Elementary Surveying

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PHILIPPINE COPYRIGHT, 1981, 1983, 1987 by

Juny Pilapil La Putt

Third Edition

2010 Reprint

ISBN 971-08-5581-6

All rights reserved.

No part o f this book may be
reproduced in any form or by
any means, except brief quotations
for a review, without permission
in writing from the Author.

Cover Design by
Alfeo T La Putt

Printed by
Cacho Hermanos, Inc.
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Mandaluyong City
This book is dedicated to the ten dearest women in
m y life - m y wife, m y three daughters, m y mother,
and m y five sisters.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to
the different offices, agencies, and many individuals who
have contributed to the research, preparation, and final
completion of this book. Most of all, I gratefully acknowl­
edge the concern and trust of the government of the United
States of America for having awarded me two Pulbright-Hays
grants. The first grant in 1975 gave me a rare chance to
pursue my master's degree at the Ohio State University, and
the second grant in 1984.allowed me to join the University
of Maine at Orono as a Visiting Professor and Researcher
where most of the research material and references for 'this
book were gathered. I am deeply indebted to the Council £©r
International Exchange of Scholars (CIES) and the Pbilip-
pine-American Educational Foundation (PAEF). The CIES and
PAEF were the two agencies directly responsible for working,
out the details of my placement, travel,' stipend, and
residency in the State of Maine for 6 months. I acknowledge
the valuable assistance provided by the Department of. Civil
Engineering of the University of Maine at Orono, particu­
larly Prof. John A. Alexander, the department chairman, for
providing most of my research needs; and his kind and
supportive staff: Pam Oakes, Carole Stoddard, Ann Lounsbu-
ry, and, Gail Keaton. My very special thanks go to Prof.
David A. Tyler, my research associate, for all his help,
suggestions, and advice during the preparation of the manu­
script. Also, I wish to acknowledge the full support given
to me by the management and staff of the University of
Baguio, particularly Pres. Reinaldo C. Bautista for allow­
ing me to pursue this research project.

My special thanks also go to my staff at the Baguio

Research & Publishing Center, particularly Arch. Susan 0.
de Peralta for her efforts in the design and layout of the
physical features of the book. The final manuscript has
undergone corrections, changes, endless inserts, and modi­
fications, which all have been arduous typesetting tasks for
my eldest daughter Theresa and her best friend Rebeca R.
Soriano. These two ladies typed the manuscript expertly
with no complaints' about the handwritten material and the
numerous mathematical and technical symbols which required
a lot of patience and skill. The author is also indebted to
Ernesto M. Soriano and again Susan 0. de Peralta who took
the pains of repeatedly editing the manuscript and' blue­
prints as well as making cursory checks on the illustrative
problems and solutions.

I*t is difficult to avoid typographical and clerical

errors; the authof will consider it a favor if he is noti­
fied of any such errors in this book. Since many errors of
both omission and commission are inevitable, it will be
deeply* appreciated if suggestions, and criticisms are
brought to the author’s attention. For the many kind indi­
viduals who have already helped, it is hoped that they
will accept the author's sincerest appreciation for their
unselfish efforts.
I would like to thank ALVOND Technical Equipment (Phils)
Inc., CALI Mercantile Inc.,’ and EDWARD KELLER (PHILS) Inc.
for providing photographs, ‘ illustrations, brochures, and
other written materials relating to different kinds and
brands of equipment used in surveying practice. And final­
ly, special' recognition is due my wife, Nena, and our
children, Tess, Al, Mike, Dolly, and Jenny. They persevered
through the 13 difficult but fruitful months spent in the
final preparation and production of this book.
r

Without all these available help and sincere contribu­

tions, the publication and printing of this book wouldn’t
have been possible.
Clementary
SURVEYING
3rd Edition

SPa cP u tt, b s c e , a g p , m s

Formerly:
Visiting Fulbright Rrofessor
Surveying Engineering Program
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Maine at Orono
A ssistant Professor
Department of Surveying
School of Civil Engineering &
Environmental and Sanitary Engineering
Mapua Institute of Technology
Course D irector for Surveying
Department of Engineering Sciences
Philippine Military Academy ■
Head
Department of Surveying
College of Engineering and Architecture
University of Baguio

B a g u i o %26a/icli fi ^ubfiistog
P.O. Box 22B, Bpquio C ity, Philippines Tel; 4<«2-7T^
 PREFACE
The course of instruction presented in this book is
designed primarily for students pursuing a general engi­
neering curriculum where surveying is a required subject.
It is also suited for students of architecture, forestry,
agriculture, and others who have a need to learn or teach
mpre effectively the basic concepts, theory and practice of
surveying. The course approach used is the result of over
twenty years of extensive evaluation of the various courses
of instruction in surveying handled and directed personally
by the author while working with the academic faculties of
the Philippine Military Academy, Baguio Colleges Founda­
tion,- Mapua Institute of Technology, University of Baguio,
and the University of Maine at Orono.
In this book the basic theory and concepts of survey­
ing are introduced. The more important topics presented are
concentrated on the primary operations of surveying which
are the measurement of distances, directions, and differen­
ces in elevations. The features and uses of conventional
surveying instruments are likewise discussed. The book is
expected to be an effective tool for home study or for any
situation where greater reliance is placed upon .the stu­
dent's reading. This book should aid the student in deve­
loping the ability to visualize, to think and plan logical­
ly, work carefully and accurately, and to arrange the pro­
duct of these efforts in a neat and orderly manner for re­
cord or presentation.
The differin'- lesson modules presented have been prog­
rammed for a one semester course meeting 3 hours weekly for
a period of 18 weeks. All lessons are interrelated and lo­
gically arranged into a comprehensive course of study. The
48 lesson modules have been designed for easy comprehension
and should require only a minimum of instructor consulta­
tion or assistance. In fact, the book is more of a guide
for self-study, almost simulating an actual classroom lec­
ture. Explanations and discussions are complete, simplified
and easy to understand. Extensive use has been made of
illustrations and labeled sketches. Illustrative problems
with clearly laid out solutions usually accompany each les­
son module to help the student grasp important principles
and concepts more easily.. Also, the book has been written
with reference only to SI units. Ten unit examinations are
given for the student to work out to determine his or her
level of comprehension. To provide the student enough prac­
tice in solving typical surveying problems, ten problem
sets have also been incorporated.
The author only hopes that this book will help improve
the learning capability and performance of the student, and
also'facilitate the work of the surveying instructor.
JUNY PILAPIL LA PUTT
18 March 1987
Baguio City, Philippines
 CONTENTS t* ,

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

P a r t -I:

XJSFTHODUGTIOJSr
t o s o r v j s t yrijuro

LESSON 1: Surveying. Definition of Surveying. Bl^Me

and Geodetic Surveying. Types of Surveys.
Development of Surveying Instruments. . . 3
LESSON 2: Surveying Measurements. The Meter. Inter-
national System of Units (SI). Units of
Measurement. Significant Figures. Pounding
Off Numbers. 13
LESSON 3: Student Field Practice. Surveying Field
Notes. The Field Notebook. Types of Notes.
Information Found in Field Notebooks. The
Field Survey Party. ............... .. . 21
LESSON 4 Errors. Mistakes. Types of Errors. Sources
of Errors. Accuracy and Precision. Theory
of Probability. Most Probable Value.
Illustrative Problems.......... .. 31
LESSON 5: Residual. Probable Error. Relative (Error)
Precision. Weighted Observations. Interre­
lationship oft Errors. Illustrative Prob­
lems. ............ .. 43

Part: II:

m e L/^ s s u r e m e i ^ t o f *
jFI O J R I & OJUTAJL. D I S T A R C E S

LESSON 6:
Measurement of Distance. Distance by
Pacing. Distance by Taping. Distance by
Tachymetry. Distance by Graphical And Ma­
thematical Methods. Distance by Mechanical
Devices. Distance by Photogrammetry. Il­
lustrative Problem?. . . . . . . . . . . 53
LESSON 7: Electronic Distance Measurement. Geodi­
meter. Tellurometer. Measuring Tapes.
* Taping Accessories. .......... .. 65
LESSON §: Composition of Taping Party. The Procedure
of Taping. Breaking Tape. Slope Taping.
• Corrections in Taping. Correction Due to
Incorrect Tape Length. Ulustrative Prob­
lems. . . . . . ! . . . , . . . . . 77
LESSON 9:s Correction Due to Slope. Correction Due to
'. Alignment. Correction Due to Temperature.
Correction Due t.o Tension. Illustrative
Problems. 89
LESSON 10: Correction Due to Sag. Correction Due to
Wind. Normal Tension. Illustrative Prob-
1ems. 99
LESSON 11: Combined Corrections. Surveys with Tape.
Illustrative Problems. ................ 10 9

P a r t III:

m e:a s urjs e :m e :j s t t o e
VTETJR T X G A I L D I S TAJVCJSS

LESSON 12: Leveling. Definition of Terms- Leveling

Methods. Types of Levels. ............ 123
LESSON 13: Leveling Rods. Other Types of Rod. Rod
Level. Targets. Telescopes. Magnification
Level Vial. Coincidence Bubble. Tripods. 135

LESSON 14: Setting Up the Level.’ Leveling the Instru­

ment. Holding the Leveling Rod. Taking a
Rod Reading. Determining Difference in
Elevation. Lengths of Sight. Waving the
Rod. Carrying the Instrument. Arm and Hand
Signals. .............................. . 14 7
LMtSSON 15: Sources of Error ' in Leveling. Common
Mistakes in Leveling. Adjustment of the
Dumpy Level. Illustrative Problem . . . . 159
LESSON 16: Alternate Procedure for Two-Peg Test.
Curvature and Refraction. Illustrative
Problems.; . . . . . . . . . . ......... 171

P a r t IV:

x,JErvj5rx,xisr<3? m e i t m o o s

LESSON 17 Differential Leveling. Definition of

Terms. Procedure of Differential Leveling.
Leveling Notes. Checking Level Notes.
Illustrative Problems. .............. 181
LBSS&i 18 Double-Rodded Leveling. Three-Wire Level­
ing. Illustrative Problems. .......... 193
LESSON 19 Profile Leveling. Definition of Terms.
Procedure of Profile Leveling. Stationing.
‘Profile Level Notes. Plotting Profiles.
Illustrative Problems. ................ 20 5
LESSON *20 Rise and Fail Method of Leveling. IHurt
 trative P r o b l e m s .................. .. 217
LBSSON 21: Reciprbcal Leveling. Trigonometric Level­
ing. Illustrative Problems. ........ . 227
LBSSON 22: Barometric Leveling. Barometers. Surveying
Altimeters. Altimeter Surveys. Inverse
Leveling. Illustrative Problems. .... 239
LBSSON 23: Cross-Section Leveling. Adjustment of
Level Circuits*. Illustrative Problems. 251

P a r t V:

M E : A S U F H E M E M 17 & E
A M G J L E S ,AJMD O I R E C T I GISTS

LBSSON 24s Meridians. Expedient Methods of Establish­

ing Meridians. Units of Angular Measure­
ment. Designation of North Points. Illus­
trative Problems, . . ............. 263
LBSSON 25: Direction of Lines. Interior Angles.
Deflection Angles. Angles to the Right.
Bearings. Forward and Back Bearings. Azi- -
muths. Forward and Back Azimuths. Illus­
trative Problems. . . . . ............ 273
LBS3ON 26; The Compass. Types of Compasses. Magnetic
Declination. Illustrative Problems. . 285
LBSSON 27: Variations in Magnetic Declination. ‘Iso-
gonic Chart. Use of the Compass. Local
Attraction. Magnetic Dip. Compass Surveys.
Types of Compass Surveys. Adjustment of an
Open Compass Traverse. Illustrative Prob­
lem. .................... .* . . . . . . 297
LBSSON 28: Adjustment • of a Closed Compass Traverse.
Precision of Compass Readings. Sources of
Error in Compass Work. Mistakes in Compass
Work. Illustrative Problem............. .. 309

P a r t VI:

T M JS JS IS f G I JVJ57JEJF? * &
T R A N S X 17 AJSTD T H E I O O O J L , I 17E:

LBSSON 29: The Engineer's- Transit. Main Parts of the

Transit. Setting Up the Transit. Leveling
the Transit. Care of the Transit. . . . . 321

UKSSON 30: Circle Graduations of Transits. Verniers.

Principle of the Vernier. Transit Ver­
niers. Reading Transit Verniers. Illustra­
tive Problems. ^ .............. JJJ
 LBSSON 31: Measuring Horizontal Angles. Closing The
Horizon. Laying Off Angles. Measuring
Vertical Angles, index: Correction. Il­
lustrative Problems. ... . . .... . 343
LESSON 32: Measuring Angles by Repetition. Pro­
longing a* Straight , Line. Establishing
a Point df intersection. Measuring an
Angle When Transit Cannot be Set at Ver—
-, tex. Establishing Parallel Lines. Illus­
trative Problems. . . . . . ,. . . . . . 351
LESSON 33: Adjustment of the Transit. Common Field
Adjustments. The Theodolite. Types of
Theodolites. Setting Up the, Theodolite.
Illustrative Problems. . . . . . . . . . 361
■* v ' '
P a r t VII:

xjwcs? a j n t z z
Ti?A V^JR C C O M £ > U T Jtk T X OJV^T

LESSON 34 Interior Angle Traverse. Deflection Angle

Traverse. Illustrat ive P r o b l e m s . ,« . 375
LESSON 35 Angle to the" flight Traverse. Azimuth
Traverse. Illustrative Problems. . . . 385
LESSON 36 Traverse Computations. Latitudes and
Departures. Error of Closure. Illustra­
tive Problems.*. . . . . . . . . . . . . *. 395
LESSON 37 Traverse Adjustment * Arbitrary Method.
Compass Rule. Adjusted Lengths and
Directions-. Illustrative Problems. . . 403
LESSON 38 Transit Rule. Least Squares Method.
Crandall Method. Illustrative Problems. 411
LESSON 39 Graphical Method, Rectangular Coordi­
nates. Coordinate Method. Illustrative
Problems. ....................... .. 419

P a r t VIII:

*o j m t x r r T J E D M j & A &urszjSMJSiisr'rs
♦

LESSON 40: Omitted Measurements. ~ Missing Data in

One Side. Illustrative Problems. *. . . 431
LESSON 41: Cases of Omitted Measurements Involving
Adjoining Sides. Illustrative Problems. 439
LESSON 42: Cases .of Omitted Measurements Involving
Non-Adjoining Sides. Illustrative Problem. 451

P a r t IX:
 A R E A C Z O M & U T J k Y X &JHTS

LBSSON 43: Methods of Determining Area. Area by- Tri­

angles. Area by Coordinates. Illustrative
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 46%
LBSSON 44: Double Meridian Distance. Double Parallel
Distance. Area by DMD Method. Ar'ea ■by
DPD Method. Illustrative Problems. . . 47J
LBSSON 45: Area by Offsets From -a Straight Line.
Trapezoidal Rule. Simpson's One-Third.■>
Rule. Illustrative Problems. . . . . 479
LBSSON 46: The Planimeter. Area by Graphical Me­
thod . Area by Coordinate Squares. Illus­
trative Problems. . . . . . . , . .... 487

P a r t X>

P A R T I Y I OIST OJF* JD-AJVJD

LBSSON 47: Subdivision of Land. Dividing An Area Into

Two Parts by a Line Between Two Points.
Dividing An Area by a Line Running Through
a Point in a Given Direction. Illustrative
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
LBS&SQN 48: To Cut Off a Required Area by> a Line
Through a Given Point. To Cut Off a Re­
quired Area by a Line Running in a Given
Direction. Illustrative Problems. . . . . 50?

