ofdi ver gentevol ut i
on;e. g.t he
pent adact yll i
mbi nver tebrat eswhi chhasbeenmodi fiedf orr aci ng;s wimmi ngand
fl
ightorbeaksoff i
nchesand bi rds ;whi le anal ogouss t
ruct ur esar et hose wi th
diff
er entembr yoni cor iginbuthavebeenmodi f
iedt oper for mt hes amef unct i
one. g.
wingsofi nsects ,bat sandbi rds ;eyesi noct opus esandhumans ;s how af or m of
conver gentevol ut i
on;ves t
igi als tructur es;havebeenr educedi ns izeandbecome
funct ionl es s;int hecour seofevol ut i
on;e. g.l imbsi ns nakes ,humanhai randt ai l
;
Cel lbi ology/ cytology;occur r enceofs imi l
aror ganel l
ess uchast hemi tochondr iaand
theendopl asmi cr eticul apoi ntt ocommonances tr
y;F os silr ecor ds /Pal eont ol
ogy;
remai nsofor gani smspr es er vedi nnat urally-occur ringmat er i
al sf ormanyyear s;
foss ilrecor dss howmor phol ogi calchangesofor gani smsoveral ongper iodoft ime
e.g.s kul lofhumansand hor se;t heypr ovi de adi rectevi dence ofexi st
ence of
organi sms ata par ticularecol ogicaler a;however ,s ince onl y har d par ts ar e
pres er ved,no evi dence i savai lablef orex ist ence ofs oft-bodi ed or gani sms ;and
ther e ar e many mi s sing l inks ;s ince r emai ns ar e acci dent al
ly pr es erved i n
rudi ment ar yr ocksand r es ins ;Compar ative embr yology;ver tebr ate embr yosar e
mor phol ogi call
ys i
mi lardur ingt heear lys t
agesofdevel opment ;s ugges tingt hatt he
organi smshadacommonanc es try/or igine. g.l ar vaeofmol lus ks /annel ids ,embr yos
ofchi cken,humans ,s heep;t hecl os ert hes embl ancebet weenembr yos ,t hecl os er
their ances tr
albac kgr ounds ;Geogr aphicaldi stribut i
on;pr es entcont inent s ar e
thoughtt ohavebeenal argel andmas sjoi nedt oget her ;asar es ultofcont inent al
drift;is olat i
onoccur redbr ingi ngaboutdi f
fer entpat t
er nsofevol uti
on;wher epl ant s
and ani mal sf rom di fferentcont inent syetwi th common ances tr
ycan no l onger
inter breed;becaus et heyevol vedi nt odi ff
er ents peci es ;exampl esofani malst hat
movedt odi f
ferentar easar et hej aguar sandLl amasi ns out hAmer ica,l ionsi n
Africa,Ti ger si n As ia,mar s upi alsi n Aus tralia;Compar at i
ve s erology/ phys iol
ogy;
sembl ancei nbl oodcomponent ss uchasbl oodpr ot eins ,ant igen- ant i
bodyr eact i
ons ,
struct ur e ofhaemogl obi ni n al lver tebr ates ;r eveals ome phyl ogeni cr elations hip
amongor ganis ms /showcommonances try;Max.20mks

40.Des
cri
bet
hes
truct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hevar
iouspar
tsoft
hemammal
ianear
Pinna;i
swi de/funnel
-s hapedt ocoll
ect/
gathersoundwaves ;anddirectthem tothe
audit
ory canali ntot he ear ;Eardr
um/ t
ympanic membr ane isthin and l
ight;to
convertsoundwavesi ntovibrati
ons;Earos si
cles/
mal eus ,i
ncusands t
apesar eof
highdens i
ty;t
omagni fy/ampli
fysoundwaves ;Ovalwi ndowi ss mal
lerthaneardrum;
tomagni f
yt hes oundwaves ;anddirectthem tothei nnerear ;Cochleaislongand
coil
ed;toi ncreases ur f
ace area;forattachmentofr eceptorcell
s/sensor
yhai rs
;
cochlea hasmany s ens ory hai
rs;which receive sound vi br
ati
onsand gener ate
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i
mpul ses;Li
quidorf luid/endol
ymphi ncochl ea;tr
ans mitsoundvi br
ations;audit
ory
nerve;transmi
ti mpul s
est othebr ai
nf orinterpr
etati
on;Eus t
achiant ube;linkthe
mout h and middle eart o equalis
e pressure;bet ween middle and out ereart o
preventdamage t o del i
cate eardrum;Round wi ndow;l ose excessvi brat
ions;to
avoid conti
nuous s ti
mul ati
on;Semi -ci
rcul
arcanal s;containr eceptorsf orbody
balanceandpos ture;Externalaudit
orycanalcellsproduce/secretewax;t otrapdust
parti
cles/
sol
id/
mi cro-organismsthatcandamageear dr
um;Max.20mks

41
.Di
scus
sthevar
iouswaysempl
oyedbypr
eyst
oavoi
dthepr
edat
ors
Somepr eysr esembl einedibleinanimat eandani mateobj ect
s;thisiscal ledmi mi cry;
e.g.walkings ticki nsectr esembl esdr ytwigsofpl ants ,somemot hsl ookl ikebees
orflowersofs omepl ants;thispr eventsbirdsfrom eas ilynoti
fyingandeat i
ngt hem;
manyhavet heabi litytor unver yfas t
;becauseofhavi ngmus cularbodi es;andl ong
legs;enablingt hem t oes capepr edatorse.g.ant el
opes ,zebras ;somehaveabody
colourthatr esembl esthes urr
oundi ng;whichhel pst hem t ocamouf lageorconceal
int hebackgr oundenvi r
onment ;e.g.zebr as,giraff
es ;somegr azei nl argeher ds ;
thisenablest hem t ofightof fpredators;e.g.wildebees tsandbuf f
aloes ;somehave
evolved tough s kin orcover i
ngsl ike shell
s;whi ch can notbe br oken bys ome
predatorse. g.s nails,tortoises,ar madil
lo;product i
onoff ouls melle. g.ins kunks ;
thatdi s
cour agest he predat ors;conf r
ontati
onaldi splayt hatcan s care awayt he
predatore.g.por cupine;largeeyesonbot hsidesoft heheadgi veani malss uchas
zebr aawi def iel
dofvi sion;enabl i
ngt hem tokeept rackoft hei renemi esfrom f ar;
andt akepr ecautions ;Max.20mks

