Chapter 4 Latest

Chapter-4: Signal Conditioning
 Signal conditioning elements/circuits: are used to process the output

signal from sensors of a measurement system to be suitable for the
next stage of operation.
 The function of the signal conditioning and processing circuits include
the following items:
 Signal amplification and Filtering (opamp),
 Protection (Zener and photo isolation),
 Current – voltage change circuits,
 Resistance change circuits (Wheatstone bridge),
 Linearization
 Interfacing with (ADC),
 Error compensation
teshome.hambissa@aait.edu.et AAiT
Chapter-4: Signal Conditioning
 Input to signal condition element:
 DC voltage and current
 AC voltage and current
 Frequency and electric chrge
 Output from signal conditioning
 Voltage ,current,frequency,timer ,counter,relay
 Signal condition include:
 Amplifiction ,filtering,converting,range atching,isolation.
 Commonly used amplifiers:
 Op-amp,differential amplifier,Sample and hold,peak
detector,instrumentation amplifier,
Deflection Bridges
 Deflection bridges are used to convert the output of
resistive, capacitive and inductive sensors into a voltage
signal.
 Thévenin equivalent circuit for a deflection bridge
Deflection Bridges
 To design resistive bridge, three parameters can be specified
by considering:
The range and linearity of the output voltage
Electrical power limitations for the sensor
The resistor depends on the input measured variable I.
Deflection Bridges
Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge
Thévenin impedance for general deflection bridge
Deflection Bridges
Resistive deflection bridges
 The relationship between Eth and e is linear.
 The resistance RT Ω of a metal resistance sensor i.e platinum, at
T°C is given approximately by RT=R0(1 +αT).
 linearity being obtained at the expense of low sensitivity.
Design of reactive deflection bridges
 A reactive bridge has an a.c. supply voltage:
 two arms are usually reactive impedances and
two arms resistive impedances
 Thus in order to get: Th=0 at minimum level hMIN, we require
C0=ChMIN(R3/R2),giving:
 The capacitive sensor has C1=εε0A/(d+x) and C2=εε0A/(d−x); if this is

connected into an a.c. bridge so that Z1=l/(jωC1), Z2=Z3=R, Z4=1/(jωC2)
we have:
 Similar result is obtained with the variable reluctance push-pull
displacement sensor:
from which
Amplifiers
 Amplifiers are necessary in order to amplify low-level signals,
 e.g. Thermocouple or strain gauge bridge output voltages, to a

level which enables them to be further processed
Types of Amplifier
1. Operational Amplifier
2. Differential amplifier
3. instrumentation amplifier.
Operational Amplifier
Differential amplifier
instrumentation amplifier.
Op-amp
 The operational amplifier is an electronic device that has two
input terminals and one output terminal,
 the two inputs being known as:

 the inverting input and
 non-inverting input respectively.
Inverting Amplifier
Non-Inverting Amplifier
Voltage Follower (Unity Gain)
 Used to repeat a signal without loading down the sensor.

 Figure below shows a signal source VIN, RIN connected to a
voltage follower circuit.
 Here V− = VOUT, and since i+ = 0, V+ = VIN. Since V− = V+
then:
Loading effects
Summing Amplifier
  Rf  Rf  Rf 
VOUT   Va  Vb  Vc  ...
 R in R in R in 
Integrator Circuit
 The output voltage is proportional to amount of time a signal is
present, or, the area under a signal curve.
Integrator curve
Differentiator Circuit
 Output is proportional to the rate of change of the input.
Differential Amplifier
Differential Amplifier
• Ra = R b , R f = R g
Rf
VOUT  (Vb  Va )
Ra
Strain gauge bridge conneced to differential
amplifier
• R1 and R3 experience tensile strain +e so that:
 RIN is the Thévenin resistance of the potential divider R1, R4
(also R2, R3):
 RIN is therefore equal to the resistance of R1 and R4 in parallel.
 Since the strain e is much less than 1, we have:
Instrumentation amplifier
 An instrumentation amplifier is a high-performance differential
amplifier system consisting of several closed-loop operational
amplifiers.
 An ideal instrumentation amplifier gives an output voltage which
depends only on the difference of two input voltages V1 and V2, i.e.
 where the gain K is precisely known and can be varied over a wide
range.
 The input impedances of the difference amplifier can be relatively low

and, hence, tend to load the sensor output.
 To have high input impedance, the difference amplifier is preceded by

two voltage follower circuits to form the so-called instrumentation
amplifier.
A sensor output a range of 20 to 250 mV. Develop signal
conditioning so that this become 0 to 5 V. The circuit must
have very high input impedance.
Answer
Let us develop an linear equation for the output in terms of the
input
Vout  aVin  b
where a and b are to be found.
• For the given two conditions we can write
0  a(0.020 )  b
  a  21.7, b  0.434
5  a(0.250 )  b 
• Hence, the required equation is
Vout  21 .7Vin  0.434