PROBLEM SETS

PS NO. 1: Problem Set Number One. ........... . 521

PS NO. .2: Problem Set Number Two. . . . . . . . 525
PS NO. 3: Problem Set Number Three. . . . . . . . 529
PS NO. 4: Problem Set Number Four. . . . . . . . 531
PS NO. 5: Problem Set Number Five. . . . . . ; . 537
PS NO. 6: Problem Set Number Six. • « • « • 0. m 543
PS NO. 7: Problem Set Number Seven. • • « '• • • 54 $
PS NO. 8: Problem Set Number Eight. . . . . . . .* 555
PS NO. 9: Problem Set Number Nine. . . . . . . . 561
PS NO. 10: Problem Set Nvtmber Ten. . . . > . . .167

ILLUSTRATIVE BXAMlNATI ONS

JUK NO. 1: Unit Examination Number One. ........ 57•

UR NO. 2: Unit Examination Number Two. ........ < 57S
UE NO. 3: Vnl t Examination Number T£ree. 4 4 • • 583,
UE NO. 4: Unit Examination Number Four. 4 4 9 4 5B7
UE NO. 5 s Uni t Examination Number Five. 4 593
UE NO. Ss Uni t Examination Number Six., 4 9 9 4 597
UE NO. 7: Unit Examination Number Seven*. « 4 4 4 . 603
UR NO. B: Unit Examination Number Eight. 4 9 - 4 609
UE NO. 9: Unit Examination Nttimber Nine. • •. • * 615
UE NO. 10: Unit Examination Number Ten. * * ‘ 62J,?

ANSWER SHEETS & SOLUTIONS . . . . • « « * 627

d
. 635
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . «r

INDEX 639
Elementary
SIJIiVEYIJVG
8**d Ivdxtloix
INTRODUCTION
TO
SURVEYING
P a rt I: Lesson Nos. l Thru S
INTRODUCTION
TO SURVEYING
1 1. SURVEYING
12. DEFINITION OF SURVEYING
13. PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING
1. Plane. SuAveying
2. Ge.ode.tic Surveying
1-4. TYPES OF SURVEYS
1. Cada&pial SuAvey* 6. Indu&tAial SuAveyA
2. City SuAvey* 7. Mine SuAvey4
3. Con&tAuction SuAveyA 8. PhotogAamnetAic SuAveyA
4. FoACAtAy SuAveya 9. Route SuAvey4
5. HydAogAapkic SuAvey& 1jO. TopogAaphic SuAvey4
DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
1. ki>tAolabe 8. Libella
2. Tetescope 9. VeAnieA
3. TAanbit 10. DiopteA
4. SejniciAcumheAentoA 11. CompaAA
5. Plane Table 12. GunteA'4 Chain
6. Dioptka. t ( 13. ChoAobate*
7. Roman Gioma 14. Metchet

ILesmn 1
• tNTfiOOUCrtO* _______ *3.
1 1 . mJHVKYINU.

One of the oldest atts practiced by mun isurveying. I'i mn

the earliest, times it has always been necessary to nut k
boundaries arid divide tracts of land. Through the centuries
the uses of surveying have expanded such that today it is
difficult to undertake any type of engineering construction
that does not involve some type of surveying. Planning and
design are based on the results of surveys, and construe
tion is controlled by surveying. Professionals in the dif­
ferent fields of .engineering as well as geologists, archi­
tects, foresters, agriculturists, and geographers are con­
cerned with surveying as a means of planning and executing
their respective projects. •
Surveys cover a wide range in scope and , complexity,
from the. staking out\df simple structures or the surveying
of small parcel^ of land to the extensive and •difficult
surveys required in the construction of subdivisions, brid­
ges, highways, canals-, dams, railroads, wharves, missile
and rocket launching suites, drainage and irrigation sys­
tems, or the survey of relatively large portions of the
earth's surface. Surveying is 'also required for the laying
out of industrial equipment, preparing forestry and geolo­
gical. maps, positioning massive and complex machinery, in'
the construction of ships and airplanes, as well as in the
survey and exploration of extraterrestrial bodies such as
the moon and the planets.
In the training of a technical student the study of
surveying is an important part even though he may never ac­
tually use it later in practice. It is one course which
trains students to' visualize and think logically, to plan,
to work carefully and accurately, and to arrange the pro­
duct of these efforts in a neat and orderly ’manner »for re­
cord or presentation. A surveying course will provide the
student a worthwhile general experience and also develop
desirahle traits and habits because the nature of the sub­
ject with its related field measurements is such that it
will .develop habits of accuracy, industry, and reliability.
In addition, the student will learn a "great deal about
■'he relative importance of measurements. He is trained to
c cide on how accurate and precise measurements should be
made, and acquire essential habits of checking numerical
calculations, measurements, and observations. All these
attributes are expected to add to the stature-and technical
competence of a future professional.

1-2. DEFINITION OF SURVEYING.

All surveying operations have the same basic characteris­

tics - that of delineating a portion of the earth's surface
or subsurface or of establishing the position or boundaries
of some object upon if. A host of definitions have been
made by different authors, and the following are listed:
INTRODUCTION
A. TO SURVEYING
 1. "!iuiv«-y \11 <i In tho nit ol determining the positions
of points on or iiimi t:ho earth's suriace by means of. measu­
rement:. In the three elements of space; namely, distance,
direction, and elevation." - Rayner and Schmidt.
2. "Surveying is the art of; measuring horizontal and
vertical distances between objects, of, measuring angles
between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and
of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements." - Davis, Foote, Anderson, and Mikhail.
3. "Surveying is the art of making such measurements
of the relative positions of points on the surface of the
earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artifi­
cial features may be exhibited in their correct horizont."l
or vertical relationships." - Clarke.
* 4. "Surveying is that branch’of applied mathematics
which teaches the art of determining the area of any por­
tion of the earth's surface, the length and directions of
the boundary lines, the contour of the surface, and of'ac­
curately delineating the whole on paper." - Webster.
5. "Surveying is the science -or art of making such
measurements as are necessary to determine the relative
position of points above, on, or beneath the surface -of the
earth, or to establish sucH points." - Breed, Hosmer, and
Bone.
6. "Surveying is the'science and art of determining
relative positions of points above, op, or beneath the
surface of the earth, or establishing such points."
Brinker and Wolf.

From the different definitions given above, it is ob­

vious that surveying activities during the earlier part of
the decade have only been limited to surveys on or near the
surface of the earth. Times, however, have changed and
modern surveying techniques ^ire now applied to space explo­
ration and in the mapping of extraterrestrial bodies such
as the moon, mars, and i.n the near future the other pla­
nets, stars, and other heavenly bqdies in the universe.
The author believes that the science of surveying is
now .much wider and complex in extent, and feels that it
should be redefined more appropriately as, the art and
science of determining angular and linear measurements to
establish the form, extent, and relative position of
points, lines, and areas on or near the surface of the
earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies through applied
mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and tech­
niques.

1-3. PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING.

Surveys are divided into two general classifications, plane

and geodetic.

1. Plane Surveying - is that type of surveying in which

5.
the earth is considered to be a flat surface, and where
distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the
exact shape of the earth is disregarded. With regard to ho­
rizontal distances and directions, a level line is .consi­
dered as mathematically straight, the direction of the
plumb line is assumed to be the same at all points within
the limits of the survey, and all angles are considered to
be plane angles.
- Plane surveying is of wide scope an^ application. The
different methods of plane surveying are employed in va­
rious surveys undertaken-in engineering, scientific, com­
mercial, architectural, geographic, navigational, and ex­
ploratory work. Since it is the required degree of accuracy
which forms the controlling factor in most surveys, no
definite limit can be assigned for the area up to which a
survey may be considered as plane. Unless extreme accuracy
is required, plane surveying is applicable to areas of.some
thousands of square kilometers in extent..
2. Geodetic Surveying - are surveys of wide extent
which take into account the spheroidal shape of the earth.
These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of high
precision, and the related calculations involve the 'solving
of equations derived from advanced mathematics particularly
spherical trigonometry, calculus, and some applications of
the theory of least squares.
Geodetic surveys, which are usually of a national cha­
racter, are mostly undertaken by government agencies to
serve as a basis for the production of accurate base and
topographic maps. The most refined instruments and methods
of observation are employed since these surveys provide a
reference framework covering a large area of the earth's
surface. A number of points of known location and elevation
are established to serve as controls for subordinate sur­
veys of lesser extent which are performed as plane surveys.
Elevations of selected vertical control points are express­
ed in terms of vertical distances above or below a refe­
rence curved surface usually mean sea level.
The field measurements for most geodetic surveys are
primarily observed by the use of theodolites, tapes, and
electronic distance measuring devices. Recently, newly de­
vised equipment have been employed such as doppler and
inertial^surveying systems. These sophisticated systems are
capable of achieving high degrees of accuracy in shorter
time spans.

1-4. TYPES OF SURVEYS.

Of the different types of surveys the following are the

more commonly executed:

1. Cadastral Surveys - are usually closed surveys which

are undertaken in urban and rural locations for the purpose
of determining and defining property lines and bounderies,

6 HtTHODitC'rtOM
nr n m v i
 corners, and areas. These surveys are also made^to fix the
bounderies of municipalities, towns, and provincial juris­
dictions.
2. City Surveys - are surveys of the areas in and near
a pity for the purpose of planning expansions or improve­
ments, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configuration of the
land, and preparing maps. , ~
3. Construction Surveys - these are surveys which are
undertaken at a construction site to provide da^ta regarding
grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration,
and the location and elevation of structures which are of
concern to engineers, architects, and builders.
4. Forestry Surveys - a type of survey -executed in
connection with forest management and mensuration, and the
production and conservation of forest lands.
5. Hydrographic Surveys - refer to surveying streams,
lakes, reservoirs, harbgrs, oceans, and other bodies of
water. These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the
shape of areas underlying water surfaces, ' and measure the
flow of streams. They are of general importance in connec­
tion with navigation, development of water supply and re­
sources, flood control, irrigation, production of hydro­
electric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation.
6. Industrial Sutveys - sometimes known as optical
tTcnoling, It refers to the use of surveying techniques in
ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, lay­
out and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in
other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts
are required.
7. Mine Surveys - are surveys which are performed to
determine the position of all underground excavations and
surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of
mining claims, determine geological formations, to calcu­
late excavated volumes, and establish lines and grades for
other related mining work.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys - a type of Survey which
makes use of photographs taken with specially designed
<ameras either from airplanes or ground stations. Measure­
ments are obtained from the photographs which are used in
«-onjunction with limited ground surveys. \
9. Route Surveys - involves the determination of
alignment, grades, earthwork quantities, location of natu-i
>al and artificial objects in connection with the planning,
design, and construction of highways, railroads, pipelines,
<.inals, transmission lines, and other linear projects.
10. Topographic Surveys - are those surveys made for
determining the shape of the ground, and the location and
- lev.it Lon of natural and artificial features1 upon it. The
i< 11lire:, shown include such natural objectTs as hills, moun­
tains, rivers, lakes, relief of the ground surface, etc;
m x I works of man, such, as roads, buildings, ports, towns,
imin lc lpa 11t1 en, and bridges.
i (N t t io n 0 (.
7
tv si'* a r m*#
 1-5. DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS.

Surveying instruments were developed gradually. It is be­

lieved that, an extensive use of surveying instruments *came
about during the early days of the Roman empire. This re-
.markable engineering ability of Romans is clearly demons­
trated by their extensive construction of. structures and
buildings which continue to exist even up to these , modern
era. It will be noted t^at many surveying instruments and
devices evolved from those which were earlier used in
astronomy. The following instruments were the early fore­
runners of our present-day surveying instruments.

1. Astrolabe. The astrolabe of Hipparchus is consider­

ed to be one of the best known of the measuring instruments
that have come down from ancient times. It was developed
sometime in 140 B.C., and further improved by Ptolemy. The
instrument had a metal circle wj.th a pointer hinged at its
center and held by a ring at the top, and a cross staff, a
wooden rod $bout-1.25 meters long with an adjustable cross-
arm at right angles to it. The known length of the arms of
the cross staff allow distances and angles to be determined
b y .proportion. It was originally designed for determining
the altitude of stars.
2. Telescope. 'I’he invention of the telescope in 1607 is
generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo cons­
tructed a refracting .telescope for astronomical observa­
tions (Pig.1-1). However,'it was only when cross hairs for
fixing the line of sight were introduced, that the teles­
cope was used in early Surveying instruments.
3. Transit. The invention of the transit (Fig. l-2> is
credited to Young and Draper who worked independently from
each other sometime in 1830. Both men were able to put
together in one instrument the essential parts of what has
long been known as the universal surveying instrument.
4. Semicircumferentor. An early surveying instrument
(Fig. 1-3) which was used to measure^and lay off angles,
and establish lines of sight by employing peep sights.
5. Plane, Table. One of the oldest types of surveying
instruments used in field mapping. It consists of a board
attached to a tripod (Fig. 1-4)' in such a way that it can
be leveled or rotated to any desired direction.
6. Dioptra. The dioptra (Fig. 1-5),, which was perfect­
ed by Heron of Alexandria, was used in leveling and for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It consists es­
sentially of a copper tube supported gn a standard and
could be rotated in either a horizontal or vertical plane.
For measuring horizontal angles, a flat circular disc with
graduations in degrees is used. An arm containing sighting
apertures at ‘either end could be rotated to any desired
position on the disc.
7. Roman Groma. The Roman surveyors used the groma
(Fig. 1-6) as an instrument for aligning or sighting

a i
tN
orn
Mo
Ui
Hn
Vthcj
YtQ¥
)NN
\l
 (Direct) ' (Retrograde)

fiQ. i-1.UbOU. " Fig. M . VvuUvu.

tN TR O O U C TtOft
10 ri» vitRViritfw
 points. It consisted basically of cross arms fixed at right
angles and pivoted eccentrically upon a vertical staff.
Plumb lines were suspended from /the ends of the arms. By
employing the groma two lines at right angles to each other
could be established on the ground where it is set- up.
8. Libella. The Assyrians and Egyptians are believed to
be the first users of the libella (Fig. 1-7). The instru­
ment had an A-frame with a* .plumb line suspended from its
apex and was. used to determine the horizontal. , Archeolo­
gists are of the belief that the horizontal foundations of
the great pyramids of Egypt were probably defined by this
device. ' '
9. Vernier. The vernier (Fig. 1-8) is a short auxiliary
scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an instru­
ment# by means of which fractional, parts of'the smallest or
least division of the main scale -can.be determined precise­
ly without having to interpolate. It was invented in 1631
by a Frenchman name Pierre Vernier. Surveying instruments
employ either a direct or retrograde vernier.
101 Diopter. An instrument .developed by the Greeks
sometime in 130 B.C., and known to be their most famous
surveying instrument. The diopter (Fig. 1-9) was used for
leveling# laying off right angles, and for measuring hori­
zontal and vertical angles. Since the telescope was not yet
invented during the time the diopter was used, peep sights
were employed for sighting and in aligning the device.
11. Compass. The magnetic compass (Fig. 1-10) came into
wide use during the 13th century for determining the direc­
tion of lines and in calculating angles between lines. It
was first introduced for use in navigation. The compass,
consists of a magnetized steel needle mounted on a pivot at
the center of a graduated circle. The needle continues to
point toward magnetic north and gives a reading which is
dependent upon the position of the graduated circle.
12. Gunter's Chain. The Gunter's chain (Fig. 1-11),
which was invented by Sir Edmund Gunter in 1620, was the
forerunner of instruments used for taping distances. It is
66 ft long and contains 100 links, so that distances may be
recorded in chains and in decimal parts of the chain. Each
part, called a link, is 0.66 ft or 7.92 inches long.
13. Chorobates. This instrument was designed for le­
veling work. It consisted of a horizontal straight-edge
about 6 meters long with supporting legs, and a groove 2.5
cm deep and 1.5m long*on top (Fig. 1-12). Water is poured
Into the groove and when the' bar is leveled so that water
stood evenly in the groove without spilling, a horizontal
line is established. *
14. Merchet. The merchet was a device for measuring
time* and meridian. It was first used by the Chaldeans in
about 4,000 B.C. It consisted of a slotted palm leaf
through which to sight and a bracket from which a plumb bob
was suspended. By sighting through the slot and past the
plumb bob string, .« straight line could be projected.

r/i*v
II
INTRODUCTION
TO SURVEYING
t-1. SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
1. DiAect Mea6uA.eme.nt6 . *•
2. IndiAect Measurements
2 -2 . THE METER
f-3 . INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS {SI}
t-4. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
1. LinzaA, AAea, and Volume MedsuAements
2. AngulaA MeasuAements
a. Sexagesimal Units
b. Centesimal Units
2 -5 . SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. One Significant FiguAe
2. Two Significant FiguAes
3. ThAee Significant FiguAes
4. FouA Significant FiguAes
5. Five Significant FiguAes ■
2-6: ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS
1. Digit is Less than 5
2. Digit is Equal to 5
* 3. Digit is GAeateA than 5

Lesson 2»
* INTNODUC n o *
tosufiyirmi mN&WJXsn
2-1. SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS.

