METHODOLOGY 1

Module 1.1:
Communicative Language Teaching
Vocabulary and Grammar Part 1

2022 – 2023
Monique Konings – Emmie Robben
 CONTENTS

Modulewijzer Communicatief Taalonderwijs 3

1. Onderwijsdoelen
2. Algemene vaardigheden/houding
3. Toetsing en beoordeling
4. Leermiddelen

1. Introduction to Communicative Language Teaching 5

1.1 Introduction to Methodology 1
Task 1: introduction
1.2 The history of Communicative Language Teaching
Task 2: a historical perspective
1.3 Defining Communicative Language Teaching
Task 3: brainstorm

2. Grammatical Accuracy and Vocabulary Fluency in CLT 14

2.1 Accuracy
2.2 Fluency
2.3 Deciding upon a stance in the matter of accuracy vs fluency
Task 4: debate

3. Meaningful context for vocabulary and grammar 16

3.1 Meaningful context in vocabulary teaching
3.2 Meaningful context in grammar teaching
Task 5: coursebook analysis

4. Mental Lexicon 18
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Processing new words
4.3 Remembering new words
4.3.1 Attention
4.3.2 Linking
4.3.3 Repetition
Task 6: linking techniques

5. Constructing a compelling argument 25

Task 7: lesson analysis

6. End of Term 1 Pitch 27

7. Weekly Planner 30

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 2

Modulewijzer Communicatief Taalonderwijs

1. Onderwijsdoelen:

Studenten kunnen:
 aangeven wat doelen van communicatief taalonderwijs, vocabulaire- en
grammaticaverwerving kunnen zijn;
 een leergang analyseren op basis van de aangeboden theorie met betrekking
tot communicatief taalonderwijs en de ondersteunende vocabulaire en
grammatica;
 begrippen die te maken hebben met woordenschatverwerving, vocabulaire,
grammatica en communicatief taalonderwijs verklaren en verwerken;
 verschillende technieken gebruiken om woorden te verklaren en grammatica
uit te leggen in communicatieve context;
 verschillende mogelijkheden van woordenschatverwerving en
grammaticaverwerving benoemen die ter ondersteuning van communicatieve
vaardigheden gebruikt worden;
 een eigen visie vormen met betrekking tot communicatief taalonderwijs naar
aanleiding van geleerde stof in deze module.

2. Algemene vaardigheden/houding

De student:
 toont aan dat hij vanuit een theoretische basis, relevante bronnen en een
onderzoekende houding een taalgerichte, vakdidactische en inhoudelijk aan
het vak gerelateerde casus kan uitwerken en evalueren;
 kan het niveau beoordelen qua kennis en taalvaardigheid van de doelgroep en
een adequate evaluatie hiervan geven;
 toont aan dat hij een ontwikkeling heeft doorgemaakt in de visieontwikkeling
met betrekking tot het leren, de relatie met het vak en de vakdidactiek, en de
doelgroep;
 kan constructief (onder begeleiding) samenwerken waarbij het zelfstandig
bestuderen en verwerken van theorie en opdrachten van belang is; op basis
van eigen leerdoelen legt elke student een individueel traject af;

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 3

  neemt actief deel aan de werkcolleges. Tijdens deze colleges bespreekt (en
evt. presenteert) de student de bestudeerde theorie en de gemaakte
opdrachten met medestudenten;
 maakt individueel en/of in samenwerking opdrachten (delen van lessen)
afgestemd op de eisen van de basisvorming;
 legt een persoonlijk dossier aan, waarin de student het eigen
ontwikkelingsproces bijhoudt.

3. Toetsing en beoordeling

Deze module zal worden afgesloten door middel van twee toetsmomenten. Aan
het einde van periode 1 vindt er een toets plaats in de vorm van een pitch
(performance assessment) in drietallen. Toetsing vindt plaats in week 7 en/of 8
tijdens het college. De herkansingsmogelijkheid vindt plaats in week 10. Deze
toets bedraagt 25% van het eindcijfer voor deze module. Aan het einde van
periode 2 wordt er een toets afgenomen in de vorm van een schriftelijk tentamen.
Deze toets bedraagt 75% van het eindcijfer voor deze module. Let wel dat beide
toetsen met een voldoende afgesloten moeten worden om de 4 EC voor deze
module te kunnen verkrijgen.

4. Leermiddelen

Verplichte literatuur:
- Dönszelmann, van Beuningen, Kaal & de Graaff (red.), (2020), Handboek
Vreemdetalendidactiek, ISBN 9789046907641.
- Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, 5e druk, Amsterdam
University Press, ISBN 9781447980254.
- Door docent aangereikte artikelen, reader, PowerPoints, e.d.

Optionele achtergrond literatuur:

- Kwakernaak, E. (2015). Didactiek van het vreemdetalenonderwijs. Coutinho.
- Staatsen, F., Heebing, S., & Van Renselaar, E. (2015). Moderne vreemde
talen in de onderbouw. Countinho.
- Ur, P. (2012). A course in English language teaching. Cambridge UP.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 4

 1. Introduction to Communicative Language Teaching

1.1 Introduction to methodology 1

The ever-growing need for good communication skills in English has created a huge
demand for English teaching around the world. Millions of people today want to
improve their command of English to ensure that their children achieve a good
command of English. Opportunities to learn English are provided in many different
ways such as through formal instruction, travel, study abroad, as well as through the
media and the internet. The world-wide demand for English has created an
enormous demand for quality language teaching and language teaching materials
and resources. Learners set themselves demanding goals. They want to be able to
master English to a high level of accuracy and fluency. Employers too insist that their
employees have good English language skills, and fluency in English is a pre-
requisite for success and advancement in many fields of employment in today’s
world. The demand for an appropriate teaching methodology is therefore as strong
as ever (Richards, 2005).