 21.7(Vin  0.02 )
• Therefore we need a differential amplifier with a gain of 21.7
and a fixed input of 0.02V to the inverting side. The following
circuit shows how this could be done using an instrumentation
amplifier.
Example 2
 A bridge circuit for which R4 varies from 100 to 102 is shown

below. Show how this bridge could be connected to the given
instrumentation amplifier to provide an output of 0 to 2.5V for that
change of R4. Assume that, in the instrumentation amplifier circuit,
R2 = R3 = 1 k and R1 = 100 k.
• Clearly, the bridge is at null when R4=100 Ω.
• When R4 = 102Ω the bridge offset voltage is found as
 102 100 
V  Vb  Va  5    24 .75 mV.
 100  102 100  100 
• To get an output of 2.5V at 102Ω we need a differential gain

of (2.5 V/24.75 mV) = 101.
• For the instrumentation amplifier we have

 2 R  R 
Vout  1  1  3 (V2  V1 )
 RG  R2 
 2(100 )  1 
101  1   
 RG  1 
 RG  2k
Conversion
Conversion
Digital Optocoupler
• Provides isolation of TTL level voltages.
• Also called opto-isolators.
Digital Optocoupler
 An optocoupler is a semiconductor device allowing electrical
signals to be transmitted between two isolated circuits.
 Interfacing of high voltage, noisy systems to a controller.
 Signal travels in only one direction.
 A signal conditioner is used to manipulate an input signal to a

different output signal such as Analog to digital or 10V to a 4-
20mA signal.
• OC-Optocoupler
Digital Optocoupler
Digital Optocoupler
Analogue to digital conversion(ADC)
 The operation of analogue-to-digital conversion can take up to a
few milliseconds;
 it is necessary therefore to hold the output of the sampler

constant at the sampled value while the conversion takes place.
 This is done using a sample-and-hold circuit.
 In the sample state the output signal follows the input signal;
 in the hold state the output signal is held constant at the value of
the input signal at the instant of time the hold command is sent.
signal (droop).
Sample and Hold circuit
 Capacitor charges to the current voltage level.
 Charge time must be taken into account.

T = 5RC.
 Useful to hold rapidly changing signals for analysis.
Flash analogue-to-digital converter.

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Chapter-4: Signal Conditioning

 Signal conditioning elements/circuits: are used to process the output

Electrical power limitations for the sensor

The resistor depends on the input measured variable I.

Thévenin voltage for general deflection bridge

Thévenin impedance for general deflection bridge

two arms resistive impedances

 The capacitive sensor has C1=εε0A/(d+x) and C2=εε0A/(d−x); if this is

 e.g. Thermocouple or strain gauge bridge output voltages, to a

 the two inputs being known as:

 non-inverting input respectively.

 Used to repeat a signal without loading down the sensor.

 RIN is therefore equal to the resistance of R1 and R4 in parallel.

 Since the strain e is much less than 1, we have:

 The input impedances of the difference amplifier can be relatively low

 To have high input impedance, the difference amplifier is preceded by

where a and b are to be found.

Vout  21 .7Vin  0.434

 A bridge circuit for which R4 varies from 100 to 102 is shown

• When R4 = 102Ω the bridge offset voltage is found as

• To get an output of 2.5V at 102Ω we need a differential gain

• For the instrumentation amplifier we have

 Interfacing of high voltage, noisy systems to a controller.

 Signal travels in only one direction.

 A signal conditioner is used to manipulate an input signal to a

 it is necessary therefore to hold the output of the sampler

 This is done using a sample-and-hold circuit.

 Charge time must be taken into account.

 Useful to hold rapidly changing signals for analysis.

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