A measurement is the procejfcf of determining the extent,

size or dimensions of. a particular quantity in comparison
to a given standard, in surveying, measurements are usually
concentrated on angles, elevations, times, lines, areas,
and volumes. Making measurements and the subsequent compu­
tations utilizing them are basic and essential tasks of a
surveyor. .The surveyor's role is primarily to design a
survey, then plan*out and execute the required field opera­
tions. In so doing, he designates the type, extent, and
procedure of measurements to be undertaken. The measure­
ments obtained are then evaluated and adjusted to obtain
the desired results. . /
Any surveying measurement is always subject to the im­
perfections of the instrument used and the different er­
rors inherent in the process of- obtaining the measurement.
There is no such thing as a perfect measuring instrument
nor is there a surveyor whose* senses are sufficiently per­
fect to measure any quantity exactly. The first thing a
student of surveying must learn about' measurement is that
no exact or ‘true measurement is ever possible and the true
value of. a measured quantity is never known. Measurements
are never exact and they will always be imperfect no matter
how carefully made. The physical measurements acquired are
correct onl»y. within certain limits because terrors cannot be
totally eliminated.
In surveying, measurements may be made directly or in­
directly. To learn and appreciate the different operations
of surveying it is important for the student to understand
the fundamental principles of making measurements or obser­
vations. It is a fact tha^j the best surveyor is not the one
who makes the most accurate and precise measurements, but
the one who is able to choose and apply the required or
appropriate degree of precisiorie.

« 1. Direct Measurements. A direct measurement is a com­

parison of the measured quantity with a standard measuring
unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of th*at
kind.. Some common examples of direct measurements are
applying a wire,or tape to a line, determining a horizontal
or' vertical angle with a transit, or fitting a protractor
between two intersecting‘1 ines to determine the intersec­
tion anglje.
2. Indirect Measurements. When it is not possible to
apply a measuring instrument directly to a quantity to be
'measured an indirect measurement is made. In this type of
measurement, the observed value is"determined by its rela­
tionship t) some other known values. For .example, the total
length of a line would be an indirectly observed distance
if it is determined by a summation of a series of directly
measured short segments. In the stadia and subtense bar
method, -horizontal and vertical distances are indirectly
 obtained since it makes use of optical systems for relating
a short known length to the angle it subtends at the dis­
tance to be determined. '
There are numerous indirect measurements made in sur­
veying operations such that it is important for surveyors
and students of surveying to have a good working knowledge/
of trigonometry and geometry.

2-2. r THE METER. • ’ • • v -y.

The international unit of linear measure is the meter'. This

was proposed sometime in 1789 by .French scientists who
hoped to establish a system suitable for all times and all
peoples, and which could be based upon permanent natural
standards. Originally, the meter was defined as
1/10,000,000 of the earth's meridional quadrant.
The growing use of the meter led to demands f.or an
international organization to insure the uniformity and
standardization of its defined length. Several conferences
were convened by the French government for this particular
objective. Finally, in May 20, 1875, a treaty was signed in
Paris by representatives of eighteen countries (13 from
Europe, 4 from the American continent, and 1 from the
Middle East) which created a permanent International Bureau
of Weights and Measures. As a direct result of this treaty,
the standard for linear measure was established as the
International Meter which was initially based on an iron
meter bar standardized in Paris in 1799. The meter was
defined as the distance between two lines engraved acrosis
the surface (neair the ends) of a bar with an X-shap.ed
cross-section, composed of 90 percent platinum and 10 per­
cent iridium, when the temperature of the bar is 0 degrees
Celsius.
The original international meter bar was deposited at
the International Bureau in Sevres, near Paris,' France. The
bureau took care of the prototype standards of the meter
and was given the task to periodically compare and cali­
brate the primary standards; of the participating countries
Which has grown to 35 members in 1954. The bureau also
carried on research to improve the standards and methods .of
measurement.
All through the following years the metric standards
made of platinum and iridium served its purpose well,,
however, many scientists belieVe that the system should
eventually be based upon the natural standards of even
'greater permanence, and possibly of greater precision.
Ideas were conceived to adopt a natural standard in lieu of
the previous man-made physical standard. Such a staidard
would have the advantage of being reproducible and also
immune to possible damage by accident or by hostile act.
Irj pctober I960, the meter, was redefined at the 11th
Genera! Conference on Weights and Measures and agreed upon
by )(> Countries. The meter is now defined as a length equal

15
to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light pro­
duced by burning the element krypton (With an atomic weight
of 86) at a specified energy level in the spectrum. This
new definition will enable nations now using the interna­
tional system of units to make more accurate measurements
with the meters It will .keep them from having to check and
calibrate their meteor bars* against the international proto­
type bar in Prance since ^his new defined length presumably
can be reproduced with great accuracy in a well-equipped
laboratory.

2-3. INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI).

A movement is now underway tb standardize and simplify

units of measurement throughout the world,. The Internalion-
al Bureau of Weights and Measures promulgated in 1960 the
International System of Units, generally known as SI. The
ultimate goal is to modernize the metric system by introdu­
cing a coherent and rational Worldwide system of units. SI
units are now adopted by most countries in Europe, the
Middle East, Africa, and in Asia. The United States of
America has started to adopt the International System of
Units, although with great hesitation.
Effective ,January 1, 1983 the English System was offi­
cially phased out in the Philippines and only the modern
metric system was allowed to be used. Metric conversion or
change-over was signed into law on December 1978 by former
Pres. Ferdinand E. Marcos. The metric system prescribed‘the
use pf the International System of Units (.SI) as establish­
ed by the General Conference on Weights and Measures and as
modified by the local Metric System Board to suit Philip­
pine conditions.
Units in SI of major concern to surveying are the meter
(m) for linear measure, the square meter (sq m or m2 ) for
areas, the'cubic meter (cu m or m 3 ) for volumes, and the
radian (rad) for plane angles. There are certain units
which are not part of SI but are still widely used.
Examples are liter, hectare, knot, day, hour, and minute.
These are still accepted for use in the Philippines since
it is not practical to abandon them yet. For longer distan­
ces the kilometer .(km) may be used and for larger areas the
hectare (ha) is used. Degrees, minutes, and seconds are
also acceptable fox' plane angles measured in SI.

2-4. UNITS OF MEASUREMENT.

The usual surveying type of measurement entail both angular

and linear measurements. When using SI, all linear measure­
ments,. as earlier stated, are based upon the meter. Larger
and smaller units are derived from it in decimal steps, and
their names are fqrmed by adding prefixes. -In SI a total
set of 18 prefixes are used to form multiples and submulti­
ples of different units. The following more commonly used

J6,
prefixes are added to basic nj^pes

m ega- = .1 000OPO ' centi ” 0.01

kilo- ■s= 1 000 mi lli = 0.001
hecto- .= 100 / micro­ = 0 . 0 0 0 001
deca- 's 10 nano-1 = 0.000 000 001
deci- T 0.1

'*1. Linear, Area, and Volume ^Measurements. Using the

prefixes, the following linear uaits are derived:

* .1 kilometer (km) 1 000 meters

1 meter (m) 1 000 millimeters
1 millimeter (mm) 1 000 micrometers
1 micrometer (urn) 1^ 000 mi 11imicrometers
1 millimicrometer (mu) 1 000 million micrometers
1 meter (m) * 10 decimeters
1 decimeter (dm) 10 centimeters
1 centimeter, (cm) 10 millimeters

The common units for length are the kilometer, meter,

centimeter, and the millimeter. Length may also refer to­
other linear dimensions such as width, depth, thickness,
height, or distance. The kilometer is used for long distan­
ces and in measuring the sides of large tracts of land. For
the measurement of objects such as buildings, * structures,
residential lots, heights o-f mountains,- tides, pipes and
cables, the meter J.3 used. The centimeter and millimeter
are not commonly'used in surveying. They are. suitable for
small dimensions needed in flaboratories where very precise
hut minute measurements are required. .
The unit of area, in SI is the square meter. For very
small areas, square millimeters9or square centimeters is
used. Areas of small tracts of land, floor areas of build­
ings, and structures are measured in square meters. The hec­
tare (ha), although not an SI unit, is commonly used for
ilie measurement of large tracts of land such 'e.s cities,
i- ivinces, sugar cane plantations, ricefields, and forests.
square kilometer is the app-ro£>riate SI unit for this
purpose.' The following are the commonly used relationships:
1 hectare = 10 000 sq m or lOO ares, 1 are * 100 sg m, 1 sq
tin 1 000 Q00 sq m or 100 hectares.
The common metric units for volume are- the cubic meter,
liter, and-the milliliter.- Precise volumes, actual physi-
-.U volumes, and the volumes of solids and liquids should
)>i< expressed depending on magnitude, in cubic meters, cubic
•--ntimeters, or cubic millimeters. The cubic meter is used
i..r larger volumes which are common in engineering cons-
Iiuctions anp in measuring various quantities.in surveying.
2. Angular Measurements. The SI unit fo; plane angles
i . tin* radian. The radian is defined as an angle subtended
i.y 'an arc of a circle h?v ing a length equal to the radius
•I tlie circle. ObviOur.ly, 2lT rad = 360 deg, 1 fad = 57 deg

TV
fKv
i rtA* 17
 i7 miri 44.8 sec or 57.2958 deg, and 0.01745 rad = 1 deg.
The relationship may also be expressed as follows: 1 deg =
(3.1416/180) rad, 1 min = (3.141&/10800) rad, and 1 sec =
(3.141*6/648000) rad.
The steradian is the supplementary unit of a solid
• angle (one which has its vertex in the center of a sphere
which cuts off an area of the surface equal to that of a
square with sides of length equal to the radius of the
sphere). In the Philippines the sexagesimal units are used
with SI for angular.,measure* ants because of thei.r practical
importance and our familiarity with it.

a) Sexagesimal Units - the sexagesimal units of angular

measurement are the degree, minute, and second. The unit of
angle used in surveying is the degree which is defined as
1/360th of a circle. One degree equals 60 minutes/ and 1
minute equals 60 seconds. Divisions of seconds are given in
tenths, hundredths, and thousandths.
b) Centesimal Units - many countries in Europe and the
Middle East use the centesimal system where the grad is the
angular unit. In this system the circumference of a circle
(360 deg) is divided into 400 grads. The grad is divided
into 100 centesimal minutes or 0.9 degrees, and the minute
is subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds or 0 deg 00 min
32.4 sec. Grads are usually expressed in decimals.' For
example, 1949 45c 82cc is expressed as 194.458 2 grads.

2-5. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES.

In recording results from values obtained by measurements

and in making computations, it is important to determine
which should be retained as significant figures. By defini­
tion, the number of significant figures in any value in­
cludes the number of certain digits plus one digit that is
estimated and, . therefore, questionable or uncertain. For
example, if a line is measured with a scale graduated in
one meter increments and recorded as 3.6 meters, the value
has two* significant figures - the 3 that is certain and the
6 which is estimated. Any further estimation made would, not
be significant. If the same line is again measured with a
scale graduated in tenths of a meter, a nd’ recorded with
■three significant figures, as 3.65 meters, the 3 and 6 are
(Certain, whereas the 5 is estimate or uncertain.
The number o£ significant fijures is often, confused
with the number of decimal places. Decimal places may have
to be used to maintain the correct number of significant
figures, but in themselves they do rot indicate significant
figures, Some examples are: * .1

1. One Significant Figure.

100 9 0.001
400 8 00 0 0.000005
 2. fWo Significant Figures

24 0.020 0.002.4 ■
0.24 0.000065 3.6

3. Three Significant Figures. )

365 3.65 0.000249

12.3 10.1 0.0120
4. Four Significant Figures.

76 54 0.8742 0.00006712
32.25 15.00 364.0
5. Five Significant Figures.
12345 100.00 40.000
0.86740 46.609 155.28
Some general rules regarding significant- figures are:

v Rule 1 -Zeroes between other significant figures are

significant, as, for example in the following values each
of which contains 4 significant figures: *12.03/ 35.06A and
4009 .
Rule 2 - For values less than one, zeroes immediately
to the right of the decimal are not- significant. They
merely show the position of the decimal such as in the
following values which contain three significant figures:
0.00325, 0.000468, and 0.0230.
Rule 3 - Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers
.ire significant such as: 169.30, 366.00, and 11.000 . These
three values all have five significant figures.

