ACLC College of Tacloban
M.H. Del Pilar St., Tacloban City
Senior High School Department
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Review of Related Literature & Studies
Related Literature – any documentary source
written by journalists or any officials wherein the
opinions and the facts shown are necessary and
can affect the masses’ opinion and thinking.
Related Literature includes:
• News Article
• Book Citations
• Official Website Opinions & Facts
Related Studies – are from researchers or from
official public offices, and theses from different
universities and libraries. Related Studies include:
• Published/Unpublished
Research/Thesis/Dissertation
• Online Research/Thesis/Dissertations
• Research Proceedings
What, Where, & How to Find Information:
1. List down all important variables.
2. Check the population of the study.
3. Make sure to write citations.
4. Review and synthesize findings.
5. Use online computers for searching and
retrieval.
6. Synthesize the reviewed literature.
Characteristics of Materials to be Cited:
• The materials must be as recent as
possible; it may be 5-10 years back.
• Materials must be as objective and
unbiased as possible
• Materials must be relevant to study
Simple Rules for Writing the Review:
1. Define the topic and the audience.
2. Search and re-search the literature.
3. Take notes while reading.
4. Choose the type of review to be written.
5. Keep the review focused.
6. Be critical and consistent.
7. Find logical structure.
8. Make use of feedback.
9. Include your own relevant research.
10. Be up to date in your review of literature
and studies.
Plagiarism is the most widely recognized and one
of the most serious violations of the contract
between the reader and the writer (Roig, 2002).
Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s
words or ideas and passing them off as your own
(University of Leicester, 2010).
The Philippine copyright law is enshrined
in the Intellectual Property Code of the
Philippines, officially known as Republic Act No.
8293. The law is partly based on United States
copyright law and the principles of the Berne
Convention for the Protection of Literary and
Artistic Works.
Under Philippine law, original intellectual
creations in the literary and artistic domain are
copyrightable.
To avoid this, one should always cite and
document the sources through referencing.
Reference is an important part of a research
paper.
There are predefined styles stating how to set
them out – these are called citation styles.
Referencing is a method used to demonstrate to
the readers that you have conducted a thorough
and appropriate literature search, and reading.
Citation Styles:
1. APA (American Psychological Association)
APA is an author/date-based style. This means the
emphasis is placed on the author and the date of a
piece of work to uniquely identify it. Most of the
education research and social science research used
APA referencing.
2. MLA (Modern Language Association)
MLA is often applied by the arts and humanities,
particularly in the USA. It is arguably the most well-used
of all the citation styles. It follows the author/page
number format.
3. Harvard
Harvard is very similar o APA. Where APA is primarily
used in the USA, Harvard referencing is the most well-
used referencing style in the UK and Australia and is
encouraged for use with the humanities.
4. Vancouver
The Vancouver system is mainly used in medical and
scientific papers.
5. Chicago and Turabian
These are two separate styles but are very similar, just
like Harvard and APA. These are widely used for history
and economics.
Citation Techniques:
1. Quotations must be identical to the original, using a
narrow segment of the source. They must match the
source document word for word and must be
attributed to the original author.
2. Paraphrasing involves putting a passage from source
material into your own words. A paraphrase must also
be attributed to the original source. Paraphrased
material is usually shorter than the original passage,
taking a somewhat broader segment of the source and
condensing it slightly.
3. Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into
your own words, including only the main point(s). Once
again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to
the original source. Summaries are significantly shorter
than the original and take a broad overview of the
source material.
 ACLC College of Tacloban
M.H. Del Pilar St., Tacloban City
Senior High School Department
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Documenting Sources:
1. Parenthetical (In-text) Citation – citations are
within/inside the paragraphs/text, enclosed in
parenthesis.
2. Footnote - Footnotes are notes (citations) that are
placed at the end/bottom of a page and used to
reference parts of the text (generally using superscript
numbers).
3. Endnote – Endnotes are similar to Footnotes, which
use superscript numbers for reference. However, the
citations are placed at the end of an article, research