Task 1: Introduction

Read the questions below and think of your answers as they currently stand:
 What is modern foreign language methodology? And what is Communicative
Language Teaching? What is it we will be looking into in greater detail?
 What do you expect from these classes? What do you hope to learn? Which
insights do you hope to gain?
 What are the typical characteristics of teaching modern foreign languages
(MFL)? Perhaps think back to your own experiences in secondary education.
 What do you consider important aspects/characteristics of a teacher of MFL?
 What do you reckon are the (most important) objectives in MFL education in
our current educational system (Vernieuwde Onderbouw VO)? (or in another home
country’s educational system in the case of foreign exchange students)

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 5

1.2 The history of Communicative Language Teaching

Task 2: A historical perspective

Read and study the following text carefully. Explain what you’ve read to fellow
students. This text was taken from the book Communicative Language Teaching in
Action by Klaus Brandl. After reading, draw/digitally create a timeline of the history of
language teaching according to Brandl.

Introduction
The field of second or world language teaching has undergone many shifts and
trends over the last few decades. Numerous methods have come and gone. We
have seen the Audiolingual Method, cognitive based approaches, the Total Physical
Response (TPR), the Natural Approach, and many others (for a detailed description
of these methods and approaches, see Richards and Rodgers 2001). In addition, the
proficiency and standards-based movements have shaped the field with their
attempts to define proficiency goals and thus have provided a general sense of
direction. Some believe that foreign language instruction has finally come of age (see
Harper, Lively, and Williams 1998); others refer to it as the post-method area
(Richards and Rodgers 2001). It is also generally believed that there is no one single
best method that meets the goals and needs of all learners and programs. What has
emerged from this time is a variety of communicative language teaching (CLT)
methodologies. Such methodologies encompass eclectic ways of teaching that are
borrowed from myriad methods. Furthermore, they are rooted not only in one but a
range of theories and are motivated by research findings in second language
acquisition (SLA) as well as cognitive and educational psychology. The purpose of
this chapter is to provide an introduction to CLT and furthermore describe general
methodological principles that function as theoretical and practical guidelines when
implementing CLT methodologies.

The Shift Toward Communicative Language Teaching and Task-Based

Instruction: A Historical Perspective
For many decades the predominant method of language instruction was the
grammar-translation method. This method is rooted in the teaching of the nineteenth
century and was widely used for the first half (in some parts of the world even longer)

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 6

of the last century to teach modern foreign languages (Richards and Rodgers 2001).
Textbooks primarily consisted of lists of vocabulary and rule explanations. By and
large, students engaged in translation activities. Little oral proficiency would result
from the Grammar-translation Method, and students often were expected to go
abroad and immerse themselves to become a fluent speaker.

The Grammar-translation Method was not without its opponents, and the demand for
oral proficiency led to several counter and parallel movements that laid the
foundation for the development of new ways of teaching, as we still know them today
(Richards and Rodgers 2001). One such method is the Direct Method, sometimes
also referred to as the Berlitz Method as it was widely used in Berlitz schools. Some
reformers of the nineteenth century (e.g., Gouin and Sauveur) believed that
languages should be taught in a natural way, that is, how children learn language. As
Richards and Rodgers (2001) point out, “Believers in the Natural Method argued that
a foreign language could be taught without translation or the use of the learner’s
native language if meaning was conveyed directly through demonstration and action”
(p. 11). For this reason, they also strongly promoted the spontaneous use of
language.

Richards and Rodgers (2001, p. 12) describe principles of procedures underlying the
Direct Method in the following way:

1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in carefully graded progression
organized around question-answer exchanges between teachers and students
in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstrating, objects, and pictures;
abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 7

Despite its success in private schools, the Direct Method was met with a great deal of
criticism. Strict requirements to adhere to its principles and the need for native
speakers or someone with native-like fluency prevented this method from becoming
widely adopted by academic institutions (see Richards and Rodgers 2001).

Hailed in its day as revolutionary in foreign language teaching, the grammar-

translation method was replaced by the Audiolingual Method in the 1950s and 60s.
The belief in the effectiveness of this method was so strong that traces of
audiolingual-based teaching theories can still be found in teaching materials. The
audiolingual method was based on the school of behaviorism in psychology and
structuralism in linguistics, for which reason it also become known as the “structural”
or “behaviorist” method. Because of its primary emphasis on spoken language, it is
also referred to as the “Aural-oral” Method. The underlying assumption of this
philosophy was that, as Rivers (1964) put it, foreign language learning is basically a
mechanical process of habit formation and automatization. In practice,
this meant students were presented with
language patterns and dialogues, which they had to mimic and memorize. Language
practice by and large consisted of repetition of language patterns and drill exercises.
Drill types included substitution drills, variation drills, translation drills, and response
drills. The following Swedish example illustrates a combination of a substitution and
translation drill.