When computations are to be made with values obtained

irom measurements, it is important that enough figures be
istained to insure that the significant figures in the
final refcult are consistent with the precision of the mea-
niirement. Care must also, be taken to prevent picking up
figures during computations which lea<> to a final result
containing more significant figures than the precision of
Ihe original measurements. Final results from computations
couldVi't. be more precise than the precision of the least
precise value used in the computations.
It. is also important that data resulting from measure­
ments are recorded with the correct number of significant
figures'. If a significant figure is dropped in recording a
value, the «ti*ne and effort spent in attaining a given pre­
cision is wasted. If data are recorded with more figures
fh in those ‘‘which are significant, a false precision is
implied. * •
in surveying measurements tin* proper number of signifi-

'9
cant- figures should be recorded for every measured value.
If this is done, the precision with which the measurement
was made is clearly indicated. For example, if a leqgth is
determined, to the nearest hundredth of a meter as 65.00 m,
then it should be recorded as 65.00 m - not 65.0 m or 65 m.
By. recording it as 65.0 mi, the implication is that the dis­
tance was measured only to the nearest tenth of a meter; if
only. 65 m is recorded, the implication is .that the dis­
tance was measured only to the nearest meter.
The, number of significant figures in a directly obser­
ved quantity is related to the precision or refinement
employed in the observation. To be consistent with the
theory of errors, it is essential that measured values be
recorded with the correct number of significant figures.
2-S. SOUNDING OFF NUMBERS. \

Rounding off a value is the process of dropping one or more

of the final digits so that the value contains only the
significant figures required for further computation or for
portraying the final results. The following procedures of
rounding off values are generally accepted:

1. Digit is Less Than 5. When the digit to be dropped

is less than 5, the number is written without the digit.
Thus, 24.244, rounded off to the nearest hundredth, becomes
24.24, Correspondingly, to further round off 24.24 to the
nearest tenths, the value becomes 24.2.
,2. Digit is Equal to 5. When the digit to be dropped is
exactly 5, the nearest even number is used for. the prece­
ding digit. Thus 26.175, rounded off to the nearest hund­
redth becomes 26.18. Also, 156.285 Would be 156,28.
3. Digit is Greater Than 5. When the digit to be drop­
ped is greater than 5, the number is written with the pre­
ceding digit increased by one. Thus, 226.276, rounded off
to the nearest hundredth becomes 226.28. Correspondingly,
226.28, rounded off to the nearest tenths would be 226.3.

. The procedures in rounding off values as illustrated in

1 and 3 above are standard practice. Apparently, however,
many differ when the digit to be dropped is equal to 5 such
as in the process of rounding off 156.285. Some people
always take the next higher hundredth (i.e., 156.29),
whereas others invariably use the next lower hundredth
(i.e., ’156.28). It should be noted that using the nearest
even digit produces better balanced results in a series of
computations. The so-called "computer rule" in rounding off
values should not be applied to measured quantities. The
rule was apparently devised for non-measured values.

i.20 , i* r * o e v o T iw
w.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
TO SURVEYING
mm

3-1. STUDENT FIELD PRACTICE

3-2. SURVEYING FIELD NOTES
3-3. TIE FIELD NOTEBOOK
3-4. TYPES OF NOTES
1. Sketches 4. Computation*
2. Tabulation*. 5. Combination Oh
3. Explanatory Note* The. Above
3-5. INFORMATION FOUND IN FIELD NOTEBOOKS
1. Title oh1the Field Work or Name oh Project
2. Time oh Day and Date
3. Weather Condition* .
4. Name* oh Group Member* and Their Designation*
5. List oh Equipment *,
3-6. THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY
1. Chieh oh Party 8. Rear, Tapeman
2. 1 K**i*tant Chieh oh Party 9. flagman
3 % In*trumentman 10. Rodman
4. Technician • 11. Pacer
5. Computer 12. Axeman!Lineman
,6. Recorder 13. Aidman
7. .Head Tapeman 14. Utititymen

Lessoit 3
n* turv/rw# 2 1 ,
3-1. STUDENT FIELD PRACTICE.

In an elementary surveying course, /the sff&dent acquires a

csttain extent of field 'practice. It is not possible, in
the ordinary field course in surveying, to develop the stu­
dent into an expert.instrumentman; it is expected, however,
that the course will give the student a working knowledge
of surveying instrument^ and their uses. In elementary sur­
veying field work no long surveys are attempted, but a num­
ber of short Survey problems are taken up'which in prac­
tice might, become parts of extended surveys.
Members *of the student field parties should from ' time
to time alternately assume the various duties' involved in
the field work. The ability to hold the^ rod properly is as
essential as the knowledge of how to manipulate the
different instruments. The use of surveying instruments
requir% not only a thorough understanding .of the basic
theories and principles of surveying but also a fairly ex­
tensive amount of field practice.

3-2. SURVEYING FIELD NOTES.

Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable, and

permanent record of actual work done in the field. If the
notes are incorrect Or incompletely done, or are oblitera­
ted, much or all of the time, money, and. effort in the ga­
thering of survey data are wasted. Furthermore, no matter
how carefully the field measurements are made, the survey
as * a whole may be useless if some of the measurements are
not recorded or if the meaning of any recorded data is
misinterpreted or misunderstood. There is no phase in a
surveyor’s work which is of greater importance, or which
requires more careful attention, than the keeping of field
notes. From the beginning of his studies, the student of
surveying' should realize that the quality of his field work
is reflected ^directly in the manner he keeps his field
record.- Before any-survey is made, the necessary data to be
collected shofild be considered carefully and in the field
all such required data shftuld be obtained. The field notes
become the official record of the survey. It is for this
reason that notes must be complete, legible*, concise and
comprehensive*, and logically arranged according to recog­
nized practice.,
Field notes are usnally worked over in the office into
some more advanced form of presentation, such as a map, a
report,' or *a computation. The notes are then always kept
for future reference. Field notes may be used .by another
surveyor some years later. It .is not possible to predict to
what extent the information gathered on most surveys may
become of value in the future. A need to rerun, extend, or
otherwise make use of 'previous surveys may be required for
a related project. Jn such case it would be most logical
that the oldf field notes will be the only available refe-

22
t rence, -and their value will depend largely upon the com­
pleteness and clarity with which they have been recorded.
In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are
used or referred Jto by office personael who !.-,va not seen
the field site or who are not familiar with conditions on
the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has
been recorded. It is for this reason that notes should be
made completely, clearly, and systematically. To be com-,
'plete, the notes should show all data, together with., a
sufficient interpretation to answer all questions that may
raised with respect to any given survey. The surveyor
should keep clearly in mind not only the immediate uses of
the data but those which may reasonably be expected to
arise at some future time. A completed record written in a
disorderly and confused manner often causes more mistakes
and erroneous information.
The notes should be recorded in the conventional and
generally used format and not according to whims of the
field surveyor. The arrangement of notes usually depends
upon departmental or office standards, and preferences.
Therq are different forms of field notes in use, but in
practice these must be adapted or new forms devised to meet
unusual situations. Field notes are sometimes modified to
meet special conditions. Although several systems of note
keeping are in general use, certain principles apply to
all: The aim is to make the clearest possible nptes with
the least expenditure of. time and effort. A systematic
arrangement of all survey data is important if the reco'rd
is to be concise and includes all of the required informa­
tion. Accuracy is always aide^J by methodical apportionment
and classification of data.
It is essential that notes be intelligible to others
without verbal explanations. Another person reading on the
notes should be able to quickly imagine what has been done
m the field. The notekeeper should always put- himself in
!he place of one who is not in the field at the time the
survey is made. The field notes must then contain all
necessary information ana the data recorded in sucn a man­
ner that it will allow only the correct interpretation of
withered data. It is also desirable for students to have an
expertly designed set of noteforms covering their first
iield work, to set high standards and save time. The stu­
dent should strive to improve each set of notes over the
preceding one. He should avail himself of this opportunity
lo develop notekeeping techniques, since it will greatly
tie 1p him not only in surveying but also in other engineer­
ing work, such as recording laboratory experiments and
ie:it,<; as well as in drafting and preparation of memoranda
m.ecl in. executive or professional duties.
Field work observations should be recorded directly in
t h e notebook at: the time observations are made. Notes made
later, from memory or* copied from temporary notes may be
unr f u 1, t i nt t h e y a r e n o t f i e l d notes. Students are tempted
to scribble notes on scrap Sheets of paper for later trans­
ference in neat form to the re/gular field book. This prac­
tice defeats the purpose of a surveying field work course,
which is to provide experience in taking notes under actual
job conditions. ,
In court, field.notes may be used as evidence. Original
notes are tho^e taken*while measurements are being made.
All other sets are copied and must be so identified. Copied
notes, may not be^accepted in court. Because of.the possibi­
lity that field notes may become .. court evidence, many
surveyors do not 'allow erasing in the field book. An
erasure could cause suspicion that the field record was
altered after the field work’ was finished. Instead,
mistakes are crossed out in such'a manner that they can
still be read, and the correct entry is made while OtilJL in
the field.

3-3. THE FIELD NOTEBOOK.

In practice the field notebook should be of good quality

rag paper, with stiff board or leather covet made to
.withstand hard usage, and of pocket size. Treated papers
are available which will shed rain; some of these can be
written on even when wet. Special field notebooks are sold
by engineering supply companies for particular kinds of
notes, such as cross-sections for earthwork. For general
surveying or for students in field work where the problems
to be done are general in character, an excellent form of
notebook has t’e right-hand page divided into small
rectangles with a red line running up the middle, and has
the left-hand page divided into several columns; both pages
have the same horizontal ruling. Another common form, used
in leveling, has both pages ruled in columns and has wider
‘"horizontal, spacing than the field book. This' is called a
levelbook.
The field notebook may be bound in any of three ways:
conventional, ring, or loose-leaf. The ring-type, which
consists of many metal rings passing through perforations
in the pages, has the advantage, over the conventional
binding that the book opens quite flat and that the covers
can be folded back against each other. Loose-leaf notebooks
are more popularly used . *Loose leaves are available in
either single or double sheets.
In some technical "schools students are asked to use
bond paper instead of field notebooks when preparing and
submitting -their field notes. The use of bond paper has
been popular because it is more readily available than*
field notebooks aside from its being cheaper.

3-4. TYPES OF NOTES.

The following are the five common types of notes kept in
practice.

?A /Nrf
ro tiov
tmoi
ucnoM
 1. Sketches. A . good sketch will help to convey
.correct impression. Sketches are rarely made to exact
scale, but in most cases they are made approximately to
scale. They ard drawn freehand and of liberal size. Many
features may be readily shown by conventional •symbols.
Special symbols may be adapted for the particular organi­
zation or job. The student should note that a sketch
crowded with unnecessary data is often confusing.
2. Tabulations. A series of numerical values obser­
ved in the field are best shown in a\tabulated format. Ta­
bulated form of note keeping conveys ,the required informa­
tion in a simple and definite manner. Tabular .forms should
be used wherever possible* This format prevents mistakes,
allows easy checking, saves time, makes the calculation le­
gible to others, and simplifies the work of the person check­
ing the field notes. However, in other types of surveys,
the data may be of such varying character that they cannot
be advantageously tabulated, but must be shown on a sketch
or sketches.
3. Explanatory Motes. Explanatory notes provide a
written description of what has been done in the field.'
These are employed to make' clear what the numerical data
and sketches fail'to do. Usually they are placed on the
right-hand page of the field notebook in the same line with
the numerical data that they explain^ If sketches are tised,
the explanatory notes are placed where they- will not inter­
fere with other data and as close as -possible to that which
they explain. .. / .
4. Computations. Calculations of one kind or ano­
ther form a large part of the work of surveying. Most sur­
veying-type computations are made algebraically by the use
of simple arithmetical steps and trigonometric functions.
In some instances, graphical solutions using accurately
scaled drawings are used. Electronic hand-held calculators,
desk calculators, or digital computers are now used for
calculating values. The portrayal of calculations should be
clear and‘orderly in arrangement in order that these will
easily be, understood by persons other than the one who made
the computations.-
5. Combination!; Of The Above. The practice used in
most extensive surveys is a combination of the above types
of notes. The surveyor should be able to determine for him­
self which type of combination would be most logical^to use
In portraying the type of data gathered .in the fcield.

In a simple survey, such as one for measuring the

distances between points, a sketch showing the lengths is
sufficient. On extensive surveys a combination of tabulated
numerical values and sketches are used. Wherever there may
lie any doubt concerning field conditions, a sketch a c c o m ­
panies the numer itcal* values . In measuring the length of a
line forward and bagkv^ard, a tabulation properly arranged
in columns is adoquatV. The notes for most leveling opera-
 Fig, 3-1. Example. Note(o4m: PeteAmining Med o( A Field With .jAxegulaA Boundaxg. '

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Fig• 3-2. Example. Note^oAm: Two Peg Text.

-zrxsXSW /
 tions are recorded in tabular form. The location of a refe-
•rence point may be difficult to identify without a sketch;
but often a few lines of explanation are enough. Bench
marks and other reference points aijte usually described in
notes. Where many angles and distances are measured from
the same point, a sketch showing all observed values would
be hopelessly complicated. For this reason the angles and
distances are* recorded in tabular form. Using these me­
thods, notes for any surveying operation are greatly sim­
plified and the ,Jfield work undertaken becomes perfectly
apparent t^o one who has a knowledge of•surveying.

3-5. 'INFORMATION FOUND IN FIELD NOTEBOOKS.

It is desirable thcit the following basic information be

included in the field, notebook * as a requirement for
documentation. It should be noted, however, that any other
Important or informative data relevant.to the particular
surveying operation may also be included.
*
1. Title of the Field Work or Name of Project. The
official name of the project or title of the field work
should always be identified. The location of the survey and
preferably its nature or purpose should always be stated.
2. Tine of Day and Date.. These entries are necessa­
ry to document the notes and furnish a timetable, as well
as to correlate different surveys. From the assigned sur-.
vey timetable, precision, problems encountered,, and other
factors affecting the survey may be referenced from.*
3. Weather Conditions. Temperature, wind velocity,
typhoons, storms, and other weather conditions, such as
tog, sunshine, and rain have a decided effect .upon accuracy
in surveying operations.’ An instrumentman making precise
observations is unlikely to perform the best possible work
during extremes in temperature conditions. It is for these
teasons that the details related to t?he weather play an
important part when reviewing field notes.
4. Echoes of Group Members and Their Designations.
The chief «of party, instrumehtman, tapeman, and other mem­
bers of the survey party must be identified. This informa­
tion will be necessary for documentation purposes and other
iuture reference. From this information,” duties and respon-
•■ib.ilitips can easily be pinpointed among the survey party
members.! .
5. List of# Equipment. All survey equipment used must
be listed, including its make, brand, and serial number.
The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have a
definite effect on the accuracy of a survey. Proper iden­
tification of the particular equipment used aids in iso­
lating errors in some casts. „ ' - 1. ,",
♦ •#*. / •y#VH' J- -‘
U all the above listed information are known, mistakes-
*.commit ted in the* field and which are not discovered until-

* IN I fiQOUCriQ#
rv 90* v t r M 27
 . .V' ,1' I. •• .
the field work is completed could be easier determined.
Often the mistake can be traced to weather conditions or
equipment which are out of adjustment, and a correction can
easily be made without having to redo the whole field work
or some portion of it.
As an added requirement, it is important to have a ta­
ble of contents at the beginning of the field notebook tp
allow easy referencing of desired data. This is advisable
when the notebook^contains observed and calculated data
covering different survey projects.

3-6* THE FIELD SURVEY PARTY.