42.a)Whati
smeantbyt
het
erms
ymbi
osi
s?
Nutri
ti
onalass
oci
ati
onoft wodiff
erentorganis
ms( 2pl
antsorbet
weenananimal
andplant
);f
ormutualbenefi
t;t
her el
ati
onshipenabl
esthecomposi
teor
gani
smto
sur
vivewherenei
thercanli
veoni tsown;Max.2mks

b)Des
cri
bef
ivet
ypesofs
ymbi
oti
crel
ati
ons
hipsi
nanat
uralecos
yst
em
Li chens ;these ar e compos i
te plantscons is
ting ofbl ue-green algae;wi thina
mycel i
almas sofaf ungus;algalcel l
sar epr ovidedwi ths upport,obt ai
nwat er
,
car bon ( I
V)oxi de and mi neralsand pr otection from f ungus ;whi let he fungus
obt ai
nsoxygenandt hecar bohydratesmadebyal gae;t hisenabl est heplant sto
sur vi
veonhar dbar er ocksinhi ghat t
itudesandpol arr egions;Legumi nousplants
andni trogen-f
ixingbact er
ia;thebact eri
amul ti
plyandf i
xni tr
ogenf r om airinto
nitratesf orthebenef i
toft hepl ant;bact eriaar epr otectedandobt ainnut ri
ents
from t he plants;Rumi nantsand bact eri
a;t he rumen hasbact eriathats ecrete
cel l
ulose;thatdi gestscell
ulosei nthef ood/ vegetationcons umedbyt heani malt o
glucos ef ortheani mal;whilet hebact eriagets helt
erandus epar tofdi gested
food;Mycor rhi
zalf ungiandhi gherplant s;t hef ungifoundonf or estt r
ees gai n
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photos yntheti
c or gani
c products made by t he trees ;whi l
et he trees get
nutri
ent s/mineral
s abs or
bed by t he fungus fr
om t he s oil
;Tr yconympha and
termites;thef ormerisapr otozoanl i
vingingutoft er
mi tes;andpr oducecel l
ulase
enzyme;t hatdi gestscell
ulosef rom t he pl
antinto digesti
ble productsf ort he
benefitoft he termite;the termi te on the otherhand pr ovi
des s helt
erand
protection;andabs orbssomeoft hef oodforit
sus e;Max.18mks

43.a)Des
cri
bet
headapt
atonsofSchi
i stosomasppt
othei
rpar
asi
ti
cmodeofl
if
e
Thepar asi
teut il
izest wohos ts;t hes nai landhumans ;t oincreas echancesof
transferoft hepar asitefrom onepl acet oanot her;haves uckersf orat tachmentt o
hos twal ls
;t opr eventt hem from bei ngdi slodged;t hepar asit
epr oducesmany
l
ar valforms( e.g.mi raci
dia,cercariaeandr edia)i nsnai
ls;toi ncreas echancesof
transmi ssi
on and s urvi
val;as thisf eat ure pos es barri
er s/
diff
icul t
ies in effort
s
aimedater adi
catingt hepar asi
te;cer cariael arvaeandeggsoft hepar asit
ehave
glandst hats ecretel yti
cenzymes ;whi chs oftent hetis
suesofhumans /snail
s ;t
o
allow forpenet rati
on;chemi cals ubstancespr oducedbyt headul twor m;pr otect
s
the par asit
ef r
om t he acti
on oft he hos ts’def ense mechani sms ;theyexi s
tas
separ ates exes ;wi tht he male car rying t he f emale;t hi
s ens ures t hateggs
producedbyt hef emalear efertil
izedbef orebei ngs hedi ntot hebl oods t
ream;
Max.1 5mks

b)Outl
inef
ivemeas
urest
hatcanbeempl
oyedt
opr
eventandcont
rolt
hes
pread
oft
heparasi
te
Pr operdi spos alofhumanwas te;urineandf aecalmaterialshouldnotbedi sposed
inwat erbodi est oavoi dcont aminat i
onbyt heeggsoradul twor ms ;drai
nageof
stagnantwat erpool sandus eofmol l
us cidest oki
lltheinter
medi atehos ts(snail
s);
avoid s wi mmi ng/bathi
ng i n s nai
l-inf
es ted wat er bodies; wear ing protecti
ve
cl
ot hings uchasgl ovesandgumboot swhenwor kingorwal kingi ns wampyar eas;
per sonalhygi enet hatincl
udeswas hi nghandsaf t
ervisit
ingt het oil
etanddr inki
ng
ofboi ledorchemi cal
lytreatedwat ert ok i
lltheeggsandt hel arvalformsi nthe
wat er;propert reatmentofi nfectedper s ons;Max.5mks
44.Des
cri
bet
hepr
oces
sofmi
tos
is
Occur si ns omat ic/bodycel l
s ;throughf i
vemai ns t
ages /phas es:I nter phas e/ Rest
ing
stage;int ens eint er
nalact i
vitiesoccuri nt hecel latt hiss tagei npr epar at i
onf orthe
divisi
on;t heact ivit
iesi nclude;r epli
cat ionofeachchr omos omet omul tipl
ygenet ic
mat eri
alt or etainchr omos omalnumberi ndaught ercel ls;chr omos omesappearas
adi ff
uset angleoft hreads( chr omat in);s ynthes isofnew cel l
ularor ganel l
es ;buil
d-
up ofener gy s tores ( ATP)t o drive t he ent ir
e cel ldivi si
on pr oces s;Pr ophas e;
chromos omesbecomevi sible;ast heys hortenandt hickenappear i
ngasdi scr
ete
strands( chr omat ids)lyi ngpar all
elt oeachot her ;inani malcel ls,cent rioless eparate
andmov et ooppos i
teends( poles)oft hec ell;theyr adiat efrom eachoft heends
formings pindlefibres ;nucl earmembr anebegi nst obr eakdown;nucl eol usdi sappear;
Met aphas e;chr omos omes mi grate/move t ot he cent re oft he cel l;and al ign
thems elvesal ong t he equat orialpl ane oft he s pindle;t heygetat t
ached t ot he
chromos omes , by t hei r cent romer es;nucl ear membr ane br eaks down and
disappear s;s pindl ef ibr esl engt hen;and at tach tot he cent riolesatbot h poles
formingas ters;Anaphas e;chr omat i
dss epar ateatt hecent romer e;s hor teningoft he
spindlef i
br esoccur s;r es ul
tingi nt hechr omat idsmi gratingt ooppos it
epol esoft he
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 Page22of 22
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
cell
;spindleapparat
usbeginst odisappear;Telophase;finalstagewher echromat ids
reachthepol es;becomedens el
ypackedt oget heranduncoi l
;anucl earmembr ane
formsar ound each mass/setofchr omat ids( now referred to aschr omos omes )
;
cytopl
asm dividesintotwo( cytoki
nesis
);inani malcel l
s,t hecyt opl
asm dividesby
constr
icti
onoft hecellmembr ane;whilei nplantcell
s ,acel lplateformswi thinthe
cytopl
asm andgr owst osepar atethecelli nt
ot wo;spindlef i
br esdisappearwi thin
thecytoplasm;andnucleol
ir eappearint henucl ei
;ofthet wodaught ercell
sf or
med
attheendoft el
ophase;Max.20mks