ILLUSTRATION 1
Substitution/transformation drill

Han har alltid HUNDEN med sig. [He always has his dog with him].
the map—the fountain pen—the ink—the paper—the car
The teacher says, “Han har alltid hunden med sig.” [He always has
his dog with him].

Student chooses from a given list of English words, translates it

into Swedish, and substitutes the capitalised word of the example
sentence.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 8

A tenet of this method was that errors of any kind were to be avoided, so the learners
were not to establish bad habits. For this reason, the native speaker teacher was
considered the perfect model.

There were, however, many problems with audiolingual approaches. The teacher,
who was often seen like the drillmaster, carried the responsibility of teaching and
student learning like an atlas on his shoulder (Lee and VanPatten 2003). One of the
most widely brought forward points of criticism toward this method is that the learners
lacked engagement in meaningful language use and had only limited opportunities to
use language creatively while interacting with their peers. As Willis (2004) points out,
“This was because the emphasis was on eradication of errors and accurate
production of the target forms, not on communication of meanings” (p. 4). Due to
overcorrection of students’ errors by the
teacher, anxiety levels were often quite high among students. The Audiolingual
Method failed to have the desired effect of helping learners become competent
speakers in the TL.

Several factors and influences led to the demise of the Audiolingual Method and
caused a shift in language teaching methodology. This brought forth communicative
language approaches and a range of alternative methods.

1. The Audiolingual Method did not live up to its promise creating speakers who
were able to communicate in the target language.
2. Theories of learning moved away from behaviorist views of learning. The most
influential work was the one by Chomsky, which was published in his book
Syntactic Structures (1957). He argued that language learning involves
creative processes and perceived language as rule-governed creativity. As
Willis (2004) describes it, “He believed that a basic rule system that underpins
all languages is innate and that, given exposure to a specific language,
children will naturally create the specific rules of that language for themselves.
Learning is thus seen as a process of discovery determined by internal
processes rather than external influences” (pp. 4–5).
3. Works by scholars and sociolinguists such as J. Firth, M. Halliday, D. Hymes,
and J. Austin led to a change in the way language was viewed. As

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 9

 emphasized by many practitioners, the primary purpose of language is to
communicate.
4. The development of a functional-notional syllabus in the 1970s in Europe by
Van Ek (1973) and Wilkins (1976) initiated a new way of how teaching
materials were organized. Traditionally, syllabi had been organized around
grammatical structures and vocabulary units. The functional-notional syllabus
attempted to show what learners need to do with language and what
meanings they need to communicate, and organized the syllabus around
functions and notions. Functions are communicative speech acts such as
“asking,” “requesting,” “denying,” “arguing,” “describing,” or “requesting.”
Notional categories include concepts such as “time” or “location.” Notions and
functions are different from topics and situations as they express more precise
categories. For example, a topic may be “family,” the situation “coming for a
visit and having dinner.” The function and the notion that is addressed in this
unit may involve “inviting” and “time past” (e.g., past tenses, expressions like
“last week,” “a few days ago”). The functional-notional syllabus laid the
groundwork that ultimately led textbook writers to organize their materials in
terms of communicative situations, and some also in very concrete
communicative tasks.
5. A growing number of research studies in applied linguistics have provided
many new insights and a deeper understanding of second language learning
and SLA processes. Some of these include
• Learners move through different stages of development (Selinker 1972).
• Learners develop an underlying language system that develops in a sequence
that does not always reflect the sequence of what was taught in a curriculum
(Dulay and Burt 1973). Work by Pienemann (1989) showed that learners
develop language skills according to their own internal syllabus.

Alternative approaches and methods to language teaching

While communicative language teaching methodologies kept evolving and being
more clearly defined, in the 1970s and 80s a set of alternative approaches and
methods emerged. Some of these include comprehension-based methods such as
the Total Physical Response (TPR), the Natural Approach, the Silent Way, or
Suggestopedia (for a detailed description of these methods, see Richards and
Rodgers 2001). Many of these methods never became widely adapted and had only

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 10

a short shelf life. This is not to say that these methods did not contribute to the field
of language teaching. On the contrary, some of these methods have helped shape
and continue to have an influence on the field in many ways. For example, TPR,
which James Asher (1969) originally developed as a method to teach language by
combining action and speech, is still widely used. Many practitioners, however,
promote and use TPR as a technique to introduce some vocabulary or grammatical
structures.

1.3 Defining Communicative Language Teaching

Task 3: brainstorm

Take 2 minutes to create a personal word web regarding communicative language

teaching. Then take 5 minutes to discuss each other’s word webs in your group.
Come to a joint definition of Communicative Language Teaching and write this down.
Then read the text below, again from the book Communicative Language Teaching in
Action by Klaus Brandl, to confirm or adjust your definition.

What Is Communicative Language Teaching?

Communicative language teaching (CLT) is generally regarded as an approach to
language teaching (Richards and Rodgers 2001). As such, CLT reflects a certain
model or research paradigm, or a theory (Celce-Murcia 2001). It is based on the
theory that the primary function of language use is communication. Its primary goal is
for learners to develop communicative competence (Hymes 1971), or simply put,
communicative ability. In other words, its goal is to make use of real-life situations
that necessitate communication.