The following is a list of persons who may compose a field
survey party. Their duties and responsibilities are given
opposite their respective designations. The given composi­
tion is primarily designed for large scale surveys which is
expected to undertake field surveys covering days or weeks
using either conventional or sophisticated surveying ins­
truments such as those for surveys using electronic,iner-
itial, and position systems.
In coming up with an organization for a field survey
party, the principle of flexibility must be adapted. The
duties and responsibilities of .members of a survey party
should not always be fixed but should be modified so as to
suit prevailing work requirements and conditions, problems
in field operations, and the availability and usage of sur­
veying equipment. Hence, for smaller scale surveys and
where conventional surveying equipment are- utilized, the
given composition should be reduced to what is deemed pre­
ferable or suitable. The composition, duties and responsi­
bilities given in the following list should serve as a
reference for one who intends to organize a field survey
party.
1. Chief of Party - the person who is responsible
for the overall direction, supervision, and operational
control of the survey party. He is also responsible for its
logistical and technical requirements, and problems of a
field survey operation. Prior to the execution of a survey
project, he consults or confers with superiors regarding
the project to be undertaken. He is responsible for submit­
ting survey reports and records, and sees to it that these
are complete, accurate and adheres to prescribed technical
standards and specifications. He prepares cost estimates
of survey projects, and receives and disburses.all cash ex­
penses of the survey party. He may be called upon to act as
an expert witness in court on matters relating to' techni­
cal description of land and other surveying matters.
2. Assistant Chief of Party - the person whose
duty is to assist the chief of party in the accomplishment
of the task assigned to the survey party. He takes over the
duties of the chief of party during the absence of the

,28 INTR
bO
ODUt
NvCTU
IN
O*
N
 chief.. He conducts ground reconnaissance and * investigates
sites of a proposed project to gather necessary data prior
to the start of a survey work. He is primarily responsible!
lot the employment of surveying, equipment, instruments and
accessories used in the survey operation. He prepares field
and office reports and survey plans for submission to the
chief of party.
3. Instrumentman - the tperson whose duty is to set
up, level, and operate surveying instruments such as the
transit, engineer's level, theodolite, sextant, p’ane table
and alidade, and etc. He sees to it that instruments to be
used in a survey operation are in good working condition
and in proper adjustment. He also assists the technician in
the operation of electronic surveying equipment. He works
in coordination and as a part of an instrument party and
exercises limited supervision over personnel doing manual
tasks.
4. Technician - the person who is responsible for use
and operation of all electronic irfetruments required in a
field, work operation. It .is his duty to see to it that
these equipments are functioning properly, are regularly
calibrated, and are in proper adjustment. He vis also res­
ponsible for the establishment of a two-way communication
link by radio between members of the survey party and the,
home office arid, between members of the survey party where
distant stations or long survey lines' are involved.
5. Computer - the person whose duty is to perform all
computations of survey data and works out necessary compu­
tational checks required in a field work operation. He is
:«spons.ible. .for the utilization of electronic calculators,
pocket or microcomputers, and assists in the operation of
computerized surveying systems or equipment.
6. Recorder - the person whose duty is to keep a re­
cord of all Sketches, drawings, measurements and observa­
tions taken or needed -for a field work operation. He keeps
table of schedules of all phases of work and the employ­
ment of" the members of the survey party. He does clerical
<asks related to surveying in the office and undertakes
limited cartographic jobs.
7. Head Tapeman - the person responsible for the
accuracy and speed of all linear measurements with tape. He
determines and directs the marking of-stations to be occu-
oled by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing
o u t of obstructions along the line of sight. He inspects
uid compares tapes for standard length prior to their use
in taping operations and is responsible for eliminating or
ieducing, possible errors ajid mistakes in taping.
8. Rear. Tapeman - -the’ person ’ whose duty is to as-
r\l.-*t the head tapeman during taping operations and in other
ie Lated work. 1
9. Flagman ~ the person whose duty is to hold the
Ilugpole or range pole at selected- points as directed by
the inatrumentman. He helps the tapeman in making measure-

w *l0ur
(NT o v e r ION
tviYiNWi 29
 i ] ,/ *
cwnts. and assists the axeman in cutting down‘branches and
in clearing other obstructions to line, of sight. Where
electronic distance measuring instruments are used,, he is
responsible for setting up reflectors or targets.
10. Rodman - the person whose primary duty is to hold
the stadia or leveling rod when sights are to be taken on
it.
11. Pacer - the person whose duty is to check all
linear measurements made by the tapeman. He assists the
tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in li­
near Measurements are either: reduced or eliminated. In
addition the pace: may also perform the job of a rodman.
12. Axeman/?lineman - the pers’on whose duty is to
rlear the line of sight of trees, brush, and' other obstruc-
• ;ons in wooded country. He is also responsible for the
security and safety of the members of the survey party at
tr.e survey site. The axeman is usually provided not only
with an ax but a rifle or a sidearm as well. If this member
is to carry any firearm, it should be seen to it that he is
lawfully authorized to do so. In some instances it would be
advisable to request military or police authorities for
needed security or hire authorized security guards.
13. Aidman - the person whose duty is to render first
•i;d treatment to members of the survey party who are
involved in snake and insects bites, accidents, and other
cases involving their health, safety, and. well being. In
addition, he may be designated as an assistant instrument-
man.
14. Utilitymen - the persons whose duties are to ren­
der other forms of assistance needed by the survey party or
as directed by the chief of party. Where a survey vehicle
\s used, a utilityman is designated as driver. If the
survey party has to camp out for days in the field, utili­
tymen are responsible for setting up the camp site and its
required facilities. They prepare and serve meals, and also
look after the security of the camp site. They are likewise
respons-ible for the handling and transporting of survey­
ing equipment, accessories, and supplies. The laying of
concrete monuments, markers and signals at designated
points are also their responsibility.

30 HTH 00U CTU 1H

r p S J H v t viNQ
4-1. ERRORS’
4-2. MISTAKES
4-3. TYPES OF ERRORS
/ Systematic. Eaaoas
2. Accidental Eaaoas
4-4. SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Instrumental
i Eaaoas
2. Naiumal Eajioas
3. Personal Eaaoas
4-5. ACCURACY.ANV PRECISION
4-6. THEORY OF PROBABILITY
4-7. MOST PROBABLE VALUE
4-&. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Most PAobable Value
a
2. Most Probable Value
3. Most Probable Value
4. Most Probable Value

Lessen
IMTROOUCTiON
rosutvtruil
 4-1. ERRORS.

An error is defined as the difference between the true

value and the measured value df a quantity. It is a devia­
tion of an observation or a calculation from the true
value and is often beyond the-control of the one performing
the operation. Since the true value of a quantity can never
be ascertained by measurements, the.exact Value of an
error, likewise, can never be determined in any measure­
ment . -v’ •
;
Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from'
sources which cannot be avoided. They may be caused by the
type of equipment used or by the way in which the equipment'
is employed. It may also be caused by fhe imperfections of
the senses of the person undertaking the measurement or by*
natural Causes. The effects of errors cannot be entirely
eliminated; they can, however, be minimized by careful work
and by applying corrections.
In any surveying operation the surveyor is continuously
dealing with errors. If the work must be performed to
exacting standards he must understand thoroughly the dif­
ferent kinds of error, . their sources and behavior, magni­
tude, and effects upon field measurements. It is only by
then that he can intelligently select the instruments to be
used and the survey methods to be employed which will
reduce errors to acceptable limits.

4-2. MISTAKES.

Mistakes are inaccuracies i,n measurements which occur

because some aspect of a surveying operation is performed
by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor judg-
^ ment, and improper execution’. Mistakes are also caused by a
misunderstanding-pf the problem, inexperience, of indif­
ference of the surveyor. A'large mistake is referred to as
a blunder. Mistakes and blunders are not classified as
errdrs because they usually are so large in magnitude when
compared to errors.
Among students of surveying, mistakes which are fre­
quently committed include: reading the wrong graduation on
the tape, omitting a whole length of tape,transposition of
figures, reading a scale backward, misplacing a decimal
point, incor'rect recording of field notes, adding a row or
column of numbers incorrectly, etc. For example, a tapeman
may read a number on the tape as 6 when it should actually
be 9, or he may read a taped distance as 48.6 m but records
it as 46.8 m in the field notes. Another example of a mis­
take is in the recording of a series of repeated measure­
ments of a line. The tapeman may record the measurements as
follows:. 243.85 m, 243.88 m, 234.80 m, 243.8^ m, and 243.85
m. If a cursory inspection is made of the recorded values,
it will be noted that the third value disagrees signifi­
cantly with the* Others. This apparently is because of
(H t h o ? ‘j c t :o n
3.2 TO SiNQ
 transposition of figures in the' process of recording.
If careful attention is giVfen to the execution of any
surveying operation, mistakes can be avoided. The various
types of mistakes, however, can only be corrected if disco­
vered. Their detection can be made by systematic checking
of all work, making a common sense estimate and analysis,
or by making a duplicate measurement.
Undetected>mistakes may produce very serious effects on
the final result of & survey such that the surveyor should
exert ’every possible effort to minimize theij: occurrence.
When mistakes are discovered,, corrections should immediate­
ly bf made. It is usually advisable to repeat a measurement
when a mistake is*detected. However, if an adequate number
of other measurements of the same quantity are available
and which closely agree, the widely divergent results
should be discarded. Mistakes have po place in'engineering
and surveying works.The effects of, errors can be minimized,
but they cannot be entirely eliminated, whereas mistakes
call be detected and removed from recorded measurements. .

4-3. TYPES OP ERRORS.

In surveying, errors in measurements are either systematic

or accidental. These are defined in terms of their behavior
as to sign and Magnitude, and the conditions prevailing
during th* measurement. _

1. Systematic Errors. This* type of error is one which

will always have the s*ame sign and magnitude as long as
field conditions remain constant and unchanged. For chan­
ging field conditions’there is a corresponding change in
magnitude of the error, however, the sign remains constant.
A systematic error will repeat itself in other measure­
ments, still maintaining the same sign, and thus will ac­
cumulate. It is for this reason that this type of error is
also called a cumulative error. For instance, in making a
measurem|nt With a 30-m tape, which is 5 cm too short., the
•ame error is made,each time the tape is used. If a full
tape length is used six times, the error accumulates and
totals six times the»error for 30 cm) for the total mea-
iiurement.
Systematic errors conform to mathematical and physical
laws. Such errors can be computed and their effects elimi-
n *-ed by applying corrections, employing proper techniques
in the use of ,instruments, or by adopting a field procedure
which will automatically eliminate it.
In surve/ing, systematic errors occur due to* instrumen­
tal factors, natural catfses, and human limitations of the
observer. This type of error will continue to persist and
impose regular effects in the performance of a survey ope­
ration.
2. Act:ident.nl Errors. These errors are purely ac­
cidental in character. The occurrence of sVich errors a;*e
matters of chance? as they are likely to be positive or ne­
gative, and may tend in part to compensate or average out
according to' laws qf probability. There is no absolute way
of determining or eliminating them since the error for an
observation of a quantity is not like !*• to be the same’ as
for a second observatiqn.
Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the
control of the surveyor and are present in all surveying
measurements. Th6y remain after mistakes and systematic
errors have beerr eliminated. An example of such an error is
the failure of the t£peman to exert the correct amount of
pull on the ends of a tape during measurement; Sometimes he
may exert a pull beyond that which is required, and some­
times less £han what is required. Another pxample is in the
reading of ah angle with a transit. Since the instrumentman
cannbt read it perfectly, there would be times when he
would read a value which is too large and in another
attempt he may read a value which would be too small. These
errors are likely to have either a positive or a negative
sign, and tend’to cancel each other or compensate for each
other. *
In comparison to systematic errors, accidental errors
are usually of minor importance in surveying operations
since they are variable in sign and are of a compensating
nature. This characteristic usually tends to balance out in
the final results. Although the total error increases as
the number of measurements increases, the total error be­
comes proportionally less when compared with the number of
measurements, and the accuracy becomes greater as the num­
ber of measurements increases. ’ w

4-4. SOURCES OP ERRORS.

The sources of errors in surveying Measurements are classi­

fied under the following three groups.

1. •Instrumental Errors. These errors*are due to imper­

fections in the instruments used, either from faults in
their construction or from improper adjustments between the
different patts prior to their use.. Surveying instruments
just like any other instrument, are never perfect; proper
corrections and field methods are applied to bring the mea­
surements within certain allowable limits of precision.
Moreover, with time and continuous usage, the wear and tear
of the instrument will likely be a cause for errors. Exam­
ples of instrumental errors are:
a) .Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
b) Using a leveling rou with painted graduation:, not.
perfectly spaced.
c) Determining the difference in elevation between
two points with an instrument whose line of sight is not in
adjustment.

IN TRO D U C TIO N
34 t o S L 'w e r / N O
 d) Sighting cr. a rod which is warped.
e) Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of s
transit or level.

2. Natural Errors. These errors are caused by varia­

tions in the phenomena of nature such as changes in magne­
tic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth. Natural errors 3 j.c
beyond the control of man. However, in order to keep the
resulting errors within allowable limits, necessary precau­
tions can be taken. Methods can also be adopted to suit
prevailing conditions.1
The surveyor may not be able to totally remove the
cause of such errors but he can minimize their effects by
making proper corrections of the results and using good
judgment. Common examples are:

a) The effect of temperature variation on the length

of a steel tape.
b) Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due
to variations in magnetic declination.
c) Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect
-f the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction.-
d) Error in the measureme'nt of a line with a tape
being blown sidewise by a strong wind.
e) Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance
due to. slope or uneven ground.

3. Personal Errors. These errors arise principally from

limitations of the senses of sight, touch and hearing of
the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or in­
accurate. This type of fallibility differs from one indivi­
dual to another and may vary due to certain circumstances
existing during a measurement* Some personal errors are
constant, some are compensating, while others may be erra­
tic. Personal errors are significantly reduced or elimina­
ted as skills are developed in surveying operations through
constant practice and experience. Errors of this type are
■ 'r.o eliminated by employing appropriate checking of proce­
dures in the taking and recording of measurements.- Typical
these errors are:

a) Error in determining a reading on a rod which is

out of plumb during sighting.
b) Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when
iho cross hairs of the tilescope are not positioned cor­
rectly on the target.
c) Making an erroneous .stimate of the required pull
to be applied on a steel tape during measurement.

4 *>. ACCURACY AND PRECISION. s

A
Accuracy and. precision
■ or-' two '<*rms which- are constantly \

_
used in surveying, however,, their correct meanings are
often misunderstood. While accuracy may be synonymous with
precision, the two should not be used interchangeably. The
surveyor should always attempt to obtain measurements which
are not only accurate but also precise.
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to
the absolute or true value of the quantity measured. It im­
plies the closeness between related measurements and their
expectations. The difference between the measured value of
a quantity and its actual value represents the total error
in the measurement. As the measured value approaches the
actual value, the magnitude of the error becomes smaller
and smaller; and' as the magnitude of the total error is de­
creased, the accuracy of the measurement increases. There­
fore, a measurement is termed less accurate if it deviates
by a significant amount from its expected value, and it is
more accurate if the deviation is relatively small.
The following example illustrates the meaning of accu­
racy. A. line known or accepted to be 100.000 m long is mea­
sured twice with a steel tape. The first measured value is
100.003 m and the second is 99.995 m. The first measurement
is said to be more accurate than the second measurement
since the error in the measurement is only 0.003 m as com­
pared to that of the second measurement which is 0.005 m.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and con­
sistency with which any physical measurement is made. It is
portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of
repeated measurements of a quantity. Thus, if a set of ob­
servations is closely clustered together, the observation
is said to have been obtained with high precision. Since
precision ‘ relates to the expertness of manipulation on the
part of the observer or .to the capabilities of the instru­
ment used, it requires the use of precise instruments under
ideal conditions employing the best techniques.
A method frequently used to define and distinguish bet­
ween accuracy and precision is illustrated in Fig. 4-1. The
figures given show possible groupings of rifle shots upon
different targets. In Fig. 4-la, the results shown were
very precise because the rifle shots were clustered close
to each other. However, they were not accurate since the
’"■hots were located some distance from the bull's eye. It is
then apparent that measurements m a / be precise but,not ne­
cessarily accurate if they are closjly grouped together but
about a value that is different from the, expectation by a
significant amount.
In Fig. 4-lb, the rifleman fired accurately on the tar­
get as the rifle shots were placed relatively close to the
bull's eye. The shots, however, were not precise as they
were slightly scattered with respect to the bull's eye.
This illustration is used to explain that measurements may
be accurate but not precise if they are well distributed
about the expected value but are significantly dispersed
from #each other. The results shown in Fig. 4-lc portray

INTRODUCTION
\o riNj
 Fig. 4-1. Acauacy and pktiu^ion.