45.Di
scus
sthevar
iousmechani
smst
hathi
nders
elf
-pol
li
nat
ionands
elf
-f
ert
il
isat
ioni
n
pl
ant
s
Protandr yandpr otogyny;t hesear emechani smswher eei thert hemal eorf emal e
partsoft her epr oduct i
veor gansr ipenatdi ff
erentt imesi ns omef lower s;Pr otandry
i
sacas e wher es tamensr i
pen ear l
ier;and ant hersr eleas et hei rpol l
en gr ains
beforet hes t
igmai smat ure;whi lepr otogynyr eferst oacas ewher et hes ti
gma
mat uresear l
ier;and hence becomesr eadyt or eceive pol len gr ainsbef or et he
anther sar er eady/ r
ipet os hedt hepol l
engr ai
ns ;commoni npl ant soft hegr ass
family;Sel f-
st eri
li
ty or i ncompat ibil
ity;i s a cas e wher e pol l
en gr ai
ns cannot
germi nateons ti
gmaoft hes amepl ant;butonl yger minat eonadi ff
erentpl antof
the s ame s pecies ;hi nder i
ng s elf
-polli
nat i
on;Het erostyly;condi ti
on ofhavi ng
diff
erentar rangement sofs tyleands t
igma;f ori nstancef l
ower scoul dhaves horter
stamenst hanpi st
ils;hencebecomesi mpos siblefort hepol l
ent ol and,ger minate
andf ertiliset heovul esoft hes amef lower ;pi st
il
sons omef l
ower scoul dal sobe
shor t
ert hant hes tamenst hereforeot hermechani s mst hathi nders elf
-polli
nation
areut il
ized;Di oeciusandmonoeci uspl ants ;dioeciusplantshaver eproductivepar t
s
l
ocat ed s eparately on di f
ferentpl ants oft he s ame s peci es;di scouraging s elf
-
polli
nation;whi l
emonoeci uspl antshavet hepar t
sl ocat
edatdi f
ferentpar tsoft he
samepl antbody;enc ouragingcr os s-polli
nation;Max.20mks

46.Howar
eseedsandf
rui
tsofpl
ant
sadapt
edt
othei
rmodeofdi
sper
sal
?
Wat er;F ruitmes oc ar p/s eed t est
a has ai rs paces ;thus l ight /
buoyantt of loat;
carried away by wat er ;f r
uits/
seeds pr otected f rom s oaki ng by wat erpr oof
per i
carp/tes ta;Animal ;havehooksf orat tachmentt oani mal s;t huscar riedt oot her
places ;fruitsar ebr ight l
ycol oured;s ucculent /
fl
es hy;ar omat ic/scented;t oat tract
animal s;whi chf eedont hem;t hes eedcoat s/hards eedsar er es i
stantt odi ges tive
enzymes ;t husar eunaf fected;s eedsdr oppedawayf r
om par enti nfaeces /droppings ;
Wi nd;have hai rs/wing- l
ike s tr
uctures/f
loss/extens ions;whi ch i ncreas es urface
area/ f
orbuoyancy;maki ngi teas yt obebl ownaway;f ruit
s/s eedsar el ightduet o
smal ls i
ze; t herefor e eas il
y car ried away by wi nd; cens or mechani s m;
per f
orated/ open/ s
plit/caps ule;us ual
lyl ooselyat t
ached t ot he s talk/
long s t
alk;i s
swayed by wi nd; s cattering s eeds ; Sel f-
di sper
s al/
Expl osive mec hanis m;
tension/pr ess ur
ei scr eat edi ns i
deadr ypod;podopens( violent l
y)al ongl i
nesof
weaknes ses ;thetwohal vescur loutwar ds;scat t
eringt hes eeds ;Max.20mks
47.a)Di
sti
ngui
shbet
weenmut
ati
ons
,mut
ant
sandmut
agens
Mut
ati
onsaresudden,spont
aneousandper manentchanges
;inanindivi
dual’
s
genet
ic mat
eri
al;Mutant
s arei ndi
vidual
s who devel
op and exhi
bit unus
ual
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 Page23of 23
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
character
ist
ics t
hat were not pr
evious
ly pres
ent i
nt he popul
ati
on;due t
o
mutations;whi
lemutagensarefact
orsintheenvi
ronment
;thatcaus
emutat
ionst
o
occur;6mks
b)Gi
vet
wocaus
esofmut
ati
ons
Ir
radi
ati
onss uchasgammar aysandultr
aviol
etr
ays;chemicalsubs
tancessuch
as mus tar
d gasand otherheavy metals(mer
cur
y,l ead,asbest
os);sudden
extr
eme( hi
ghorl ow)t
emperatur
es;Max.2mks
c)Des
cri
bet
hecaus
esandef
fect
sofchr
omos
omalmut
ati
ons
Del etion;r eferst ot he abs ence ofa por tion ofa chr omos ome;i tr esultsf r
om
breakageand f
allingof fofapor tionofachr omos ome;l eadingt ol ossofagr oup
ofgenest hatmayhaveadi sas t
rousef fectont hedevel opmentofanor gani s m;
Inver sion;r eferst or ever salofnor mals equence ofgenes i n por t
ion ofa
chromos ome;occur swhen a mi ddle por tion ofa chr omos ome br eaks,t ur nsor
rotates( inver ts)through1 80o andj oinsupagai n;t hisdoesnotchanget hegenet ic
cons titution oft he or gani sm;butmay br ing i nto cl ose pr oximity genes whos e
combi ned ef f
ect sto an or ganis m pr oduce abenef ici
alef fectt o an or ganis m;or
caus edi sadvant agest ot heor ganis m;Tr ans l
ocat ion;at t
achmentofapor ti
onofa
chromos omet oanon- homol ogouschr omos ome;occur swhenachr omos omebr eaks
and t he por ti
on j oins anot hernon- homol ogous chr omos ome;t hi s may l ead t o
serious cons equences , even deat h dependi ng on what genes ar e mi ssing;
Dupl ication;s ituati
onwher eas etofgenesi sr epr es entedt wicei nachr omos ome;a
partofachr omat idfor meddur ingcel ldi visi
onmayr eplicatefurthert of orm anext ra
piece;whi chmayat tachont ot hes ameoranot herchr omat i
d;r es ult
ingt ot raits
cont rolled by s ome genes bei ng exces sively expr ess ed;Non- di
s junction;t hi si s
fail
ur eofapai rofhomol ogouschr omos omest os eparat edur i
ngt hef irstst ageof
mei os is;res ulti
ngi noneoft hedaught ercel lsfor medaf terdivisionoft hecel lhavi ng
twoofoneki ndofachr omos ome;whi l
et heot hercel lhasl essornone;di seas esor
disor der sknownass yndr omesar eknownt or es ultfrom t hisaber r
at ione. g.Down’ s
Syndr ome( Mongol ism) ,Tur ner’sSyndr ome,Kl inefelter’sSyndr ome;Pol yploidy;t his
ist hepr es enceofmor et hant wos etsofchr omos omesi nacel l
;occur sduet oa
fail
ur eofacel ltodi videaf t
ert hef irsts tageofmei osisoraf tert hechr omos omes
haver eplicat edi nmi tos is;commoni npl antst hanani mal s;inplants ,itcaus ess ome
impr ovement ss uchasr esistancet odr ought ,cer t
ai ndi seasesandpes ts,impr oved
yieldsandear lymat ur i
ty;Max.20mks

48.a)Whati
str
ans
pir
ati
on?
Proces
sbywhi ch pl
ant
sl os
e wat
ert othe at
mos
pher
e;i
nfor
m ofvapour
(
thr
oughl ent
icel
s,s
tomataandcut
icl
e);2mks
b)Expl
ainhowt
hevar
iousenvi
ronment
alf
act
orsaf
fectt
her
ateoft
rans
pir
ati
on
Temper atur
e;ani ncreas
ei nt emper atureincreaset hewat ervapourhol di
ng
capacit
y ofai ri nt he spaces between mes ophyllcells due t oincreas
ed
evaporati
on;t herefor
emor ewat erdif
fus esfr
om t hecel l
sincreasingthewat er
vapourpr essure;thiscausesani ncr
eas eint hedi f
fusi
ongr adientbetweenthe
inter
cell
ular s paces and t he at mos phere; hence i ncr
eas i
ng t he rate of
transpi
rati
on;l ow t emperature decreas es wat er vapour pres s
ur e and t
he