Defining communicative competence

Communicative competence is defined as the ability to interpret and enact
appropriate social behaviors, and it requires the active involvement of the learner in
the production of the target language (Canale and Swain 1980; Celce-Murcia et al.
1995; Hymes 1972). Such a notion encompasses a wide range of abilities: the
knowledge of grammar and vocabulary (linguistic competence); the ability to say
the appropriate thing in a certain social situation (sociolinguistic competence); the
ability to start, enter, contribute to, and end a conversation, and the ability to do this
in a consistent and coherent manner (discourse competence); the ability to

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 11

communicate effectively and repair problems caused by communication breakdowns
(strategic competence).

As frequently misunderstood, CLT is not a method per se. That is to say, it is not a
method in the sense by which content, a syllabus, and teaching routines are clearly
identified (see Richards and Rodgers 2001). CLT has left its doors wide open for a
great variety of methods and techniques. There is no single text or authority on it, nor
any single model that is universally accepted as authoritative (Richards and Rodgers
2001). By and large, it uses materials and utilizes methods that are appropriate to a
given context of learning.

CLT has spawned various movements such as proficiency-based or standard-based

instruction. While the early days of CLT were concerned with finding best designs
and practices, the proficiency-based movement contributed to the field of language
teaching by putting forward a set of proficiency guidelines (see American Council on
the Teaching of Foreign Languages [ACTFL] guidelines in Chapter 8, Developing
Oral Communication Skills). These guidelines describe language ability and are
meant to be used to measure competence in a language (Omaggio-Hadley 2001). In
this sense, the proficiency-based movement focused on measuring what learners
can do in functional terms. By providing evaluative descriptions, that is, by specifying
what students should know and how they should be able to use language within a
variety of contexts and to various degrees of accuracy at different stages, it provided
a set of broadly stated goals and thus a sense of direction for curriculum designers.
The standard-based movement attempted to further streamline descriptions of what
students should know and be able to do after completing a particular grade level or
curriculum to meet national standards in foreign language education from
kindergarten to university. In this way, both movements positively influenced and
strengthened the development and implementation of communicative-oriented
teaching practices.

As far as theories of learning and effective strategies in teaching are concerned, CLT
does not adhere to one particular theory or method. It draws its theories about
learning and teaching from a wide range of areas such as cognitive science,
educational psychology, and second language acquisition (SLA). In this way, it
embraces and reconciles many different approaches and points of view about

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 12

language learning and teaching, which allows it to meet a wide range of proficiency-
oriented goals and also accommodate different learner needs and preferences.
Despite the lack of universally accepted models, from early on, there has been some
degree of consensus regarding the qualities required to justify the label “CLT,” which
Wesche and Skehan (2002) describe as:
• Activities that require frequent interaction among learners or with other
interlocutors to exchange information and solve problems.
• Use of authentic (non-pedagogic) texts and communication activities linked to
“real-world” contexts, often emphasizing links across written and spoken
modes and channels.
• Approaches that are learner centered in that they take into account learners’
backgrounds, language needs, and goals and generally allow learners some
creativity and role in instructional decisions (p. 208).

With no one particular method or theory that underlies their practical and theoretical
foundation, CLT methodologies are best described as a set of macro-strategies
(Kumaradivelu 1994) or methodological principles (Doughty and Long 2003).

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 13

 2. Grammatical Accuracy and Vocabulary Fluency in CLT
2.1 Accuracy

Accuracy demonstrates the ability to use the necessary vocabulary, grammar and
punctuation correctly, such as verb forms (past tense, present tense, and so on),
articles (a, an, the) and prepositions (in, on, from, at). 

This skill is particularly important for written assignments at university, such as

essays and lab reports. It is also a necessity in the work place, where an email or
report that is riddled with grammar or punctuation mistakes may be viewed as
unprofessional. 

Aside from taking a course, one very easy way to improve accuracy in English is to
read any type of English material on a daily basis. Whether it’s a novel, a non-fiction
book, a newspaper or magazine, reading is an easy yet effective way to absorb the
nuances of English grammar and punctuation.

2.2 Fluency

Fluency, on the other hand, is the flow and efficiency with which one expresses their
ideas, particularly when speaking. A few grammar mistakes may appear here and
there in the explanation, but it should be delivered in a way that is easy to understand
and shows how comfortable one is with the language.

In an academic or even professional setting, this is one of the skills to focus on for an
oral presentation or debate. The way a topic is explained or a point is proven –
smooth, clear and concise without too many pauses or hesitations – is as important
as the content of the presentation.

Outside of the classroom, fluency can help a person socialize with native English
speakers and avoid misunderstandings. 

To improve fluency in English, practice speaking every day by engaging in a

conversation with someone. Every now and then, throw in a new word or phrase.
Remember to not let the fear of making a mistake keep you from practising.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 14

2.3 Deciding upon a stance in the matter accuracy vs fluency

Task 4: debate

Take a minute to decide whether you are for or against this statement: ‘Fluency
should come before accuracy in lower form secondary English education in the
Netherlands.’ Form two groups; one affirmative, one opposing. Take some time to
deliberate and come up with argumentation (use the learned theory!) before taking
part in the debate.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 15

 3. Meaningful context for vocabulary and grammar

3.1 Meaningful context in vocabulary teaching

For a word to obtain meaning, it is important to see it used in a meaningful context.