paper, chapter, or book.
4. Bibliography/References - A bibliography is a list of all
of the sources you have used (whether referenced or
not) in the process of researching your work. It is placed
at the end of the entire work, and they are listed
alphabetically.
Understanding Data & Ways to
Systematically Collect Data
Research Ethics for Conducting:
1. Obtain informed consent from participants.
2. There should be no pressure on individuals to
participate.
3. Respect individual autonomy.
4. Avoid causing harm.
5. Maintain anonymity and confidentiality.
6. Take particular care in research with vulnerable
groups.
Research Design – refers to the overall plan and
scheme for conducting the study. Blueprint or
framework for conducting the study. It could
either be Descriptive or Experimental.
A. Descriptive Designs – the purpose is to describe
the status of an identified variable as they exist.
1. Descriptive-Normative Surveys – This design
describes the trends in a large population of individuals
and attempts to establish norms or standards based on
a wide class of survey data.
2. Correlational Research – This design estimates the
extent to which different variables are related to one
another in the population of interest. One will
determine if there is a relationship of covariance
between two variables (similarity between them, not
the difference). Take note: correlation does not mean
causation.
3. Descriptive-Evaluative Studies – The purpose of
descriptive-evaluative studies is to judge the “goodness
of a criterion measure”. It could be done in a
longitudinal or cross-sectional approach. Longitudinal
establishes changes in that criterion over a long period
of time; whereas, cross-sectional evaluate changes over
time by comparing at the same point in time, having
different people as respondents.
4. Assessment/Evaluation Studies – This attempt to
determine the effectiveness or efficiency of certain
policies or practices when applied to a group of
respondents. It implies the measurement of certain key
indicators and attaching judgment or value to them.
Often, they are used as basis for legislation and policy
formation.
5. Descriptive-Comparative Studies – This endeavor
establishes significant differences between two or
more groups of subjects on the basis of a criterion
measure.
B. Experimental Research – also known as
longitudinal or repeated-measures, also referred
to as interventions because you do more than just
observe the subjects. This uses the scientific
method to establish a cause-effect relationship
among a group of variables. This involves a true
experiment, meaning, there is direct testing of the
relationship of variables by imposing control over
all other variables except one.
A control group and an experimental
group are made in the experiment. The prior does
not receive treatment, while the latter receives
treatment. The whole point of all experimental
designs is to make sure that the effects of the
treatment are carefully isolated or measured.
There are many designs that would allow this kind
of control and we will discuss a few of these
designs as follows:
1. Pre-test/Post-test Control Group Design – the design
requires two groups of equivalent standing in terms of
a criterion measure. One group will be the control
group, and the other will be the experimental group.
Both will be given the same pre-test. Then, the CG will
not be subjected to intervention, whereas the EG will be
given treatment. After the treatment period, the groups
will be given the same post-test.
2. Singe Group Pre-test/Post-test Design – The group is
first given a pre-test followed by the usual treatment
and then a post-test is administered. A new pre-test is
then administered to the group followed by the
experimental treatment factor and a final post-test. This
design is very delicate because a researcher must see
to it that situations are equivalent before and during
the experimental factor is introduced.
3. Solomon Four-group Design – This makes use of four
equivalent groups. The first two groups follow the pre-
test and post-test control group design. The third group
is given no pre-test but with experimental treatment
and a post-test. The fourth group is given no pre-test,
and no treatment but with a post-test. This design
eliminates the Hawthorne effect, effects of maturation,
and attrition but has the main disadvantage of
requiring a large number of respondents.
Threats to the Experimental Design:
1. Maturation – aging of subjects from pre-
test to post-test.
2. Test-Wiseness – memorizing the contents
of the pre-test to score higher on the post-
test.
3. Natural attrition – death or dropping out of
subjects from the experiment.
4. Hawthorne Effect – modifying behavior
after having awareness of being observed.
 ACLC College of Tacloban
M.H. Del Pilar St., Tacloban City
Senior High School Department
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Sampling – the process of selecting and getting