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 Page24of 24
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
diff
us iongr adienthence;l ower ingt her ateoft rans piration;Li ghti ntens i
ty;hi gh
li
ghti ntens it
yi ncr eas est her ateofphot os ynthes isi nt heguar dcel ls;caus ing
theopeni ngofs tomat a;leadingt oi ncr eas edwat erl os s;ital soi ncr easest he
internalt emper ature oft he l eaf ;t hati ncreas est he evapor ation r atei nt he
intercel l
ulars paces ;leadingt oahi gherr at eoft rans piration;l ow l i
ghti ntens ity;
reducest her ateofwat erlos s;Humi dity;ahumi dat mos pher el ower st hewat er
vapourdi ffusi
on gr adi ent;hence l ower ing t he r ate ofwat erl os s;i nal es s
humi d/ dryat mos pher e,wat erdi ffusiongr adi entishi gh/ s
teep;hencet her ateof
transpi rati
oni ncr eas es ;Avai l
abi l
ityofwat eri nthes oil;mor ewat erwi l
ldi f
fuset o
the at mos pher e when t her ei s adequat e orexces s wat er ;as mor e wi llbe
abs orbed;i ncreas ingt her ateofwat erl os s ;theguar dcel lwi llals or emai nt urgid;
hences tomat aar eopen;l eadi ngt omor ewat erlos s;however ,les swat eri nt he
soilleadst oar educeddi ffusi
ongr adi entbet weent hemes ophyl lcellsandt he
atmos pher e;t herebyr educi ngt her ateoft ranspiration;Wi nd/ aircur rent s;wi nd
blowi ng overal eafs urf
ace car r
iespocket sofmoi sture awayf rom t he leaf ;
creating a s teep di f
fus i
on gr adientbet ween t he at mos pher e and t he leaf ;
increas ing t he r ate ofwat erl os s;i ns tillair/on acal m dayhowever ,wat er
vapouratt hel eafar eabec omess atur ated;andt hedi f
fusiongr adi entisl ower ed;
reduci ng t he r ate oft r
ans pirat i
on;At mos pher i
c pr es sur e;l ow at mos pher ic
pres sur el eadst oahi ghr ateofdi ffusionofwat ervapour ;s inceai rmol ecul es
move ata f asterr ate;and t hi si ncr eas es the r ate ofwat erl oss;i n hi gh
atmos pher icpr ess urecondi ti
onshowever ,therei sl owr ateofdi f
fus i
onofwat er
vapour ;hencet her ateofwat erl ossi sl ower ed;Max.20mks
49.Howi
sthemammal
ianeyeadapt
edt
oit
sfunct
ions
?
Sclera/s clerot i
cl ayer ;whi tef i
br ousl ayer ;made up oft hickconnect ive t iss ue;
protectst heeye;mai nt ainss hapeofeyebal l
;Cor nea;t rans par ent ;disc- shapedl ayer;
thatal l
owsl ightt oent ert heeye;r efract sl ightt owar dst her etina;Conj unct iva;
deli
cat emembr ane;l iningt hei ns i
deoft heeyel id;pr otect st hecor nea/ eye;Eyel ids
and eye l as hes ;t hin mus cle wi th hai r s; pr otect s t he cor nea/ eye f rom
mechani cal/chemi caldamage/ protect st he eye f rom ent ry off orei gn par ticles;
protectsr etinaf r om br ightl i
ght ;Chor oid;dar kpi gment edandmembr anousl ayer ;
thatpr event sl i
ghtr eflecti
onwi thint heeye/ abs orbsl i
ght ;t opr eventdi storti
onof
thei mage;hasbl oodves sels;thatnour i
s heye/ retina/s upplyoxygen/ removecar bon
(I
V)oxi deandwas tes ;ext endst of ormt heci li
ar ybodyandi r
is;Ci liarymus cles;
haveel as ticmus clest hatcont ractandr elax ;toal t
ers hape/ cur vatureofl ensdur i
ng
accommodat i
on;Ci liary body;t hickened f rontedge oft he chor oids l ayer ;t hat
producesaqueoushumour ;Sus pens or yl igament s;madeupofel as ticconnect ive
ti
ssuewhos econt r
act ionandr elaxat ionhel pst oadj us tthes hapeofl ensdur i
ng
accommodat i
on/ hol dsl ensi npos ition;Lens ;t rans parent ;bi convex;bal l
oon- l
ike;i t
refr
act sl ight r ays /focus l ight ont o t he r etina; Vi treous humour ; nour ishes
cornea/ l
ens ;r ef
ract ionofl ight;mai ntainseyebal ls hape;I ris;t hinci rcul arr ing;wi th
cir
cularandr adialmus cles;itgi veseyecol our /
abs orbsl ight ;cont r
olst heamountof
li
ghtent er i
ngt heeye/ adjustss izeofpupi l;Pupi l;anaper t
ur et hroughwhi chl i
ght
enterst he eye;Ret ina;hasphot orecept orcel l
s /rods /conesf ori mage f or mat ion;
gener atesi mpul s est ot he br ainf ori nter pret ation;F ovea/ Yel l
ow s pot ;wi t
h onl y
cones ;f orhi gh vi sualacui ty/mos ts ens itive par toft he r et i
naBl i
nd s pot ;poi nt
wher ener vef ibresemer gef rom t heopt icner ve/ wher eopt icner vel eaveseye/ poi nt
wher e ner ve f ibr es and bl ood ves sels ent ert he eye;Opt ic ner ve;t rans mi ts

F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 Page25of 25
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
i
mpulsest othebr ain;Mus cl
es;infer i
orands uperi
orobl i
quemus cles;moveeye
fr
om lef
tt ori
ght;superi
orandi nferiorr ectusmus cl
es;movet heeyeupanddown;
exter
nalandinternalrectusmus cless teadyt heeyei nitsupanddownmovement ;
Tear/
Lachrymalglands;secret
eawat eryand s alinefluidcontaini
nglysozymes/
lyti
c
enzymes/isanti
septic(tears)
;t hatmoi sten the conj unct
iva and cornea;washes
awaydus tandotherforeignobjects;kill
smi cr
oorganismsent er i
ngtheeye;Max.20
mks
50.Di
scus
sther
oleoft
hevar
ioushor
monesi
npl
antgr
owt
handdevel
opment
IndoleAcet icAci d/ Auxi ns ;influences / promot escel ldivision/ el
ongat i
on( incambi um
caus ing s econdar y t hic keni ng) ; i nduces t ropi sms ; pr omot es f rui
t
format i
on/ par thenocar py;pr omot esf or mat ionofabs cissionl ayer /l
eaff all;pr omot es
celldi ff
er ent i
at ion( ofvas culart i
s sue) ;caus esapi caldomi nance/ i
nhi bitsl at er albud
format i
on;pr omot esgr owt hofadvent i
ti
ousr oots;i nconj unctionwi thcyt oki nins,it
induces cal lous t i
s sue f or mat ion;Gi bber el li
ns/Gi bber elli
c aci d;pr omot es cel l
division/ elongat ioni ndwar fpl ants ;pr omot espar thenocar py;s ettingoff ruitaf ter
fertil
izationi nitiatingf ormat ionoff ruits;f or mat ionofs i
debr anchesofs tems /
ends
apical bud dor mancy; i nhi bits advent it
ious r oot gr owt h; act ivates hydr ol
yt i
c
enzymes i n ger mi nat ion/pr omot es ger mi nat ion ofs eeds /breaks s eed dor mancy;
affectsl eafexpans i
onands hape/ ret ardsl eafabs cission;Cyt okinins( e.g.Zeat inor
Kinet in);pr omot esf lower ingi ns omepl ants pecies ;br eaksdor mancyi ns omepl ant
speci es ;pr omot es cel ldi vis i
on i n pr esence ofauxi ns ;s tabili
zes pr ot ein and
chlor ophyl l;pr omot esr ootf or mat i
ononas hoot ;lowconcent rati
onencour agesl eaf
senes cence/ i
ncr eas escel lenl argementi nl eaves ;s ti
mul atesl ateralbudf or mat ion;
Ethylene/ Ethene;pr omot esr i
peni ng off rui ts;i nducest hickeni ng ofs tem/ inhibi t
s
stem el ongat ion; pr omot es f l
ower mor phogenes is/f
or mat ion or f lower ing i n
pineappl es; caus es abs ciss ion of l eaves /fruit
/ l
eaf f all; Abs ciss i
c aci d; hi gh
concent ration caus ess tomat alcl os ure;i nhi bitss tem el ongat i
on/ growt h;i nhibi t
s
spr out i
ng of buds /induces bud dor mancy; i
nhi bits seed
ger mi nation/ growt h/ caus es/pr omot es s eed dor mancy; caus es abs ciss ion of
leaves /
fruits/leaff all;Tr aumat i
n;heal s wounds by pr omot i
ng cal l
ous f or mat ion;
Florigen;pr omot esf lower ing;Max.20mks