This meaningful context will provide the learner with enough clues to be able to
guess the word they do not know (yet). When a word is placed in a meaningful
context in which the word can really only mean one thing, we speak of a contextually
rich sentence, or in Dutch: ‘pregnante voorbeeldzin’. To come up with a contextually
rich sentence like this is not as easy as it may seem – most sentences that are used
in every day language are ‘niet pregnant’, or contextually poor, and leave the learner
wondering which of the multiple possible meanings is correct.

Take a look at these two sentences:

1. After the priest had mumbled some prayers and announced that the church's
new community center was dedicated to the work of God, the consecration
ceremony was complete.
2. Once that happened, the consecration ceremony was complete.

The first sentence is a contextually rich sentence because it conveys the meaning of
the word ‘consecration’ whereas, the second sentence doesn’t provide the reader
with any clues at all as to what the word might mean.

3.2 Meaningful context in grammar teaching

Meaningful context is not only important for vocabulary, but also for grammar.
Context-based grammar holds an important place for effective learning. It will be
more motivating for learners if grammar is taught in context as pupils will have the
opportunity to perceive how the new grammar structures work. Grammar rules are
made easier and less abstract when given in a context. For example, to elicit and
practise the imperative: create a recipe, record an instruction video, etc. Or to apply
the past simple: tell each other about your most recent holiday.

"The teacher's chief task when teaching grammar is to show the students what the
language means and how it is used; and must also show them what the
grammatical form of the new language is and how it is said and written" (Harmer,
1991, p.56).

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 16

 Task 5: coursebook analysis

Analyze the assigned chapter of the coursebook ‘All Right’ VMBO/T year 1 or
HAVO/VWO year 1. Make a list of all the learning tasks, identifying the kinds of skills
in which the learners get engaged. Categorize the tasks as non-communicative
learning, pre-communicative language practice, communicative language practice,
structured communication, and authentic communication (read Brandl’s article again
if necessary). In which skills do most of the learners get engaged? Also establish the
ratio of contextually rich sentences used in meaningful context which allow for vocab
and grammar to be practised. Then draw a conclusion about the communicative
nature and focus of the coursebook.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 17

 4. Mental Lexicon

4.1 Introduction

There are various definitions of mental lexicon. In their book The Mental Lexicon:
Core Perspectives (2008), Gonia Jarema and Gary Libben ‘attempt’ this definition:
"The mental lexicon is the cognitive system that constitutes the capacity for
conscious and unconscious lexical activity."

The term mental lexicon was introduced by R.C. Oldfield in the article "Things, Words
and the Brain" (Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, v. 18, 1966).

The mental lexicon is not just a general collection of words; instead, it deals with how
words are activated, stored, processed, and retrieved by each speaker. An
individual's mental lexicon therefore changes and grows as new words are learned
and continues to develop over time.

4.2 Processing new words

New words enter our brain and within fractions of milliseconds find links in our
current, existing network of words that we already know, the mental lexicon. These
new words are linked to other words through form, use and meaning. This proves
that vocabulary is systematic. For example, when reading below string of words, you
will immediately know which words exist and which don’t. This is because the brain
‘searches’ in the mental lexicon for links to existing knowledge and realises there are
none.
animal kwurk bicycle school spoena

This is all rather strikingly accurate; at least 10,000 words are retrieved from our
mental lexicon every day and hardly ever does it go wrong. When mistakes do
happen, they are characterised by the fact that either sound or meaning are confused
with other similar sounding/meaning words. For example, ‘censor’ instead of
‘censure’ (sound is very similar but meaning is not), or ‘pepper’ instead of ‘salt’
(meaning is related but sound is not).

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 18

4.3 Remembering new words

Now that the learner knows what the new word means, he or she will have to find a
way to remember it so that it stays in the mental lexicon. According to Zahar (2001)
we need at least 6, maybe even 16, re-encounters with an item in order for it to be
properly learnt. Repetition is therefore key in learning vocabulary. As previously
learned, meaningful context is very important in this. Just repeating a single item 16
times is not going to help the learner remember it – meaningful context is required.

According to Mondria and Mondria-de Vries (1997), these are the best principles to
learn new vocabulary items by:
1. Pay close attention to the item and its meaning
2. Link the item to existing knowledge
3. Repeat the item, using the previously made link
4. Use increasing intervals to learn the item
Learners who implement these principles for learning and remembering vocabulary
items the correct way will remember the items much better. Let’s take a closer look at
these principles:

4.3.1. Attention

The first principle, attention, means that a learner must really focus on the learning
process. Thoughtlessly reading something won’t work, full attention is required.
There is a condition though: the learner has to be motivated to learn new vocabulary
items. The best way to create this motivation is by making the learner understand the
value of learning new vocabulary. Besides that, a learner must create an
environment in which he or she can truly focus. A loud radio or a crowded room are
not the best environments to focus in.

4.3.2. Linking

The second principle, linking, means that a learner links the new vocabulary item he
or she wishes to remember to prior knowledge, images and/or context elements. For
example: a pupil encounters the French vocabulary item une canne (= a
cane/walking stick) in the following context: Le vieil homme marche à l’aide d’une
canne. Should the pupil only pay attention to the fact that une canne means cane, he

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 19

will probably only remember the word for a short time. If the pupil does use the entire
sentence in which une canne occurs, the chances of remembering the word at a later
stage are bigger, because he might not remember the word itself straight away, but
parts of the sentence can help the pupil find the meaning and thus remember it
better. The more links you can make within your mental lexicon, the more solid your
memory of the item becomes and the easier it becomes to retrieve the word from
your mental lexicon.