8000 PRECISION B U T POOR ACCURACY 8 0 0 0 ACCURACY B UT POOR PRECISION

(Avtrogt hit away from bull's tya) (A y tra g t hit canctnlraftd ntar bull's »y « )

(e > (d)
0 0 0 0 PRECISION AND GOOD ACCURACY POOR PRECISION AND POOR ACCUR ACY
■ (A vtro g t hit conctnt.attd within tht bull'* aya)I (N o a vtragt hit in bull'*’ ty a )

rifle shots upon a target which are both precise and accu­
rate as they were placed within the bull *s eye and very
closely clustered. Using this illustration We can show that
measurements could be both precise and accurate if they are
closely grouped .around the expected value. The results
shown in Fig. 4-ld portray rifle shots which are not accu­
rate and not precise since they were widely scattered all
over the target frame. There is no evident sign of cluster1
I. ng and nearness of the rifle shots to the bull's eye.
It . is desirable for surveying measurements to be made
with high precision. Unfortunately, however, an increase in
precision usually 'warrants a directly proportionate in-
'lease in the time and effort of the surveyor. It should
than be the responsibility of the surveyor to o-btain a deg-
<i' of* precision which could be as high as can be justified*
u.-cording to the purpose of the survey.
4- 6 „ THHORY OF PROBABILITY.

I’robabi1ity# is defined as the number of times something

v/ill probably occur c er the range of possible occurrences,
it is very much involved in games of chance, such as throwr
ing dice, tossing a coin, or in various gemes using cards.
Things do happen randomly or by chance and these are-proven
V principles of mathematics commonly referred to as proba­
bility. Different theories of probability are not only ap­
plicable to games of chance, they are also used in scien**

WVM'XS M
 tific and engineering measurements such as in surveying.
Accidental errors exisff^n all surveying measurements
and ; their ipagnitude and. frequency are governed by the same
general principle£xbf prgbability. In dealing with probabi­
lity, it is assumed that we refer principally only to acci­
dental' errors and that all systematic errors and mistakes
have been eliminated. In high precision surveys extra
effort is ftiade to. eliminate systematic errors. The preci­
sion of a measured quantity isdependent upon the accident—
al error it contains.
^ The theory of probability is useful in indicating the
precision of results only in so far as they are affected by
^accidental errors. It does not, however, in’ any way deter­
mine the magnitude of systematic errors which may also be
present. The theory assumes an infinite number of occurren­
ces of all possible events; howgVer, it may be applied with
g^od results to a limited but. fairly large number of obser­
vations. To form a judgment of a probable value or the
probable precision of a measured quantity, it is necessary
to rely upon .this theory.
The theory of probability is based upon the following
assumptions relative to the .occurrences of errors:

1. Smaljl errors occur more often than large ones and

that they are more probable.
2. ; Large errors happen infrequently and are therefo
less probable; for normally distributed errors, unusually
large ones may.be mistakes" rather than accidental errors.
« 3. Positive and negative errors of the same size happen
with equal frequency; theft is, they are equally probable.
4. The mean of an irffinite number of observations i
the most probable value.

By applying the principles of probability, measurements

containing accidental errors could be adjusted. The most
probable value of a set of observations could then be de­
termined and inherent discrepancies are eliminated from
such measurements. It must be understood, however, that the
results of such adjustments, are not the true values, but
are the most probable values which could be derived from
the given measurements.
In this lesson,' only the simpler applications of the
laws of probability will be considered. A thorough under
standing . of it may be obtained by the study of the method
of least squares.

4-7. HOST PROBABLE VALUE.

From the theory of probability a basic assumption is that

the most‘probable value (mpv) of a group oi repeated a-
surements4 made under similar conditions is the arithmetic
mean or the average. Most probable value refers to a q .
tity which, based on-available data, has .wore chances

38 IN T M flO UC H O N
TV 9U N V I H N J
being correct than has any other.. -f
Since the true values of measured quantities must re­
main forever unknown, it is possible to obtain by measure­
ments only approximations of true values. • Therefore, if a
given quantity is measured more than one time, resulting in
more than one value, not all the d.erived values are cor­
rect. There is only one correct value that should be consi­
dered and it is determined by using the following equation

mpv - X = / n » (X, + X0 + X , + X) / n

Where mpv dr X is the most probable value of the quantity

measured, 5EX . is the sum of the individual measurements,
and n is the total number of observations made. The above
equation is derived from the principle of least squares,
which is based on the theory of probability.
In the case of related measurements taken under identi­
cal conditions where the sum should equal a mathematically
exact quantity, the most probable values are the observed
values corrected by an equal part of the total error. Such
a situation would only be possible in the case of angles
about a point or angles in a geometric figure. The correct­
ion is not in proportion to the magnitude of the individual
measurements but to the number of related measurements. It
is also a different case for related measurements taken
under identical conditions when the sum should equal to a
single measurement. Here, the most probable values are ob­
tained by dividing the discrepancy (i.e., the difference
between two measured values of' the same quantity) equally
among all the measurements, including the sum. If the cor­
rection is subtracted from each of the related' measure­
ments, it is added to the measurement representing their
num, and vice versa. «
Determination of the most probable value from a series
<>£ measurements is the principal use of the theory of prob­
ability.

4 0 . ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

/. M O S T P R O B A B L E V A L U E . A surveying instructor sent.out six

uioups of students to measure a distance between two points marked on the
around The students came up with the following six different vglues: 250
. 250.15, 249.90, 251.04, 250.50, and 2 51 .2 2 meters. Assuming these
values are equally reliable and that variations result from accidental er-
tors, determine the most, probable value of the distance measured.
mpv or X = 2 X / n = ( X, + X^ + X3 + X4 + X5 + X6)/n
= ( 2 5 0 . 2 5 + 2 5 0 . 1 5 + 2 4 9 . 9 0 + 2 5 1 . 0 4 + 2 5 0 . 5 0 + 2 5 1 .22>/6
= 2 5 0 .5 1 m (the most probable value of the distance measured) ;•

M O S T P R O B A B L E V A LU E . The angles about a point Q have the

following observed values. I 30°l 5120", 142°37'30", and 87°07'40". Deter-’
hlitu tlio most probable value of*each angle.
tprAfloucrioR 59
Fig. 4-Z. A n g ftjs mxuunud about a poin t.

G
ive
n:
9 130* I S 120"
s 14 2*37'30"
■®2
S 8 7 *07* 40"
o
r» =• 3 -(number of observed angled

S o lu tio n :
a) Determining the Correction to be Applied. . .
S ursj 3 ©, + ©2 + ©3 3 130*15*20" + J 4 2 °3 7 * 3 0 " + 87°07*40"
= 360°00*30" (sum o( the angles observed about point Q)

Disc 3 3 6 0 ° - 3 6 0 °0 0 '3 0 "

,= - 30*' (discrepancy In the observation)

Note: The sum o f the angles o bserved about point Q Is subfraoted from
3 6 0 * ( the expected c o rre c t sum ) to determ ine the d isc re p a n c y .
Corr = D ls o /n = - 30 "/3
3 - I6" (correction to be subtracted from each observed ongie)

b) Determining the Most Probatye Values.

r © , ± C o rr 3 13 0 ° 1 5 * 2 0 " - tp "
s 1 3 0 9 15 *1 0 " (most probable value of -©-j)
S' ©2 ± C o rr » 1 4 2 ° 3 7 * 30** - lO "
*2
-S 1 4 2 ° 37* 2 0 " (most probable value ofc-e-g)

3 8 7 ° 0 7 * 4 0 " - 10"
*3 - *C o rr 3
S 8 7 °0 7 30 (most probable value of ■©j)

c) S o lu tio n Check:

+ ■©*2 + - ^ 3 360*00'DO"
i 30° 15* IO" + l 4 2 o37*20" + 87°07'30" 3 360°00*00"
360°00* 00" = 3 6 0°00*00" (checks)
Note: S in c e the two q u a n titie s a re equal, the above solution is assum ed
tobe c o rre c t. , •
3.MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The observed interior angles of a tri­
angle are A = 36° 14*37", B = 96*30*09",and C 3 4 8 ° I5'05". Determine
the discrepancy far the given observation and the most probable value of
each angle.

40 iMin
to
ooucrtoM
to m v tn m
 Sum,* A + B + C = 35 ° 14 ' 37 " + 96 ° 30,091,+ 48 ° I 5' 05 "
= I 79° 59 l 5 l" («im of the observed Interior angles of triangle ABC)

Sum2.*’ (n 1 2) 180° = ( 3 - 2 ) 180°

= I 8 0 °0 0 '0 0 " (the correct cum for the Interior angles of a three-
sided figure)

Disc = 1 (Sum 2 - Sumt )

= • ± ( 18 0 ° - I 7 9 ° 5 9 ' 5 l " )
■s + 09 (discrepancy In the observation)

Corr = D i s c / n = 4 09 1' / 3
" + 03 (correction to be added to ebch observed angle)

t>) Determining the Most Probable Values.

A' A ± Corr = 35°14 ' 37 " + 03 "
“ 35 14 4 0 (most probable value Of angle A)

B' s B t Corr = 96° 30 ' 09 " + 03 "

■“ 9 6 °3 0 ' 12" (most probable value of angle B!

c 1 s C + Corr = 4 8 ° i 5 105 " + 03 "

. .«= 4 8 ° 1 5 ' 0 8 " (most probable value of angle C)

c) So lu tio n Chock:
A' + B1 4 C* = Suntg
• 35° 14140" + 96° 30* ! 2" 4 4 8 ° I 5 '0 8 " = ISOfOO'OO1'
ieo®oo'oo" = 1 80 ° oo' po" (checks)
Note- S in c e the two q u a n titie s a re e q u a l, the above so lu tio n Is a s-
umod to b e c o r r e c t.

4 . M O S T P R O B A B L E V A LU E . M^su rement of three horizontal angles

(Kin accompanying figure) about a point P are: APB = I 2 ° 3 l l 5p", BPC =
V ‘29 120", and CPD * 4 7 . 3.6130". If the measurement of the singlejangle
APD Is 97°37 00 .determine the most probable values of the angles.

iH
hitH
MOt'U
ok inr/iM
vt kSf 41 ,
Fig. 4-4. Related mea/*iMMe.nt6.

G iv en :
oC, = APB s ! 2° 3 I '5 0 "
cCz - B P C = 37° 2 9 120"
0C3 = CPD = 47? 3 6 '3 0 " /
oC4 = APD = 97° 37* 00"
n =4 (number of observed angles)

S o lu tio n :
a) D e te rm in ing the C o rre ctio n to be Applied.
Sum, = oC, + cC2 -hcC 3 = I2°3l'50" + 37°29'20" + 4 7 ° 3 6 , 30"'
= 9 7 ° 3 7 l40" (sum of the angles observed about point P )
Disc = i(cC 4 - Sum,) = t (97° 3 7 ‘00" - 9 7 °3 7 '4 0 " )
= ~ 40 (d is c re p a n c y In the two sets of o bservatio n made)

Corr = Disc/n = - 4 0 l' / 4

= - I O" (amount of co rre c tio n to be ap p lie d )

b) D e te rm in in g the Most Probable Value.

cC\ = oC. ± Corr = I 2 ° 3 I ,50" - i o u

/
= 12° 3 1'40" (m ost probable v alu e of angle A P B )
i•
cCz = cCz ± Corr = 37°29'20" - 10“
= 37° 29' 10" (m ost probable valu e of angle B P C )

oc; = '■ ^ 3 + Corr = 47°36'30" - to"

= 47° 36'20" (most probable value of angle C P D )

* 0C*4 = 0C4 t Corr = 97 ° 37 ' 0 0 " t 10"

— -97° 3 7 ‘.I0" (most probable value of angle A PD )

N o te s: a) The c o rre c tio n Js su b tra c te d from each o f 1

oC/ , 0C2 , cCsi sin ce their sum e xcee d s the single angle 0C4 .
b } To angle 0C 4 the correction is added sin ce its value is less
than the other three angles. ' -.

c) So lu tio n C heck:
oC\ +• + 0C3 = 0C4 >
I 2 ° 3 I , 4 0 " + 3 7 ° 2 9 1 10 " , + 4 7 ° 3 6 ' 2 0 " =* 9 7 # 3 7 , I O n
* . ’ 9 7 ° 37* I O" = 9 7 ° 3 7 ' 1 0 " (checks)

N o te : S in c e * th e twb q u a n titie s are e q u a l, the above so lu tio n is assumed

to be c o rre c t. « » •
IN T R O D U C T IO N •
42 TO S U R V E Y * *
IN TRO D U C TIO N
TO SU R V E Y IN G
5-1. RESIDUAL
l-f. PROBABLE ERROR
5-3. RELATIVE lERROR) PRECISION
5-4. WEIGHTED OBSERVATIONS
$-5. INTERRELATIONSHIP OP ERRORS
J. Summation oh Eaaoju .
1. Product oh Eaaosu
* 4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Probable Eaaoa.
2. Weighted Mecuivtementi
3. Weighted UeaAux.ejnent6 *
4. Weighted UecL&uA.ement6
5. Weighted UeoAutementA
6. Suntnation oh Eaaoaa
7. PAodulet oh Eaaoaa

Lesson 5
wimm 43.1
5-1. RESIDUAL.

The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the'devia­

tion, is defined as the difference between any measured
value of a quantity and its most probable value or

v = X X Eq.(l)

Where v is the residual in any measurement, X is a measure­

ment made of a particular quantity, and X is the most pro­
bable value of the quantity measured. Residuals and errors
are theoretically identical. The only difference is that
residuals can be calculated whereas errors cannot because
•there is no way of knowing!true values. For a particular
set of measurements it is important to compare the resi­
duals with the average value for those residuals. When very
large'residuals are detected they are usually discarded and
the reguired calculations are continued only with the re­
maining ones.

5-2. PROBABLE ERROR.

The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and

subtracted from the' most probable value, defines a range
within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true
value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the
limits thus set. .-
If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will
be possible to determine the probable error. This is the
error .that would be found in the middle place of the ar­
rangement, such that one half of the errors are greater
than it and the other half are less than it.
Tile value of the probable error is calculated with the
use of the following formulae which are derived from the
method of 5least squares.