51
.Expl
ainhowt
hepr
oces
sofevol
uti
onmayr
esul
ttot
hef
ormat
ionofanews
peci
es
For a new s pecies t o be f ormed,a popul ation ofor ganisms mus tbecome
compl etelyi solatedors epar atedf rom ot her s
;overl ongper iodsoft i
mes ot hatany
new var iationst hatar isewi llnott her ef oreflow t ot heot herpopulat i
on;t her ear e
variousi solationmechani s ms :Geogr aphi calisolati
on;t hi
sisduet ophys icalbar rier s
such as oceans /seas /des erts;Ecol ogicali s
olation;a bar ri
err esulting f r
om t he
occupat i
onofdi fferentt ypesofhabi tatsf rom t heor igi
naltype;itmaybeduet o
is
olat i
on f or r eas ons off eedi ng/pr edat ion/breeding;as wel las envi ronment al
changess uchascl i
mat eandveget ation;whi chmayr esul
tinapopul ationl i
vi ngi n
dif
ferenthabi tats;t obecomeecol ogi callys eparatedf rom oneanot her ;Behavi our al
is
olat i
on;al teration ofbehavi our pr oceedi ng mat ing;whi ch include cour tship
behavi our/lackofat tractionbet weenmal esandf emal esi ndiff
erentpopul ations ;
due t o pr oduct i
on ofdi f
ferentchemi cals orpher omones orcol our ati
on/ songs ;
Repr oduction i solation;a bar ri
ert os uccess f
ulmat ing bet ween individual sofa
popul ati
on;duet os tructur aldifferencesi nreproduct iveor gans;aswel lasf ailurei n
F
orMor
eEr
esour
cesCal
l0705525657 Page26of 26
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
fer
ti
li
zat
ion/
incompati
bil
it
y;Genet i
ci sol
ati
on;eveniff
erti
li
zat
iontakespl
ace;t
he
zygot
e may be inferi
or/f
ail
st o develop;howeverifthe zygot
e devel
ops,t
he
off
spr
ingmaybei nf
eriororinfer
ti
le/s
teril
e;Max.20mks
52.Discus
sthevar
iouswaysi
nwhi
chanaer
obi
cres
pir
ati
oni
sut
il
izedi
nindus
tri
esand
homes
Breadmaki ng;yeas tisus edt of erments ugarinwheatf l
ouri ntocar bon( IV)oxi de
andener gy;t hecar bon( IV)oxi dei sproducedi nf orm ofbubbl est hatcaus est he
dought or i
s eandbecomepor ous ;Beermaki ng;yeas tisus edt oferments ugar si n
malt/gr apes /fruits;tof or m beer ,wi nesands piri
t s;Sewaget r
eatment ;anaer obes
breakdownr aw s ewageandhar mfulindustri
alef fl
uent s ;tohar mles spr oduct sof
water ,ener gy/ heatandcar bon( IV)oxide;Silagef ormat ion;veget ati
oni sfer ment ed
by bact eriat o pr oduce nut ri
ti
ous and good- scent ed/flavoured ani malf eed t hat
increas espr oduct i
on/ yields ;Product ionofacidsands trongl i
quors;s pecialbact er i
a
andf ungif er mentf oodpr oducts ;topr oduceaci dss uchasci t
ricaci d,oxal icaci d
andvi negar ;t hepr oductsar eus edasf oodpr es ervativesandf l
avour i
ngagent s;
Manuf actureofdai rypr oduct s;undercont r
oll
edenvi ronment s;anaer obeshel pi n
ferment ati
onhencemanuf act ureofmi l
kpr oductss uchasbut ter,chees e,gheeand
yorghur t;Product i
onoff uel ss uchasbi ogas;andgas ohol ;canes ugari sfer ment ed
byyeas t;topr oducegas oholf orr unningengi nesoroper at
ingmachi ner y;ani mal
was tess uchasguanoandcowdung;canbeus edt opr oduceami xtureofmet hane
andcar bon( I
V)oxi degas ;byexpos ingitt oferment ationagent s;met hanei sus ed
tor un s i
mpl e machi nes s uc h as wat erpumps and f orcooki ng;Pr oduct ion of
ferment edpor ridgeandmi lk;mai zeorwheatf lourandmi lkisexpos edt omi cr obes
intheai rwhi chf ermenti t;t oproduces ourands weett as tingpor ri
dgeormi l
k;Max.
20mks

53.a)Whati
sdi
ges
tion?
Di
gestioni s(mechani
calandchemical
)thepr
ocessbywhichlar
gecomplex
f
oodmol ecul
es;ar
ebr okendownint
os ol
ubl
emolecul
es(
forabs
orpti
onacr
oss
i
ntest
inalwalltobloodst
ream)
;2mks
b)Whati
sthei
mpor
tanceofabal
ancedi
eti
nhumannut
ri
ti
on?
A bal anced di etcons istsofal lt he food t ypesi nt heirr ightpr oporti
ons ;it
incl
udespr ot ei
ns,car bohydr ates,mi nerals,lipids,wat er,vitami nsandr oughage;
Prot ei
ns;us edf orgr owt handr epai rofwor noutt i
s sues;provi deener gyi ncas e
ofacut es hor t
age ofcar bohydr ates/starvation;bi nd and t rans ports peci fi
c
mol eculesf rom one par toft he bodyt o anot her;s t
ructuralpr oteinss uppor t
tiss
uesi nthebodye. g.boneandcar ti
laget issues ;actasmet abol icr egul ators
suchasenzymesandhor mones ;Car bohydr at es;us edt opr oduceener gy/ store
ener gy;Lipidspr oduceener gy;f or m ofs t
or ageofener gy;i ns ulatet hebody;
maj ors tr
uct uralcomponent soft hecel lmembr ane;whenoxi dis ed,i tpr ovides
met abolicwat er;Vitami ns;def ens e agains tinfections;f orm coenzymeswhi ch
activateenzymes ;Wat er;auni ver sals olvent ;medi um f orchemi calr eact ions ;
usedascool antbecaus eofi tshi ghs pecifi
cheatcapaci ty;mai nt ainst hes hape