the respondents of the study with the minimum
cost, such that the resulting observations will be
representative of the entire population.

Sample Size

Sample Frame
3. Stratified Sampling – selecting sub-samples
proportionate in size to the significant characteristics of
Population the total population. Different strata in the population
are defined and each member of the stratum is listed.
The number of units drawn from each stratum depends
on the ratio of the desired sample in the population.
Homogenous Groupings = Form stratum of similar
characteristics, and samples will be selected from each
stratum.
Population – The group of individuals having one
characteristic that distinguishes them from other
groups.
Sample Frame – The actual list of sampling units from
which the sample is selected.
Sample Size – The group of participants in a study,
selected from the target population from which the
researcher generalizes to the target population.

Sampling Technique:
A. Probability Sampling - refers to a sampling
technique in which samples are obtained
using some objective chance mechanism,
thus involving randomization. They require
the use of sampling frame (a list/map of all
the sampling units in the population). The
probabilities of selection are known.
B.
4. Cluster Sampling –a technique in which the unit of
sampling is not individual but a naturally occurring
group of individuals. It considers a universe of mutually-
divided, exclusive sub-groups called clusters.
Heterogenous Groupings = Form clusters of varying
characteristics and either one cluster will be chosen (single-
stage) or representatives will be chosen from each cluster
(multi-stage).
B. Probability Sampling - This is a technique when
there is no way of estimating the probability that
each element has been included in the sample
and no assurance that every element has a
chance of being included.

1. Random Sampling – basic probability sampling

design, in which the sample is selected by a process
that does not only give each element in the population
a chance to be included but also makes the selection of
every possible combination of the desired number of
cases equally likely. It can be done by means of a table
of random numbers, or by using the lottery technique.

1. Quota Sampling – is a technique with provision to

2. Systematic Sampling – affected by drawing units at
regular intervals from the list. The starting point of the
first units to be taken is a random choice. Once the first
member has been selected, all other members are
automatically determined.
guarantee the inclusion in the sample of diverse
elements in the population and make sure that these
diverse elements are taken into account in proportion
in which they occur in the population. In quota
sampling, you select people randomly according to
some fixed quota.
Proportional Quota = The sample represents the major
characteristics of the population in a proportionate amount.
For example, if you know the population has 70% women and
30% men, and that you want a total sample size of 100, you
will continue sampling until you get those percentages, and
then you will stop. So, if you already got the 70 women in your
sample, but not the 30% men, you will continue to sample men
but even if qualified women respondents come along, you will
not sample them because you have already met your quota.
 ACLC College of Tacloban
M.H. Del Pilar St., Tacloban City
Senior High School Department
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Non-proportional Quota = It is less restrictive, for you will

specify the minimum number of sample units you want for
each category/characteristic. You will not be concerned with
having numbers that match the proportions of the
population. Instead, you simply want to have enough
assurance that you will be able to talk even to the small
groups in the population. It is usually used to assure that
smaller groups are adequately represented in your sample.

5. Snowball Sampling – can be used for sensitive topics.

In this type of sampling you asked for referrals from a
person who knows anyone that could fit the
qualifications of being your respondent. Then, the
referred respondent will also refer you to another
probable respondent who would like to participate in
your study and so on.
Referral System = Used when a sampling frame is difficult to
2. Voluntary Sampling – is more often used for sensitive identify, respondents will refer you to other respondents.
topics. For this type of sampling, you only get as
respondents for your study those who “volunteered” or Determining Sample Size
have presented themselves willingly. Note: Sample size should be determined
Pure Willingness = Volunteers are selected. Those who want
accurately, not through estimation or
to take part in the study, make up the sample. Willingness is
the primary motivation; the convenience of the volunteers is percentages.
considered.
1. In the event that researchers lack knowledge about
the behavior of the population, the Slovin’s Formula
may be applied:
𝑵
n=
𝟏+𝑵𝒆𝟐
where N = population; e = error balance (.05)
Error balance is always at 5%; the higher the error, the less
accurate the data will be.