There are many linking options, as shown in the table below. Note that the usability
of each separate technique depends on the type of word and the type of learner. A
concrete word will give different linking possibilities than a very abstract word. And
one learner might be an auditive learner where the other might be a visual learner.

Mondria would like to point out that when paying attention to linking techniques, it is
important to tell learners that it is about the mental linking rather than the physical
linking. The physical presence of a linking possibility when studying new words, such
as when learning words in a context, is an excellent tool in this, but the goal is for the
learner to convert that physical link into a mental one. For example, you prevent that
learners, after having learned words in a context, only know the words when the word
is accompanied by the context in question. Do note: eventually, when words are
activated often enough, the learner will no longer need the linking technique and will
be able to retrieve the word automatically. And of course there are those words, such
as so-called cognates ‘television’ [Eng.], ‘télévision’ [Fr.], ‘television’ [Du.], that do not
need these types of links at all.

TABLE 1
Linking techniques
For every word you have to learn, pick one or two linking techniques and try these.
For the next word you have to learn, go over this list again and pick one or two
different linking techniques to try. This way you can find linking techniques that are
useful for you (of course you can also do this together with a study buddy). The
examples in this list have been given in French, but of course the linking techniques
are applicable in all languages.

Linking to context or situation

 The sentence or text in which you first encounter the word

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 20

 e.g. une canne (a cane) is linked to the sentence Le vieil homme marche à
l’aide d’une canne (the old man walks with a cane)
 A sentence you think of yourself. This can be a contextually rich sentence or
a sentence that appeals to you
e.g. bavarder (to chat) is linked to the sentence Tu n’as pas écouté ce que je
disais parce que tu étais en train de bavarder avec ton voisin! (You didn’t
listen to what I said because you were chatting with your neighbour!)
 The situation in which you first encounter or (would want to) use the word
e.g. un zoo (a zoo) is linked to your previous holiday in France when you
visited one)

Linking to other words in the target language or another foreign language

 A word in which (part of) the word occurs
e.g. participer (to take part) is linked to une part (a part)
 A word it often collocates with
e.g. la neige (the snow) is linked to blanc (white): la neige blanche
 A word that (roughly) means the same
e.g. une bagnole (a car) is linked to the word une voiture (a car)
 A word with opposite meaning (antonym)
e.g. noir (black) is linked to the word blanc (white)
 A superordinate
e.g. une chaise (a chair) is linked to un meuble (furniture)
 A subordinate
e.g. une pomme (an apple) is linked to un fruit (fruit)
 A word from another foreign language
e.g. the French word la victim (the victim) is linked to the Spanish vicitima (the
victim)

Linking to an L1 key word

 A Dutch word that sounds like the word you want to learn, with which you try
to find an image that links the meaning of the foreign word to the Dutch word.
e.g. the French word orgueil (proud) is very similar sounding to the Dutch
word orgel, next you imagine the instrument as a very proud instrument, so
orgueil means proud.

Linking to observations, actions and feelings

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 21

With the following techniques, make sure to use your imagination and let everyday
life inspire you (school, friends, holidays, etc.), as well as what you see and hear on
TV, radio and social media.
 Images and pictures (real or made up)
e.g. une boulangerie (a bakery) is linked to the French sign that you can stil
envision clearly
 Sound
e.g. un bruit (a sound) is linked to the /r/ sound that you then pronounce with
extra emphasis and volume ‘brrrrruit’
 Smell
e.g. une pain (bread) is linked to the scent you used to smell in the bakery
where you used to buy your bread
 Taste
e.g. une pêche (a peach) is linked to the peaches that tasted so deliciously
during your holiday
 Sense
e.g. une chat (a cat) is linked to the soft fur of your own black cat
 Colours
e.g. to remember whether words are male of female, you could use black/blue
for male and red/pink for female
 Feelings and emotions
e.g. the word heureux (happy) makes you feel happy

4.3.3. Repetition

The third principal, repetition, is rather obvious in itself, but it is important to repeat
efficiently. The following two aspects are important in this:
1. Repeating using increased intervals: if you only pay attention to the item once,
you will soon forget. This happens rather quickly after you first encountered
the word, see the figure below:

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 22

 If you want to prevent this from happening you will have to repeat, which is
best done at a time the knowledge hasn’t quite been forgotten yet. This
means: quite soon after you first paid close attention to the word. After the
initial repetition, the word will be forgotten a little slower than without repetition
and you can thus wait a little longer to repeat it again. This way, you can
increase the intervals with which you repeat. A very simple way of doing this is
by clustering vocabulary in groups of five to ten items. You learn the first group
before learning the second group and repeating the first.

2. Repeating by testing yourself. There are many ways to facilitate for yourself.
There are plenty of apps that help you repeat with increasing intervals. You
could also work a little more old-fashionedly by creating flashcards and putting
these in different boxes. Box 1 represents new words and are only allowed to
move to box 2 when you know and remember them. Box 1 can then be filled
again with new words. While you learn these, you repeat the words in box 2. If
you still remember them, you can move them to box 3 and continue to do so
until the final box (5). If you don’t remember the word in box 2, you place it
back in box 1 and start again (see figure below).

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 23

 Task 6: Linking Techniques

Work in pairs. Come up with various linking techniques for the list of VMBO 2 words
below. For each word, pick at least 2 different linking techniques. For each word,
explain how you would implement the linking technique.