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l0705525657 Page27of 27
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
ofcells
;hydrol
ysisofmanys ubstances;tr
ans portmedium i
nthebody;Mi neral
sal
ts;formati
on ofteeth and bones;formation ofhormones( e.
g.thyroxine);
for
mat i
onofblood;mai nt
enanceofos moticpr es
sureofbodyflui
d;tr
ansmis si
on
ofnervei mpul
ses;Roughage;makesf oodt obebul k;promot
esper i
stal
sis
;and
absorpti
onofwat eri
nt helargeintesti
nes;inducesmucuspr oduct
ion;Max.1 8
mks
54.Expl
aint
hef
act
orst
hataf
fectenzymeact
ivi
ty
Temper ature;enzymesar epr oteini nnat ur e;andhences ens iti
vet ot emper ature
changes ; as t emper at ure i ncreas es , enzyme act i
vi t
y al so i ncr eas es unt i
l
optimum/ maxi mum;abovet hisopt imum t her eact iondecr eas ess har ply;duet ot he
des truction oft he enzyme s truct ur e/bec ome denat ur ed;maki ng t he enzyme
ineff
ect i
ve/ non-funct ional ;mos tenzymeshave opt imum t emper atur e ofbet ween
35oC and 40oC;when t emper atur e decr eas es ,t he r ate ofenzyme r eaction
decr eas es as t he enzyme becomes i nac t i
vat ed;pH/ acidi ty or al kalinity;mos t
enzymeshave opt imum pH ofcl os et o 7/ neut ralwhi ch i st he i ntracel lularpH;
howev ers omeenzymeswor kbes tinanal kal inemedi um whi leot her swor kbes tin
an aci di
c medi um/ condi tion;as t he pH exceeds opt imum,t he enzyme act i
vity
decr eas es ;ext r eme aci dit
y or al kal inity denat ur es mos t enzymes ;Subs tr
ate
concent rationandenzymeconcent rat ion;enzymer eact ioni ncreas eswi thi ncr ease
ins ubs trateconcent ration;upt oacer tainl evelwher ef urtheri ncr eas ei ns ubs tr
ate
concent rationdoesnoti ncreas ether at eofenzymer eact ion;t hisi sbecaus ewhen
subs trate concent r
ation i si ncreas ed,al lt he act ive s ites oft he enzyme ar e
occupi ed;however , when t he enzyme mol ecul es ar ei ncr eas ed, t her ei sa
propor ti
onali ncr eas eint hemaxi mum r at eofenzymeact i
on;enzymesar ehowever
requi redi ns mal lamount shence;t heys peedupt her ateofbi ochemi calr eact i
ons
withoutal tering t he equi l
ibri
um; Enzyme cof actor s/coenzymes ;t hes e ar e non-
protei nouss ubs tanceswhi chact ivat et heenzymes ;mos tenzymeswi llnotwor k
withoutt hem;exampl esofcof actorsar emet allicionss uchasi ron,magnes i
um,zi nc,
copperandal sovi tami nsasenzymecoenzymes ;thes es ubs t
ancesar er equiredi n
smal lamount sandar eus edr epeat edl y/canber ecycl ed;Enzymei nhibit ors;t hese
ares ubs tancest hati nhi bitenzymeact ionbycompet ingwi t ht henor mals ubs tr
ate
for t he act ive s i
tes ;t her e aret wo t ypes :compet it
ive and non- compet i
tive;
compet i
tivei nhibi t
orshavenoper manentef fectont heenzymeact i
on;whi l
enon-
compet i
tive i nhibitors combi ne per manent ly wi tht he enzyme mol ecul es t hus
distort i
ngorbl ockingt heact i
ves i
t esper manent ly;exampl esoft hes ei nhi bit
or s
incl
ude cyani des ,mer cur y,s il
ver ;i nhi bition can be r educed by r educ ing t he
concent rationoft hei nhi bit
ors;orbyi ncr eas ingt hes ubs t
r ateconcent rat i
on;Max.
20mks
55.Di
scus
stheadapt
ati
onsoft
hemal
erepr
oduct
ives
yst
em ofhumans
Consistsoftwooval -s
hapedt estes;lyi
ngout si
det heabdomi nalcavit
yi nas pecial
sacknownast hes crotalsac/scrotum;forprotecti
on;t hetestesar elocatedout s
ide
thebodyt opr ovidear elati
velycool erenvir
onment /lowertemper ature;suit
abl efor
sperm producti
on;t hei nsideoft het est
isisdivi
dedi ntosemi nif
eroustubules ;these
aret hree coi
led and t wist
ed t ubules;having rapidly/
acti
vely dividi
ng cel l
st hat
produces perms;i nterstit
ialcell
s ;foundbet weent hes etubulespr oducet hemal e
sex hor mones /
andr ogens ( mai nlyt estost
erone);i mport
ant i n pr omoting t he
developmentofs econdar ys exualchar act
erist
ics;and mai ntaini
ng mas culinityin

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l0705525657 Page28of 28
 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
mal es ;thet ubul esj oi nt oget hert of ormt heepi di dymi s ;whi char es mal l
erduct s
;
thatconveys per msoutoft het estes;t heyal s ofor m at empor ar ys toragear eaf or
sper ms ;t heepi didymi si sconnect edt ot hes per m duct /vasdef erens;whi chhas
thickmus cularwal ls ;thatcont ract stopr opels per mst ot heur et hr a;thes perm duct
isjoinedbyaductf rom t hes emi nalves icle;abl i
ndl yendi ngs ac;t hatpr oducesan
alkaline f l
uid cont aini ng nut r i
ent sf ort he s permat ozoa/ sper m cel l
s ;to provi de
ener gy;att hej unct ionoft het wos per m duct s( onef rom eacht es ti
s)andur inary
bladdert her ei sthepr os tategl and;t hats ecretesanal kalinef luidt hatneut ralizes
theaci dicvagi nalf l
ui ds ;andal soact i
vat est hes per ms ;byaddi tionofenzymesand
dil
ut ing the s perms ; bel ow t he pr ost ate gland i st he cowper ’s gland;whi ch
secr etesanal kali
nef luidwhi chneut ralizest heaci ditycaus edbyur ine;alongt he
urethr a.The ur et hr a;i sa l ong t ube r unning t he l engt h oft he peni s;used f or
conduct i
onandexpul sionofur ine;aswel laspas s ageofs permsdur i
ngcopul at i
on;
theur ethraf ol l
owst hepeni s;thatpr oject sfrom t hebodyatt hel owerabdomen;i t
cons ists ofa r et ract abl es kin known as t he pr epuce/ fores kin;t hatcover sa
swol len/bulbousendr egi onoft hepeni sknownast hegl ans;t hegl ansexci t
est he
cli
tor is of t he f emal e as i t br ushes on i t dur ing copul at i
on;t o s ti
mul ate
ejacul ati
on/ or gas m;t hepeni si smadeupofs pongyer ect il
et issue;cons i
sti
ngof
numer ouss mal lbl oods paces ,mus cleandbl oodves sels ;thes pongyt i
ssueget s
fi
ll
ed wi th bl ood;maki ng t he peni st o become er ectdur i
ng s exuals ti
mul ation
excitement and act ivity;enabl ing t he peni st o penet rat
et he vagi na dur ing
coitus /copulat ion/s exuali ntercour se;i nor dertodepos its permsi nt hevagi naoft he
femal e;Max.20mks