2. The Krejcie & Morgan formula can also be used to

determine the sample size. A table has a provided in
determining the sample size for a given population for
3. Availability Sampling - In this type of sampling you set
easy reference. (for a finite population)
a time when you can conduct your data gathering then
whoever is available during the time you gathered your
data then they will be your respondents.
Convenience = Those who are available and willing to take
part, in the data-gathering schedule, are selected.
Convenience is on the part of the researcher.

4. Purposive Sampling – sampling techniques in which

units are selected because they have characteristics
that you need in your sample. In other words, units are
selected “on purpose” in purposive sampling.
Also called judgmental sampling, this sampling
method relies on the researcher’s judgment when
identifying and selecting the individuals, cases, or
events that can provide the best information to achieve
the study’s objectives.
Criteria Selection = Criteria is formulated for the selection of
respondents. Those who meet all the criteria are chosen. (e.g.
not younger than 65 y/o, resident of the place for more than 10
years.)
 ACLC College of Tacloban
M.H. Del Pilar St., Tacloban City
Senior High School Department
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Instruments – are the data-gathering devices that
will be used in the study. These should have
usability, validity, and reliability.
The instrument is the device while the
instrumentation is the course of action which is
the process of developing, testing, and using the
device.
o Open-Ended Questions
o for qualitative research (interviews and
focus groups)
o very useful in understanding in detail
the respondent and his or her position
concerning a defined topic/situation
o particularly helpful in revealing new
aspects, sub-themes, issues, and so
forth that are unknown or unidentified
o Close-Ended Questions
o for quantitative research (used in
questionnaires and surveys)
o suitable for use with a wide range of
respondents
o allow a standardized analysis of the
data
o are intended to confirm the hypotheses
Instrument Validity – refers to the extent by which
the instrument measures what it intends to
measure and performs as it is designed to
perform.
o Content Validity – the extent to which an
instrument accurately measures all aspects of a
construct. It should cover all content needed
with respect to the variable. Also, it refers to the
appropriateness of the content in an
instrument.
o Construct Validity – the extent to which an
instrument measures the intended construct. It
refers to whether inferences can be drawn from
the test scores, related to the concept being
studied.
o Convergent – the extent to which measures
of the same or similar constructs actually
correspond to each other.
o Discriminant – two measures of unrelated
constructs that should be unrelated, very
weakly related, or negatively related actually
are in practice.
o Criterion Validity – the extent to which an
instrument measures the outcome it was
designed to measure.
o Concurrent - is used when the scores of a
test and the criterion variables are obtained
at the same time.
o Predictive - is used when the criterion
variables are measured after the scores of
the test.
o Face Validity – the extent to which an
instrument appears to measure what it intends
to measure. This type of validity is concerned
with whether a measure seems relevant and
appropriate for what it’s assessing on the
surface.
o Are the components of the measure (e.g.,
questions) relevant to what’s being measured?
o Does the measurement method seem useful for
measuring the variable?
o Is the measure seemingly appropriate for
capturing the variable?
Instrument Reliability – relates to the extent to
which the instrument is consistent. The
instrument should be able to obtain
approximately the same responses when applied
to respondents who are similarly situated.
Likewise, when the instrument is applied at two
different points in time, the responses must highly
correlate with one another.
o Test-Retest – Measures consistency of the
same test over time.
o Interrater – Measures consistency of the
same test conducted by different people.
o Parallel Forms – Measures consistency of
different versions of a test which are
designed to be equivalent.
o Internal Consistency – Measures
consistency of the individual items of a
test.
[NOTE: When you gather data, consider the
readability of the instrument. Readability refers
to the level of difficulty of the instrument
relative to the intended users. Thus, an
instrument in English applied to a set of
respondents with no education will be useless
and unreadable.
The student who intends to use an instrument
used in an earlier investigation is well advised
to review the contents of the instrument. If
possible, you have to conduct a second run of
validation to make sure that the instruments
you are using possess the criteria mentioned
above.]
Data Collection Methods
[Note: Questionnaires are the most commonly used
instrument for Quantitative Research because it allows
efficient measurement of data.]
1. Questionnaires - The main purpose of a
questionnaire is to help extract data from
respondents. It serves as a standard guide for the
interviewers who need to ask the questions
exactly the same way. Without this standard,
questions would be asked in a disorganized way
at the discretion of the individual. Questionnaires
are also an important part in the data collection
methodology. They are the medium in which
responses are recorded to facilitate data analysis.
There are normally five sections in a questionnaire
namely:
o The respondent’s identification data include
the respondent’s name, address, date of
interview, and the name of the interviewer. The
questionnaire will also be numbered for