2.
PES = t 0 . 6 7 4 5 ^ - ^ — • Eq.(2>

• • • • Eq.(3)

Where: PES = probable error of any single measurement

of a series

PEm = probable error of the mean

*5v2 = summation of the squares of the residuals

n = number of observations
 The determination and use of the probable error in s
veying is primarily to give an indication of the precis
of a particular measurement. It is often an approxim. ~
value and is not mathematically exact since only a few re­
peated measurements are usually made and the conditions of
measurement are not rigidly controlled. For example, if
235.50 m represents the mean or most probable value of
several measurements and 0.10 m represents the probable
error of the mean value, the chances are even that the true?
value lies between 235.40 m and 235.60 m, as it is also
probable that the true value lies outside of these limiting
values. Note that the lower and upper limits are determined
by correspondingly subtracting and adding 0.10 m to 235.50'
meters. To express the probable limits, of precision for
this particular case, the quantity should be written as

235.50 1 0.10 m

The sign or direction of the probable error is not

known and therefore no correction can be made. It does not
specify the magnitude of the actual error, nor does it in­
dicate the error most likely to occur. The probable error
is not a subjective guess. It is a logical estimate based
upon the methods and equipment used, upon the experience of
the observers, and upon the -field conditions existing du­
ring the measurement.

5-3. RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION.

The total amount of error in a given measurement should re­

late to the magnitude of the measured quantity in order to
indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In .surveying mea­
surements,- ratio of the error to the measured quantity is
used to define the degree of refinement obtained.
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is
expressed by a fraction having the magnitude of the error
in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity
in the denominator. It is necessary to express both quanti­
ties in the same units, and the numerator is reduced to
unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with
other measurements. For example, 'if for a particular mea­
surement ’ the probable error of the mean is 0.10 m and the
most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the
relative precision (RP) would be expr^sed cs 0.10/235.50
or. 1/2355, also written as 1 :2355 .

•> 4„ We i g h t e d observations.

II is not always possible to obtain measurements of equal

i'-1 lability under similar conditions. Many surveying mea-
'•ur ernent n are'made under different circumstances and condi-
I)on- *ri(l ^irejreforn have different degrees of reliability.
The problem often encountered is how to combine these mea­
surements and determine the most probable values. For such
a situation it is necessary to estimate degree of re­
liability (or weight) for each of the measurements before
they are combined and th'e most probable values are deter­
mined .
The assignment of relative weight to different measure­
ments is usually based upon the judgment of the surveyor,
the numbe; of measurements taken for a particular quantity,
and by assuming that the weights are inversely proportion­
al to the square of the probable errors. Among experienced
surveyors,, the assignment of weights to observed values is
often a matteft: of judgment. In some instances weights are
assigned on the barsis of weather conditions' prevailing at
the time the measurements were made. A measured length ob­
tained on a bright early morning could be considered as
more reliable than one measured on a cold and rainy day.
This method of assigning weights will require good judgment
and can on],y be expected of more' experienced surveyors. In
the case of repeated measurements, if a quantity is mea­
sured, for example, in two repetitions by group A and in
four repetitions by group "B, then the measurement taken by
group B should be given twice the weight of the measurement
of group A. This means that the measurement of group ,B is
regarded as twice as reliable as that of group A. The as­
signment of weights i3 purely relative. For this stated
example, any weights in the ratio of 2 to 1 may be assigned
instead of 2 and 1,; For instance, the weights may be- 1 and
1/2) 4 and 2, or 16 and 8. *
• *
5-5. INTERRELATIONSHIP OF ERRORS.

In some instances it is required to determine how the final

result is affected when a computation involves quantities
that are subject to accidental errors. Two qommonly applied
principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of
errors and the,product of errors. These principles are gi­
ven to provid^ the student a better understanding of the
propagation of errors.

1. Summation of Errors. _If several measured quantities

are added, each of which is affected by accidental errors,
the probable1 error of the sum is given by the square root
of the sum of the squares of the separate probable errors
arising from the several sources or

PE, = + PEj + PEg + .... PE* Eq.(4)

Where: PES = 9 probable error of the.sum

* #
* PE(,PE2,erc =. probable error of »arh measurement

.46 IN TNOOUCTION
TO SUN V I r/NO
 - n = number of values added

2. Product of Errors. For a measured quantity which is

determined as the product of two other independently mea­
sured quantities such as Q ( and Q 2 (with their correspon­
ding probable errors), the probable error of the product is
given by the following equation
•

PEp* 1 ~\f(Qtx PE2)2 + (Q2x PE()2' ............ Eq.(5) •

Where: PEp = probable error of the product

Q(8 Q2 = measured quantities

PE(8 PE2 = probable error corresponding to each

quantity measured

5-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

/. PROBABLE ERROR. The following values were determined i n a

series of tape measurements of a line: 1000.58, 1000.40, 1000. 38,'1000
. 48 , 1000.40, and 1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a) Most probable value of the measured length -
b) Probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
c) Final expression for the most probable length
d) Relative precision of .the measurement
S o lu tio n :
a) n = 6 (number of observations)
*2X 3 X| + X2 + X3 + X4 + X5 + X6
= 1000.58 + 1000.40 + 1000.38 + 1000.48 + 1000.40 + 1000.46
* 6002.70 m
mpv or )? = 5X /n
6 002.70/6
1000.45 (most probable value of the measured length)

b) = (X, - X) *. 1000.58 - 1000.453 + 0.13

vl
V2 = (X? - X) 3 1000.40 - 1000.45=> - 0.05
v3 = ( X3 - X) 3 1000.38 - 1000.453 - 0.07
V4 = ( X 4 - X) = 1000.48 - 1000.453 + 0.03 t
V5 = ( X 5 - X) = 1000.40 - 1000.453 - 0.05
s (X6 - X) 3 1000.46 - 1000.45= + O . OI
v6
2V = 0.00

a (+ 0 . 13 ) 2 = 0 . 0 1 6 9
v,2 4 ' =(+0 .0 3 )2 3 0 .0 0 0 9
4 3 ( - 0 . 0 5 )2 3 0 . 0 0 2 5 V5 = -0 .0 5 )2 3 0 .0 0 2 5
(
■ ( - 0 . 0 7 )2 3 0 0 0 4 9 (+ 0 . 0 I ) 2 3 0 . 0 0 0 1
4
tn<N
tvHJtHTI** 47 ,

b.
 2 2 2 2 2 2
2E V 3 V[ + V* .♦ V, + V4 + Vg ♦ Vg
= 0.0169 + 0.0025 + 0 .004 9 + 0.0009 + 0.0025 + 0 .0 0 0 1
S* 0.0278
T a b u la ted S o lu tio n :

M EASURED R ESID U A L 3 Q OF R E S ID U A L
LENGTH (v *X -X J (v Z)
(X )

. 1 0 0 0 .5 8 m + 0 .1 3 0 .0 1 6 9
1 0 0 0 .4 0 - 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 2 5
1 0 0 0 .3 8 - 0 .0 7 0. 0049
1 0 0 0 .4 8 + 0 .0 3 0. 0009
1 0 0 0 ,4 0 - 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 2 5
1 0 0 0 .4 6 + 0 .0 ! 0 .0 0 0 1

5V2 = 0. 0 2 7 8
hi
2 X =6 0 0 2 . 7 0
o
O
O
>
ii

0.0278
PE, . ± 0 . 6 7 4 * ^ * % = ±0. 67 45 ^ r t f
= ± 0 .0 5 m (probable error of a single measurement)

0278
PEm= ±0.6745TjK1| i b - fy -= +
7 ,0.6745 ^ ( 6 -TT
- ±0.02 rn (probable error of the jnean)

c) Therefore The length of the measured,..line may be expressed as 1000

. 45 m t 0.02 m. This means that there is a 50 percent chance that the tru«
distance measured probably falls between 1000.43m and 1000.47m, and
that its most probable value is 1000.45m. There is also, however; a 50
percent chance that the true distance lies outside this range.
d) RPS - PEs /mpv 0.05/1000.45
= 1/20,000 (the r e l a t i v e p r e c is io n of a single m e a su re m e n t)

RPm = PE^/mpv - 0.02/1000.45

/So,000 (the relative^ prec isio n of the m ean)

2 . W EIG H T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S . Four measurements of a distance were

recorded as 2 8 4 . 1 8 , 2 8 4 . 19, 284.22, and 2 84 . 2 0 meters artd given weights
of I, 3, 2, and 4, respectively. Determine the weighted mean.

MEASURED A S S IG N E D
LENGTH W E IG H T P =* X ( W )
(X ) (W)
2 8 4 . 18 m 1 2 8 4 .1 8
2 8 4 .1 9 3 8 5 2 .5 7
2 8 4 .2 2 * 2 5 6 8 .4 4
2 8 4 .2 0 4 1 1 3 6 .8 0
Sums • 2 W = 10 S P s 2 8 4 1 .9 9

SP 2841.99 (m ost probable value i

Weighted Mean = 284.20 m the dista n ce measured
5W 10

48 IN T R O D U C T IO N
TO S U H V t TINU
 3.WEIGHTEDMEASUREMENTS. It is desired to determine tire most pro-
, bable value of an angle which has been measured at different times by dif-,
ferent observers with equal uare. The values Observed were as follows: 7 4 °
5 9 * 4 5 " (in two measurements), 7 4 ° 3 9 , 2 7 " (in four measurements )* and 7 4 * 3 9 *
35" (in six measurements).

M EASURED NO. OF P R O D U C T OF
VALUES O BSERVATION S T H E TW O Q U A N T I T I E S
7 4 *3 9 '4 3 " 2 1 4 9 * 1 9 '3 0 "
7 4 * 3 9 12 7 1' 4 2 9 8 * 3 7 '4 8 *' ,
7 4 *3 9 '3 5 " 6 447*37*30"

Sums 12 89 3*54 ' 48"

8 9 5 * 5 4 '4 8 "
Weighted Mean
12
7 4 ° 3 9 '3 4 M {most probable value of the angle m easured)

4. WEIGHTEDMEASUREMENTS. Lines of levels to establish the elevation

of a point are run over four different routes. The observed elevations of the
point with probable errors are given below. Determine fhe most probable valu
of the elevation of the point.

OBSERVED PRO BABLE R E L A T IV E

L IN E E L E V A T IO N ERROR (E )2 w 3- 4 W EIG H T P= E L E V I R W )
CELEV) (E ) (E r (R W )

1 21 9 . 8 3 2 m 1 0 . 0 0 6 m 0.00 00 36 27778 1 6 .0 0 3 5 1 7 .3 1 2
2 219. 930 + 0 012 0 .0 0 0 1 4 4 6944 4 .0 0 • 879. 720
3 21 9 . 7 0 1 + 0 .0 1 8 0 .0 0 0 3 2 4 3086 1 .78 3 9 1 .0 6 8
4 2 2 0 . 02 1 + 0 .0 2 4 0 .0 0 0 5 7 6 17 36 1.00 22 0.02 1
Su ms 2 2 .7 8 5 0 0 8 .1 2 1

Note: A re la tiv e weight equal to 1.00 is assign ed to line 4 sin ce it has

the sm a lle st weight (W ), and the re la tiv e weights o f tines 1, 2 , and 3
are computed as fo llo w s :’
RW, = w,/w4 = 2 7 7 7 8 / 1736 = 16.00
RW2 ■ w2/w4 = 6 9 4 4 / 1 7 3 6 * 4.00
rw3 = w3/w4 3 3086/11736 = 1.78
2(P) 5008. 121
Weighted Mean c
2(RW) = 22.78
3 2 1 9 . 8 4 7 m (th « most probab!« valu«* of fhe elevation of the
point)

WEIGHTEDMEASUREMENTS. The length of a line was measured re­

peatedly on three different occasions and the probable error of each mean
value was computed with the following results:
1st Set of Measurements = 1201.50+0.02m
2nd Set of fyleasur ements = 1201.45 + 0.04 m
3rd Set of Measurements = 1201.62+ 0.05 m
Determine the weighted mean of the three sets of measurements.

i4tNoouin
A/
ns
oe
w «>*-••(49
 MEASURED PROBABLE 2 R E LA T IV E
MEASUREMENT VALUE ERROR (E ) WEIGHT psX(RW)
IX) (E) (E r (RW)
a 1201.50 m t O . 02 0.0004 2500 6.25 7509.38
b 1201.45 t 0 .0 4 0.0016 625 1,56 1874.26
c 120). 62 t 0.0 5 0.0025 400 1.00 1201.62
Sums 8.61 1058526
N ote: A re la tiv e weight eqifal to LOO is assigned to measurement c since
it has the sm a lle st weight (W ), and the re la tiv e weights o f a and b are corn
puted as fo llo w s:

RWa = Wa/Wc = 2 5 0 0 / 4 0 0 = 6.25

RWb = Wb/Wc = . 6 2 5 / 4 0 b = 1.56
Weighted Mean = 2{P)/(RW) = 10585.26/8.8!
' = ! 201.51 m (most probable value of the line measured)

6 . S U M M A T IO N OF E R R O R S . The three sides of a triangular-shaped tract

of land is given by the following measurements and corresponding probable
errors: a = 162.54+ 0.03 m, b = 2 3 4 . 2 6 ± 0.05m, ahd c - 195.70 +0.04 m.
Determine the probable error of the sum and the most probable value of
the perimeter.
PER = a + b + c = 162*54 t 2 3 4 .2 6 + 195.70
= 592.50 m 1
(pe r i met er of ths t r a c t of land)

PES= + ^ J( P Eir + (PE2f + (PE3)‘

F

= + "\j(0.03)2 + (Q.05)2 + (0.04)2'

= + 0.07 m (probable error for the sum of the thr ee measurements)

Note: Th erefore, the p erim eter would be exp re ssed as 5 9 2 .5 0 10.07m . This
means that the true length of the perim eter probably fa lls between 592.43/r,
and 5 9 2 .5 7 m . 1
The two sides of a rectangular lot we re mea*
7 , F R O D U C T Ofc E R R O R S .
sureu with certafti estimated probable errors as follows: W = 253.36t0.06m
and L = 624.15 + 0.08 m. Determine the area of the lot and the probable
error in the resulting calculation.
Area = L x W = 624.15 (253.36)
= 158134.64 sqm (ar ea of the re c t a n c u l a r lot)

PEp = + i ( L x P E W)2 + (W x P E , ) 2 '

= ± \ ( 6 2 4 . 15 x 0 . 0 6 ) 2 + ( 2 5 3 . 3 6 X 0 . 0 8 ) 2
= + 4 2 . 5 8 sq m (probable error of the cal c ul at ed a r e a )

N oth; Th erefo re, the area of the tot would be exp re sse d as / 9 8 / 3 4 .6 4
± 4 2 .5 8 sq m. This means that the true area of the lot probably fa lls bet­
ween 15 8 0 9 2 .0 6 -sq m end 15 8 17 7 . 2 2 sq m.

50,
MEASUREMENT OF
HORIZONTAL
Pavt
DISTANCES
Lesson Nos.
1 1 ; 6 *u
T f ii 1 1

___
MEASUREMENT
OF HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
6 I. MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCE
6-1. DISTANCE BV PACING
6-5. DISTANCE BV TAPING
4-4. DISTANCE BV TACHVMETRV
1. Stadia Method
1. Subtense Boa Method
65. DISTANCE BV GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS
6-6. DISTANCE BV MECHANICAL DEVICES
1. OdoweteA
Z. MeasuAlng Wheel
. 3. Optical Range£lndeA
6-7. DISTANCE BV PHOTOGRAMKETRy
6-8. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Distance By Pacing
Z. Distance By Pacing
3. Distance By Stadia
4
. Distance By Subtense Boa
5. Distance By Subtense Boa

48 4
M E $V £ tte M T i>r
tY W Z S r tr .H . DiST # C £ $
53
6-1. MEASUREMENT OP DISTANCE.