56.Di
scus
sthes
truct
ureandf
unct
ionsoft
hevar
iousmus
clet
iss
uesf
oundi
nhumans
Smoot h/Vi scer alMus cle;cons istsofs pi
ndle-s hapedcel ls;madeupofl ongf i
lament s
or myof ibr i
ls;t he cel ls l ack cr oss s tri
at i
ons and s arcolemma; t hey ar e
uninucleat e/wit h one cel l;t hey cont r
act and f atigue s lowly;t o br ing about
contractionandr el
axat i
onoft hewal lsofbl oodves sels,urino-genitalt ractandt he
gut;whi ch ai ds i n bl ood f low,ur ine and s per
m f l
ow and per is
tals i
s off ood
respectivel y;Skel etal
/St riatedmus cles;madeupofl ongcyl indricalcel l
s ;wi thl ong
myof i
brilsr unni ngpar allelt oeachot her;thecel l
shavecr os sstriat
ions /stripes;ar e
multinucleat ed;t heyfor m bundl esofl ongfibresat tachedt obonesbyt endons ;t hey
contractandf atiguer api dly;tobr i
ngaboutmovementofbones ;( ont hebody)t hey
contain cont r
act il
e pr otei n myos in and act in;Car diac/Hear tmus cl
e;t hisi st he
mus cleoft hehear t
;ismadeupofs hortcyli
ndr icalcells;withpar all
elmyof ibr i
ls;the
endsofeachal laret hi ckenedi nt
oi nt
ercalateddi scs ;thatconnectadj acentcel l
s;
themyof ibril
shavecr os ss t
ri
at i
ons;eachcel lisuninucl eate;themyof ibrilscont ract
wit
houtf atigue;Max.20mks

57.Stat
etheeconomi
ci mpor
tanceofmembersofMoner
aandFungiandf
oreach
economi
c i mport
ance name a s ui
tabl
e or appropri
ate organi
sm
(20mks)
Fungi:Yeas
tisus ed i
nt he pr
oducti
on ofalcohol
;and rai
sing dough i
n baki
ng;
product
ionofvi
taminsB2 andB12andforbeerbrewing;s
omemus hroomsareus ed

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l0705525657 Page29of 29
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sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
asfood;Sapr ophyt i
cf ungis uc hasMucors pp/ Rhi zopussppcausef oods poil
age;ar e
alsous edi nr etti
ngofnat ur alf i
bress uchasf lax;andi nt hecur i
ngoft eaand
tobacco;Thef ungial sodecompos eor gani cmat terhel pingt ocl eant heenvi ronment
andr ecycl emat erials.Sapr ophyt icfungiar eal s ous edt omakes ilage;compos t;and
digesting s ewage i ns ewage t reat mentpl ant s;Peni cill
ium spp i s used f ort he
manuf actureofant ibiotics;F ungii sus edf ormaki nggheeandchees ei ndai r ies;
parasiticfungisuchasPhyt opht hor aspp i nfes tcr opse. g.pot atoesandt omat oes
anddes t
royt hem/ caus ebl ight;s omef ungis uchasAs pergil
lusspp pr oducef ood
poisonsandi sal sous edi nt hes ynthes isofenzymeamyl as e;Mycor ri
zaef ungi
enablet rees e. g.pi nus t o abs orb wat eramd mi nerals alts mor e ef f
ici
ent l
yi n
sil
viculture/man- madef orests ;s omef ungis uchasand Ti nusspp causedi seas es
suchasyeas tinfect i
ons( Candi dias i
s,‘Athlet e’ sf oot ’
)and‘ ri
ngwor ms ’respect i
vel y;
someCandi dasppi sus edi nmaki ngenr ichedf ood/ single-cell
edpr oteinsus edi n
animalf eeds /
silage;Gi bberellasppi sus edi nt hes ynt hes i
sofGi bberelli
nsf orpl ant
growt h;ital so caus espoorcr opgr owt ht hr ough bol ti
ng ofpl antse. g.r i
ce and
wheat ;
Bact eri
a:Somebact eri
ae. g.Vi briosppcausedi s easet ohumansandot herani mals
(anyonedi seas e);Clost r
idium sppandBaci ll
ussppbact eri
aar eus edi nr et
tingof
fax;Lact
l obacillussppar eimpor tanti nthemanuf act
ureofyoghur t/
silage;andl acti
c
acid; s ome bact eri
a e. g. St reptomyces ar e us ed i n maki ng ant i
bi oti
cs
(Streptomyci n);or ganicaci dss uchacacet i
candet hanoi caci dsar emadeus ing
Acet obact ersppofbact eri
a;s omebact eriali
ket hes oilbacteria( Bacill
usspp)make
enzymesus edi ndet ergent s;Escher ichiacoli(E.coli)/colonbact eriacont ami nates
drinkingwat erandmaycaus edis eases ;bact
erias uchasBaci l
lussppandar eus ed
i
nmaki nghor moness uchasi ns uli
nt hroughgenet i
cengi neer i
ng/modi fi
cati
on;al l
saprophyt i
cbact erias uchasE.col i
/Bacil
lusspp/ Pseudomonassppar eus edi nt he
product ionofmet hane/ bi
ogas ;Rhi zobium sppofbact er i
ahel psi nni tr
ogenf ixation
maki ngs oil
sf ertil
e;Max.20mks

58. Des
cri
be t
he adapt
ati
ons of t
he ner
vous s
yst
em t
o i
ts f
unct
ions
(
20mks
)
Thecent ralner vouss ys tem cons istsoft hebr ain;andt hes pinalcor d;andner ve
fi
bres ;thats ervet hes ens oryorgans;andt heef fectoror gansandgl ands ;thebr ain
isacol l
ectionofmi l
li
ons /bil
li
ons/09 neur
1 ones ;thatf ormt hebi gges tgangl i
on;i tis
highlyconvol uted;t opr ovi dealarges urf
acear eafori mpul ser eception,pr oces si
ng
andt rans miss i
on;t hebr ainandt hes pinalc ordar epr otectedbyt hemeni nges ;t
he
brain and t he s pinalcor d have s paces /canal s and vent r
icles;f il
led wi tha
cerebr ospinalf lui
d;whi chact sasabr idge/ suppl ymedi um foroxygenandnut ri
ent s;
andt her emovalofmet abol i
cwas te;thebr ainhascent resf orthes t
or age;r etri
eval
andpr oces si
ngofi mpul s es;thecer ebr um pr oces s
esands t
or esinformat ion;the
cerebel l
um;s endsi mpul sest ojointsandmus cles;tocor r
ectbal ance;t hemedul l
a
oblongat as endsi mpuls est othecar diovas cular;andbr eat
hi ng/ventil
at i
ons ys t
ems ;
tor egulatet hem;t hebr ai nhast hehypot halamust hats ecretesaneur os ecret i
ont o
inf
luenceapi tuit
arygl andt hats ecreteshor mones ;i nvolvedi nr eproduct i
on;and
homeos tati
cf unctions;t he hypot halamus ;det ects changes i nt emper atur e;and