purpose of entering the data into the computer.
o An introduction is the interviewer’s request for
help. It is normally scripted and lays out the
credentials of the market research company (in
students’ research you lay out you current
educational background), the purpose of the
study and any aspects of confidentiality.
 ACLC College of Tacloban
M.H. Del Pilar St., Tacloban City
Senior High School Department
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
o Instruction refers to the respondents’ directions
on how to move through the questionnaire
such as which questions to skip and where to
move if certain answers are given
o Information is the main body of the document
and is made up of the many questions and
response codes.
o Classification data and information establish
the important characteristics of the
respondents, particularly related to the
demographics which are sometimes at the
front of the questionnaire or sometimes at the
end.
Types of Questionnaire
o Paper-pencil questionnaires are actual or hard-
copy questionnaires, printed-out and
distributed to the respondents.
o Web-based questionnaire is a new and
inevitably growing methodology using the
internet. This would mean receiving an e-mail
on which you would click an address that would
redirect you to a secure website to fill in
questionnaires.
o Self-Administered questionnaires are generally
distributed through the mail, filled out, and
administered by the respondents themselves
which are returned via mail to the researcher.
Questionnaires often make use of checklists and rating
scales. These devices help simplify and quantify
people’s behavior and attitude.
o Checklist is a list of behaviors, characteristics, or
other entities that the researcher is looking for.
Either the researcher or survey participant
simply checks whether each item on the list is
observed, present, true, or vice versa.
o Rating scale is more useful when a behavior
needs to be evaluated or a continuum. Rating
scales state the criteria and provide three or
more responses to describe the quality or
frequency of a behavior, skills, strategies, or
variables of the study.
2. Tests – Tests provide a way to assess subjects’
knowledge and capacity to apply this knowledge
to new situations. Tests take many forms. They
may require respondents to choose among
alternatives like selecting a correct answer or an
incorrect answer to cluster choices into like
groups, produce short answers, or write extended
responses.
A question may address a single outcome of
interest or lead to questions involving a number of
outcome areas depending on the research study.
Tests provide information that is measured
against a variety of standards, namely:
o Norm-referenced test is the most popular test
and it provides information on how the target
performs against a reference group or
normative population.
o Criterion-referenced tests are constructed to
determine whether or not the
respondents/subjects have attained mastery of
a skill or knowledge area. These tests provide
data on whether important skills have been
achieved or not.
o Proficiency testing is an alternative to criterion-
referenced tests. Proficiency tests provide an
assessment against a level of skill attainment
but include standards for performance at
varying levels of proficiency, typically a three-or
four-point scale ranging from below basics
advanced performance.
Quantitative Data Analysis – is the technique
utilized for analyzing the data gathered. This
includes the treatment of data collected, which
will then be analyzed and interpreted to formulate
conclusions and inferences.
Data analysis in quantitative research
studies is often seen as a discouraging process.
Much of this is associated with apparently
complex language and the notion of statistical
tests. The researcher should clearly identify what
statistical tests were undertaken, why these tests
were used and what were the results. A rule of
thumb is that, studies that are descriptive in
design use only descriptive statistics;
correlational studies, quasi-experimental and
experimental studies use inferential statistics.
1. Descriptive Statistics – is the term given to the analysis
of data that helps describe, show, or summarize data in
a meaningful way, such that, for example, patterns
might emerge from the data. Descriptive statistics do
not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the
data we have analyzed or reach conclusions regarding
any hypotheses we might have made. They are simply
a way to describe our data. With descriptive statistics,
you are simply describing what is or what the data
shows.
There are four major types of descriptive statistics:
o Measures of Frequency:
Count, Percent, Frequency...
o Measures of Central Tendency.
Mean, Median, and Mode...
o Measures of Dispersion or Variation.
Range, Variance, Standard Deviation...
o Measures of Position.
Percentile Ranks, Quartile Ranks…
Descriptive statistics is very important because if we simply
presented our raw data it would be hard to visualize what the
data was showing, especially if there was a lot of it. Descriptive
statistics, therefore, enables us to present the data in a more
meaningful way, which allows a simpler interpretation of the
data.
2. Inferential Statistics – is subdivided into tests to
measure relationships and differences between
variables. Inferential statistics tests are used to identify
if a relationship or difference between variables is
statistically significant. Statistical significance helps
researchers to rule out one important threat to validity
and the result could be due to chance rather than to
real differences in the population.
With inferential statistics, you take data from samples
and make generalizations about a population.
 ACLC College of Tacloban
M.H. Del Pilar St., Tacloban City
Senior High School Department
PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2