1. church 6. prime-minister
2. celebrity 7. to rescue
3. award 8. feeling blue
4. to lead 9. physical education (P.E.)
5. temporary 10. feedback

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 24

 5. Constructing a compelling argument

Knowing how to construct a good argument is a useful and necessary skill. Let’s take
a look at how you can put together and argument, whether for an essay, exam,
colleague, debate, or, in your case, a case study, that is forceful and cogent.

1. Keep it simple
If you can see twenty different reasons why you’re right, it’s tempting to put all of
them into your argument, because it feels as if the sheer weight of twenty reasons
will be much more persuasive than just focusing on one or two. Yet from the outside,
an argument with endless different reasons is much less persuasive than one with
focus and precision on a small number of reasons. 

2. Make your assumptions clear

Every argument rests on assumptions. Some of these assumptions are so obvious
that you’re not going to be aware that you’re making them – for instance, you might
make an argument about different economic systems that rests on the assumption
that reducing global poverty is a good thing. Decide what is fact and what is
an assumption.

3. Rest your argument on solid foundations

Perhaps the most important one! You should also be able to assemble a good
amount of evidence to support your argument. Use research, (proven!) facts,
statistics, professional experience, etc.

4. Avoid platitudes (clichés) and generalisations, be specific

A platitude is a phrase used to the point of meaninglessness – and it may not have
had that much meaning to begin with. Platitudes are likely to annoy your readers
without helping to persuade them. Because they’re meaningless and uncontroversial
statements, using them doesn’t tell your reader anything new. Being specific,
however, can demonstrate the grasp you have on your subject, and can bring it to life
for your reader.

5 Understand the opposing point of view

You can’t construct a compelling argument unless you understand why someone
might think you were wrong, and you can come up with reasons other than them
being mistaken. It pays off to look at things from their point of view so that you can
take into account all possible angles to approach a certain item.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 25

 Task 7: Lesson Analysis
Have a look at the four lessons described in Brandl’s (2007) task on pages 23 – 26.
All of these lessons have been claimed to follow communicative language teaching
methodologies. Read through the different lesson descriptions and identify principles
of CLT in action in each of these lessons. Which lessons are most in alignment with
CLT? Construct a compelling argument to explain why, using the suggestions above.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 26

 6. End of term 1 pitch

At the end of term 1, you will give a pitch with two other students from your class.
This will be graded and will result in 25% of your final mark for Methodology 1.1.
Please do note that BOTH marks (pitch term 1 and written exam term 2) must be a
pass for you to obtain the credits for this course. You and your partners will all
receive the same mark for your pitch, so make sure you distribute the work load
evenly. Below you will find the instructions and guidelines for this final assignment.

You have just started working at a new school. Your colleagues at the English
Department have recently decided to choose a new coursebook for the upcoming
school year, to better support a CLT approach, and they would like your informed
opinion. The Head of Department has already selected a few titles which may prove
interesting, and has allocated one to each teacher for further review.

With your peers, analyse the coursebook on the following aspects:

 Target language use  Grammar
 Instructions  Fluency
 Lay-out, visualisation  Accuracy
 Task types  Structure / build-up
 Language skills  Support / help
 Vocabulary

First decide on appropriate evaluation questions or statements in relation to each

aspect, then conduct the analysis. Identify what you would leave the same, change or
leave out given the relevant CLT principles. Support your claims with argumentation
from what you have learned during this term. Refer to this reader, the PowerPoints,
Dönszelmann et al., Harmer, Brandl, González-Fernández, Ur, Mondria, Staatsen &
Heebing, and any other literature you choose to use. Focus on the most important
aspects only to structure your argument (see ‘5. Constructing a compelling argument’).

Then, in your pitch, use the outcome of your analysis to present your overall
informed opinion on this coursebook and why you would or would not
recommend including it on the booklist next year.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 27

General requirements for the pitch:
1. The pitch should be 8-10 minutes.
2. All students should perform equal amounts during the pitch.
3. Make sure to keep your audience in mind; your colleagues in the English
Department need to be persuaded by your arguments.
4. Showcase your knowledge and understanding from what you have learned
during term 1 by linking your findings to theory/experience.
5. You may use any IT application tool you wish during your pitch.

The rubric for this assignment can be found on the last page of this reader.

Possible questions you could answer during the preparation of your pitch (these simply serve as a guideline, no
need to implement all of them!):

General:
- To what extent is the target language used? What is your informed opinion on this?
- Are the instructions/explanations concise/easy to understand? Demonstrate/explain.
- Is the coursebook attractive? Why/why not? Has visualisation been used to clarify things? How?
- To what extent do the tasks and assignments reflect authentic, meaningful, real-life situations?
- Do the tasks promote cooperative and collaborative learning?
- How will pupils experience the coursebook? Does it appeal to affective factors of learning?
- What and how many materials, assignments, tasks, projects, etc. would you want to
add/delete/modify as a teacher? Why?