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sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
os mot ic pr es sure;and s ends i mpul s es t or elevant ef fector or gans f or thei r
regul ation;t het hal amus ;receivesmaj orityoft hei mpul sesandchannel st hem t o
ther elev antar easoft hebr ain;bot ht hebr ainandt hes pinalcor dhaver egionsof
thegr eymat ter ;t hatenabl ever yr api dpr oces sing/ t
ransmi ssionofi mpulses;t he
ner vous s ys tem has neur ones ( relay/ int ermedi at e, mot or and s ensory);t hat
-
1
trans mi ti mpul sesataver yr apidnot e/s peed( 1
00 ms )t oandf rom t hecent r al
ner vouss ys tem t oef f
ects uit
abl er es pons es;t hereexi s t
si nt hecent r
alner vous
sys tem an el ect rochemi calgr adient /concent rat i
on gr adient ;t hatal lows f ort he
gener ationofel ect ricalimpulses ;theyhavenumer ousmi tochondr ia;forgener ating
ener gy f ort he f unct i
on oft he s odi um pump;whi ch enabl es pol ari
zation and
repol ar i
sat i
on;dur i
ng i mpulset rans mi s sion and r efr
actory/ r
ecover y per iods;t he
spinalcor d hasno i ntegrati
on/ as s
oci ation f unct i
onsand i st herefores uited for
refl
exact ions ;neededi nemer genci es ;t hes pinalcor disl ong;andconnect sner ve
fi
br esoft heper ipher alnerveswi tht hebr ainfors torageofi nformat ion;thes pinal
cordhasador s alr ootfors ens oryf ibr es /neur ones ;andavent r
alr oot;formot or
neur ones /fi
br es ;Acceptanyot hercor rectMax.20mks

59. Dis
cuss t
he compos
iti
on and f
unct
ions of mammal
ian bl
ood
(
20mks)
Mammal ianbl oodcons i
s t
soft womai ncomponent s:Bl oodpl as ma;andt hebl ood
cells; ( Red bl ood cel ls /
Erythrocytes , Whi t
e bl ood cel l
s/Leucocytes and
Platelets /Thrombocyt es);Bl oodpl asmat r
ans port nut rients( glucos e,ami noaci ds,
vi
t ami ns,f at
tyaci dsandgl ycer ol
,di ssolvedoxygen)t ot issues;t ransportshor mones ,
enzymes /met abolicregulat orstot argetor gans and t i
s s
ues ;Tr ans portexcr et
or y
subs tances /
was tesfrom thecel l
s;toexcr etoryor gansf orel i
mi nationf r
om t hebody;
Dis t
ri
but e heatener gy;hel ping i nt her mor egulati
on;t ranspor ts/
cont ai
ns wat er,
plasmapr oteinsanddi ssolvedmi nerals alt
s;impor tanti nos mor egulati
on;Sus pends
bloodcel ls;Redbl oodcel l
st ransportoxygen;anddi ssolvedcar bon( IV)oxide;hel ps
inr egul ationofpH;Whi tebl oodcel l
shel pi npr otecti
on/ immuni t
y;byengul fi
ngor
produci ngant i
bodiest oki ll
/destroyi nvadingmi cro-organi sms /pathogens ;Platelets
hel pi n bl ood clotti
ng;pr event i
ng exces sive blood los s;ent ryofpat hogens;and
promot esheal i
ngofwounds ;Acc.Adapt i
vef eatures Max.20mks
60.Des cri
be t
he def
ect
sthataf
fectt
he mammal
ian eye and how t
hey coul
d be
cor
rected
Shor t
-si
ghtednes s( myopi a);acondi ti
onwher el ightr aysf rom adi st
antobj ectar e
focusedinf rontoft her etina;whi l
et hosef r
om anearobj ectar ecl earlyfocus edon
ther eti
na;iti scaus edbyanabnor mallyelongatedeyebal l
;ort oomuchr efractive
poweroft heeyel ens;i tiscor rectedbywear ingconcave/ diver gi
ngl ens es ;whi ch
helpt odiver gel i
ghtr ays;orr educet her efr
activepoweroft heeyebef oret hey
reacht heeyel ens;Long- sightedness( Hypermetropia);lightr aysf r
om anearobj ect
arenotf ocus edbyt het i
met heyr eacht heretina;ormaybef ocus edbehi ndt he
reti
na;whilet her aysfrom adi stantobjectares harplyf ocus ed;t hedef ecti scaus ed
byaneyebal lt hatistoos hort;oraweakl enss ystem ( distancebet weenl ensand
ther eti
nai ss hort)
;cor rectedbywear i
ngaconvex/ conver gingl ens ;whi chr efracts
l
ightr aysbef orer eachingt heeyel ens;thisenhancesr efractionr esult
ingi nr ays
beings harpl
yf ocus edont ot her eti
na;As t
igmatism;r aysf rom anobj ectar ebr ought
tof ocusondi ff
erentpl anes ;duet ounequalcur vatureoft hecor nea/lens;caus ing

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 i
sabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com
unequalr efract ion ofl ightent ering the eye;t hisdef ecti scor rected bywear ing
speci alcyl indr icall ens i nf rontoft he eye;t he lens cor rectst he f ocus i nt he
def ectivepl anes ;Col our-bli
ndnes s;agenet icdef ect;inwhi chanani mali sunabl et o
dis ti
nguis hbet weencol ourspar t
icul
arlywi thint her ed- gr eens pect rum;t her etina
lack scones ;pi gment st hatr es pondt ocol ourvi s i
on;Squi ntednes s;aneyedef ecti n
whi chext ri
ns icmus clesoft heeye;t hatcont rolsthet ur ningoft heeyebal ldonotco
-or dinateaccor dinglyons timul ation;itaf fec tsthepai redr ect usmus cl
est hatmove
theeyebal lupanddown;andt hel ateralr ect usmus clest hatmovet heeyebal llef tto
right;t he eyebal lst herefor e f ace di ffer ent di rections ; maki ng f ocus i
ng and
accommodat ion di ff
icultt o achi eve;cor rect ed by s peci alized s urger y;Ol ds ight
(Pr esbyopi a);caus edbyol dage;whens uppl i
esofnut r i
ent sandoxygent ot hel ens
isf armuchr educed;hencet hecel lsoft hel ensdi e;t hel ens ’el asticit
yi sr educed;
andhencecannotchanges hape;andbecomesf i
xedi nt oas hapet hati snots uitable
fordi stantvi s i
on;managedbyus eof‘ readi nggl asses ’t hathaveconver gingl ens es;
togi vet heeyesanext rapowert omanagecl osewor k;Cat aract s;as soci atedwi t
h
oldage;butmayal sobecaus edbyaneyei nj uryduet oabl ow;orcompl i
cat i
onsof
diabet esmel litus ;theeyel ensbecomecl oudy;bl ocki ngt rans mi ssionofl i
ghtr ays ;
pr oteinf ibres become denat ur ed;and cl ump t ogethermaki ng t he l ens opaque;
cor rectedbys urgery;t or eplacet hedef ect iv elenswi thanor malonef rom adonor ;
orus eofar ti
ficiallens ;Max.20mks

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