Research Question Statistical Tool

trace the profile of the frequency counts,
respondents percentages
determine the level if (variable) of weighted means,
the respondents ranking
find out if there is a significant Pearson r, multiple
relationship between (variable A) regression analysis,
and (variable B) chi-square test
t-test for
find out if there is a significant
independent
difference between (variable A)
samples; t-test for
and (variable B)
correlated samples
find out if there is a significant
difference among the
f-test or ANOVA
respondents in terms of (variable
with three or more groups)

NOTE: Descriptive statistics summarize the characteristics of a

data set. Inferential statistics allow you to test a hypothesis or
assess whether your data is generalizable to the broader
population.

In doing quantitative research, remember the following

in reporting the results of your study:
a. Explain the data you have collected, the
statistical treatment, and all relevant results in
relation to the research problem that you are
investigating.
b. Describe unexpected events that occurred
during your data collection. Explained how the
actual analysis differs from the planned
analysis. Explain how you handled the missing
data and why the missing data did not
undermine the validity of your analysis.
c. Explain techniques you used to “clean” your
data set.
d. Choose a statistical tool and discuss its use and
reference for it. Specify any computer programs
or software used in the study such as SPSS,
MINITAB, PHStat, and so on.
e. Describe well the assumptions for each
procedure and the steps you took to ensure
that they were not violated.
f. Provide the descriptive statistics, confidence
intervals, and sample sizes for each variable as
well as the value of the test statistics, its
direction, the degrees of freedom, and the
significance level (report the actual p-value)
when you use inferential statistics.
g. Avoid inferring causality, particularly in non-
randomized designs or without further
experimentation.
h. Use tables to provide exact values and use
figures to convey global effects. Keep figures
small in size and include graphic presentations
of confidence intervals whenever possible.
i. Inform the reader what to look for in tables and
figures.

~ Nothing follows ~

[Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 will be covered in the next

semester, under the course Inquries, Investigations, &
Immersions. Although, similar concepts and ideas have
already been presented in Practical Research 1.]