Vocabulary:
- How is vocabulary presented to pupils? In lists? Are these:
 monolingual/bilingual
 with/without context
 arranged (per theme, alphabetically, textually, etc).
 receptive/productive
 single word items / chunks or collocations
- What type of vocabulary exercises occur? Think of:
 word explanation questions with a text
 contrasts: synonyms/antonyms
 combination/matching exercises
 multiple choice exercises
 gapfill exercises
 exercises that ask for descriptions
 word web exercises
 reference exercises (e.g. search in dictionary)
- Are any study tips included in the coursebooks related to vocabulary learning? (e.g. a
separate testing programme, the spaced interval method, the guessing method, the

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 28

 handcomputer, etc.)
Grammar:
- How is grammar presented to pupils? Are any of these present:
 grammar explanation within the chapters
 grammar explanation in the back of the coursebook (or even in a separate book)
- What type of grammar exercises are included? Think of:
 contrasts: L1/L2 grammar
 combination/matching exercises
 multiple choice exercises
 gap fill exercises
 exercises that ask for grammar rules
 reference exercises (e.g. search in pedagogic grammar book)
 (idem list as for vocabulary exercises).
- Are any study tips included in the coursebook related to grammar study?
- Is the target language used for explaining grammar items? What is your opinion on this?
- Could some of the grammar items also have been provided in the form of
collocations/chunks? Why would/wouldn’t you want to do this?

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 29

 7. Weekly Planner

Lesson 1 Introduction to term 1: Communicative Language Teaching

Homework after lesson 1 to prepare for lesson 2:

• Finish tasks 1, 2 and 3 from the reader.
• Read & study pages 6-13 from the reader: “Principles of Communicative
Language Teaching and Task-Based Instruction” (Brandl, 2007).
• Read & study chapters 3.1.4 and 3.1.5, 4.3 and 4.4 from Harmer.

Lesson 2 Grammatical Accuracy and Vocabulary Fluency

Homework after lesson 2 to prepare for lesson 3:

• Read & study pages 7-21 from “Principles of Communicative Language
Teaching and Task-Based instruction” (Brandl, 2007).
• Read & study chapters 14 and 15 from Harmer.
• Design a classroom activity in which you teach both grammar and
vocabulary. The choice is yours to place the emphasis on either accuracy or
fluency. Use the theory from Brandl’s article to design your activity.
• Briefly explain why you have opted to place the emphasis on fluency or on
accuracy, supported by literature.

Lesson 3 Meaningful context

Homework after lesson 3 to prepare for lesson 4:

• Read & study pages 21-22 from “Principles of Communicative Language
Teaching and Task-Based instruction” (Brandl, 2007).
• Read & study chapter 4.9 from Harmer.
• Finish task 5.

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 30

Lesson 4 Mental lexicon

Homework after lesson 4 to prepare for lesson 5:

• Read the article ‘Vocabulary Principles and Practice’ by Beatriz González-
Fernández, published in English Teaching Professional (May 2018) and
answer the following question (individually):
How would you ideally like to provide vocabulary education in your lessons?
Does this correspond with the proposed approach of the article? Explain how
and why/why not.
• Finish task 6.

Lesson 5 Case studies

Homework after lesson 5 to prepare for lesson 6:

• Plan/prepare your pitch.

Week 6 PHP-A / Karakterweek, no class

Lesson 6 Conclusion to part I

Homework after lesson 6:

• Finish task 7.
• Watch two pitches from peers and provide feedback.
• Respond to peer feedback you received on your pitch. What would you do
differently next time?

Lesson 7 Performing pitches

Methodology 1 – Year 2022-2023 31

Rubric Methodology 1 final assignment term 1: pitch
Student names
Student numbers
Poor (1.0 - 5.5)
Critical analysis Pitch contains too few or too
many aspects; no evidence of
critical analysis.
Vocabulary: Substandard or ineffective
theoretical insights application of theoretical insights
in pitch.
Grammar: theoretical Substandard or ineffective
insights application of theoretical insights
in pitch.
Argumentation Decisions on what to leave the
same, change or leave out are
lacking or poorly supported.
Overall opinion It remains unclear whether the
coursebook is or is not
recommended.
Use of language Language use is substandard;
too many errors, inappropriate
and/or ineffective.
Time management Pitch exceeds/fails to reach 8-10
minutes and/or not every group
member speaks an equal
amount of time.
Date of assessment
Mark
Sufficient (5.5 - 7.0) Good (7.0 - 9.0) Excellent (9.0 - 10.0)
Students have selected Students have selected relevant aspects for analysis and argue why
relevant aspects for these were selected.
analysis to present.
Theoretical insights Students apply theoretical Students apply and explain
regarding vocabulary are insights regarding vocabulary theoretical insights regarding
applied on a basic level. in their coursebook analysis. vocabulary in their coursebook
analysis.
Theoretical insights Students apply theoretical Students apply and explain
regarding grammar are insights regarding grammar in theoretical insights regarding
applied on a basic level. their coursebook analysis. grammar in their coursebook
analysis.
Students identify what they Students identify what they Students identify what they would
would leave the same, would leave the same, change leave the same, change or leave out,
change or leave out. or leave out, and argue why. and argue why on the basis of
related CLT principles.
It is clear whether the Overall recommendation is aligned with critical analysis, theoretical
coursebook is or is not insights and personal interpretation.
recommended.
Students mostly use Students use appropriate Students succeed in concinving the
appropriate vocabulary and vocabulary and definitions; target audience; language use is
definitions. Language use is language use is appropriate appropriate, persuasive, fluent and
appropriate and effective. and persuasive. accurate.
Pitch is within time limit and every group member speaks an equal amount of time.