The accurate determination of the distance between two

points on any surface is one of the basic operations of
plane surveying. Such linear measurements arte understood to
mean the horizontal distance. If the)points are at diffe­
rent elevations, the distance is the horizontal ,length bet­
ween plumb lines at the points. In many instances measure­
ments are taken along an inclined line. These distances,
however, are subsequently reduced to their equivalent on
the horizontal projection for use.
There are several methods of determining distance. The
choice depends on the purpose for which the measurement is
intended, the required precision, the cost, and other con­
ditions. In surveying, the commonly employed methods of
linear measurement include pacing, taping, tachymetric,
graphical, mathematical, mechanical, photogrammetric, and
electronic distance measurement. In some instances, a sur­
veyor may find occasion to employ a combination of methods
to advantage. 1

6-2. DISTANCE BY PACING.

Pacing consists of counting the number of steps or paces in

a required distance. A pace is defined as the length of a
step in walking. It may be measured from heel to heel or
from toe to toe (Fig. 6-1). In surveying, pacing means
moving with measured steps; and if the steps are counted,
distances can be determined if the length of a step is
known'. Counting strides instead of paces is sometimes pre­
ferred by surveyors.. A stride is equivalent to two paces or
a double step. Because of its*many practical applications,
it is one of the most valuable things learned in surveying..
<
Fig. 6-1. The pace and the tViide. . .

taken by other' methods. It is suitable in determining ap

proximate distances in situations where a low precision of
tit%*uNt'MiNr o r
vM H O H U O N T A i P I S TANCM#
 measurement is sufficient. Distances by pacing are suff^tM?
ciently accurate for small-scale mapping/ for locating
details and traversing with the plane table, and m recon­
naissance surveys. It is also-used for manyr purposes in
geology* forestry, engineering, and” agriculture. Und^r**
average conditions, a good pacer will have little diffi--.^
culty in pacing distances with a relative precision of
1/200. Results could be attained within 1 per cent of
accurately measured distances. Unless a mistake has been ,
made in counting, it will seldom be more than 3 percent
in error. -. y / /
To pace a distance it is necessary to first determine
the length of one’s pace. This is referred to as the pac«
factor. There are two methods that can be used to calib­
rate one’s pace. One. method is to determine the average
length of an individual’s normal step. The other method is
to adjust one’s pace to some predetermined length, such as
1 meter. •
The length of a pace varies with different personb.
This can be determined by walking along a line of k^own
length on-level ground at a uniform gait, and counting the
number of paces it takes to negotiate the stretch. The last
pace is estimated to the nearest quarter pace. It is advi­
sable tc do this in at least five or more trials in order
l.o determine the average number of paces. The pace factor
is then determined by dividing the known distance by the
average number of paces, required to traverse it. It is
expressed in meters per pace. Any unknown distance may then
be approximately calculated by determining the number of
paces (preferably the average) one takes to negotiate it
and'multiplying this by one’s pace, factor.
It is important to walk naturally when calibfating
one’s pace and in pacing distances. Care should be taken to
walk along a straight line. A slight deviation to the left
or right of the line will definitely affect the accuracy of
pacing. Also, an attempt to make each step a predetermined
length is tiring and will only give less accurate results.
The length of a pace will vary with the speed of pacing,
Ihe roughness of the ground, the weight of clothing and
ilioes used, fatigue on the part of- the pacer, the ^,lope of
the terrain, as well as the age and sex of the individual.
The pace will also differ when going uphill or downhill,
i’.icing downhill will produce fewer steps than pacing the
•une distance uphill. In general, the length of the pace
decreases as any of these factors increases, except the
m peed .
I! the distance to be paced is quite long, it is advi-
•«b 1e t.o bring along a mechanical counter for recording the
number of paces taken! Adevice, called a pedometer, may be
hind carried to register the number of paces. Another^de-
vlce used is the passometer which is strapped to the leg of
the pacer . This device wi II register a pace by impact each
I line ulthoi loot touches ll«e qiouud.
6-3. DISTANCE BY TAPING.

The use of a graduated tape is probably the most common’

method of measuring or laying out horizontal distances. .
Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between two
points and reading the distance indicated on the tape. It
is a form of .a direct measurement which is widely u^ed' in
the construction of buildings, dams, bridges, canals, and
many other’ engineering as well as non-engineering' activi­
ties-. \ •
The 'technique used in measurement and the precautions
taken will define the degree of refinement with whioh tape
measurements can be made. Taping may vary from a relative
precision of about 1:1000 to 1:25000 or better.
Calibrated ropes, cords, and lines were used by sur­
veyors for many centuries. The use of the steel tape only
came about*during the beginning of the twentieth century.
Before the advent of the steel tape, the chain was used for
linear measurements. A cursory look at very old American
and British deeds and plots will reveal distances measured
with the chain. A surveyor might very well see a distance
indicated as 13 ch 18.5 Iks or 13.185 ch. The procedure of
measurement was then called "chaining," a term carried-over
from the time when the Gunter’s chain was introduced in the
early 1600s/ The term has apparently survived such that it
still continues to be associated with the operation of mea­
suring lines with tapes. The persons undertaking measure­
ment were then referred
f
to as
N
chainmen. *

6-4. DISTANCE BY TACHYMETRY. v

Tachymetry (or tacheometry) is another procedure of obtain­
ing horizontal distances. It is based on the optical geo­
metry of the instruments employed and is an indirect method
of measurement. A transit or a theodolite is used to deter­
mine subtended intervals and angles on a graduated rod or
scale from which distances are computed by trigonometry.
Tachymetric measurements are performed either by the stadia
method or the subtense bar method.

1. Stadia Method. This method provides a rapid means of

determining horizontal distances. It was introduced in_1771
by James Watt of Scotland and was at that time referred To
as a micrometer for measuring distances. The precision of
the stadia method depends upon the following factors: the
refinement with which the instrument was manufactured, the
skill of the observer, the length of measurement, and the
"effects 6f refraction and parallax. Horizontal distances
determined by this method*will yield a relative precision
of only between 1/300 and 1/1000. This, apparently, doen
not conform to the usual precision required in running
lines for most engineering. surveys. Because of its .low pre­
cision, it is mostly used in topographic or reconnaissance

U C ASU N f M f N T O f
HO HU O NTAi IH X lA M C t*
 *■ '» •■
surveys.- It is also employed for checking me as ureme n^'s
obtained by more precise methods. .* i'
The equipment for stadia measurements, consists of a
telescope with two horizontal hairs called stadia hairs and
a graduated rod called a stadia rod. The telescopes of most
surveying instruments are equipped with stadia hair's which
are placed ata equal distance on either side of*the horizon­
tal cross hair. The Spacing of the stadia hairs is so de­
signed that at a distance of 100 meters their intercept on
a vertical rod will be about 1 meter. At 200 meters, then,
the intercept should be about 2 meters, and so on. It is
important that the line of sight is horizontal and it in­
tersects the rod at right angles. *
The process of taking a stadia measurement consists in
observing through the. telescope the apparent locations of
the two stadia hairs on a vertically held rod. From the ob­
served interval read on the rod, the distance.from the te­
lescope to the rod ,is found by proportional relationships
in similar triajigles. The equation D = Ks + C is employed

vr v/hi 97,
tU*14*1it
 in computing horizontal distances from stadia ♦Intervals
when sights are horizontal. The stadia constant C is the
distance from the center of the instrument to the principal
focus. Its value is. usually equal to zero for internal fo­
cusing < telescopes- K is the stadia interval factor of the
instrument. . Most instruments are so designed' that this
value is made equal to 100. The stadia interval, s, *is de^-
tetmined in the field by observing the difference 'between
the upper stadia haii; reading and the lower stadia hair
reading. ; >i
2. Subtense Bar Method. The subtende bar is a conve
• nient and practical device used for*quick and accurate mea­
surement of horizontal distances. The bar (Fig*. 6-2)., which
is precisely 2 meters long, consists of a rounded stfeel
tube through which runs a tpin invar rod. At each end of
the frame the target marks are housed. It is mounted hori­
zontally’ on a tripod and placed perpendicular to the line
ofsight by means of a sighting device on top of the bar.
The procedure for determining the distance between two
points consists of s.etcing up the subtense bar at the dis­
tant station, and measuring the horizontal angle subtended
by the distance between the two targets. A theodolite, set
.up at the other end of the line to be measured, is used in
measuring the sUbtqnding angle. „ *

Fig. 6-3. VKinniplii. oh Aubtejua mfui&iuejtiejU.

Figure 6-3 shows a plan view of d typical subtense mea­

surement. Since the bar is set up perpendicular to the line
of sight, the horizontal distance is determined from the
relationship
c/p > S/?
Tan(cC/2) = - q- and D = TaM oC/ Z )' since S = 2.00m
D = !/ Tan (cCV2) - Cot(cC/2)
Where D is the horizontal distance and oC is the angle
subtended by the targets.
At f A A ttftt Nt <V
se
 The subtense bar method has an added advantage in that
the horizontal distance is obtained, directly and no slope
correction is required. This is because the subtended angle
is measured in a horizontal plane and therefore independent
of the slope of the line of sight. ^
Tables are usually furnished by manufacturers of sub­
tense equipment to simplify the determination of distances.
Such tables give distances (in meters) Corresponding to ta­
bulated minutes and seconds of subtended angles. The accu­
racy of the subtense methbd depends mainly upon the preci­
sion with which the subtending angle is measured. For
sights of about 150 m or less and using a 1 sec theodolite,
a relative precision of 1/3000 can easily be obtained. When
the measured length is farther increased, the accuracy cor­
respondingly diminishes. This can, however, be offset by
repeated angular measurement, or taking readings from both
ends of the line and determining the average.
The subtense bar method is often used in obtaining dis­
tances over very rough or inaccessible terrain such as
across canyons, Wide rivers, ravines, and even across busy
city streets.

b 5. DISTANCE BY GRAPHICAL AND MATHEMATICAL METHODS.

My graphical or mathematical methods, unknown distances may

he determined through their relationship witj&kjjsnoWn dis­
tances geometrically. These methods are widely employed in
plane table surveys, and in triangulation work!. Determining
distances by scaling from maps or aerial photographs could
also provi'de sufficiently accurate results. However, before
m y distances are determined, the scale must first be es­
tablished. Most maps and photo scales, are defined by the
iclationship with which the distance between any two points
mi trie pap or photograph bears to the corresponding dis-
lance on the ground.
The determination of lengths of the sides of a horizon-
i (1 control system such as in triangulation and trilatera-
I Ion involves geometric and trigonometric relationships.
Mince long distances are involved and most are over inac­
cessible terrain, this method becomes quite practical to
nmploy.

b b. DISTANCE BY MECHANICAL DEVICES.

Tlicrc are a* few. mechanical devices which could also be em­
ployed for the measurement of distances. These devices,-
however, are only applicable for low precision surveys or
whore quick measurements are desired. The more commonly
<f.ed among tftese devices include the odometer, measuring
wheel, and the opfcic*al rangefinder.

1. Odometer. *Vhe odometer i:. a simple device that can

he atl uhed to*a*wheei let purposes of roughly measuring

vt#*f4
iWtI t141 H*
I*ivNrtt
WM im9
surface distances. The wheel is rolled over the, distance to
be measured and the number of revolutions of the wheel is
directly registered by the device. Since the circumference
of the wheel is knoWn, the relationship between revolution
and distance could then be established. It is similar in
function to the distance recorder of a vehicle speedometer.
An odometer only gives surface distances. There is a
need to reduce measured distances to equivalent horizontal
distances especially when steep slopes or rugged terrain
are involved, Distances measured by an odometer are suita­
ble for route location surveys, preliminary surveys, small-
scale mapping*, for performing quick checks on other mea­
surements, and when pacing would take a longer time to ac­
complish. On fairly level terrain the odometer may be
expected to provide a precision of about 1/200. The preci­
sion of odometer 'measurements depends largely on the to­
pography of the terrain since the wheel follows surface
irregularities and undulations. It will be expected that a
recorded distance would be greater than the actual hori­
zontal distance.
2. Measuring Wheel. A measuring Wheel is very similar
in operation to an odometer except that it is a more porta­
ble and self-contained measuring device. It basically
consists of a small wheel which is attached to a rod and
handle, and can be pushed by an operator. As the wheel of
the device is rolled along a line to be measured, a built-
in calibrated recorder automatically gives a distance read­
out in meters and decimals of a meter. The measuring wheel
is suitable for measuring distances along irregular or
curved lines and boundaries.
3. Optical Rangefinder. An optical rangefinder (Fig. 6-
4) operates on the same principle as a rangefinder on a
single-lens reflex camera. This device, which is usually
hand-held or mounted on a small tripod, can be used to
determine distances approximately simply by focusing. . In
4
F ig . 6-4. A -matt "Wild" Aangeiinde*.

using the device, the operator looks through the eyepiece

and sights a distant object such as a flag or range pole
which defines the other end of a line to be measured. The
object is then brought into a sharp focus by a focusing
knob. When the split image, as seen through the eyepiece,

M t AMOHt m i m or
60
is brought into coincidence (Fig. 6~5n|, the corresponding
distance is then read on a graduated scale on the range-
finder.
For distances less than 500 meters the optical range,-!
finder is capable of providing a precision of about l/50„
The obtainable precision correspondingly diminishes as tns
length increases beyond its effective range. Such devices
are suitable for dse in field sketching, reconnaissance'
surveys, plane table work, or in checking measurements ob­
tained by more precise methods.

fc--7. DISTANCE BY PHOTOGRAMMBTRY. *

The term photogrammetry jrefers fo the measurement of images

<>n a photograph. The type of photographs used are those
i iken from an aircraft *with tha axis of the camera pointed
vertically towards the terrain photographed. When very pre-
< lise cameras and photogrammetric equipment are used, dis­
tances can be measured on photographs with a precision of
«hout 1/3000 to' 1/5000. s . , ',

l» «. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. DISTANCE B Y PACING. A 45 - m course, AB, on level ground
was paced by a surveyor fpr the purpose of determining his pace factor.
I ho number of paces for each trial taken are shown in the accompany­
ing tabulation.
Hi Q U IR E M E N T S . •
<0 Determine hiS pace factor.
b) If >he surveyor then took 77 1 , 7 7 0 , 7 6 8 , 7 7 0 , 7 7 2 , and 769 paces
In walking* an unknown distance CD, what is the: length of the line?
<) Assuming that the taped* length of line CD is 6 6 7 . 0*m , determine
the relative precision of the measurement performed.
jur A\UHi ur * r o r
OtftlON1At lUMAMl/'. 61
 PACINO DATA
T R IA L L IN E . TA P ED D I3 T NO. O F P A C E S M EAN

1 AB 50
2 BA 53
3 AB I si
52
4 5 .0
4 BA *53
5 *AB 52
6 BA 53

S o lu tio n :,.
' f9
a) Determining Pace Factor.
L = 45 m (length of line AB)
• •
* n( “ 6 (number of trials taken on line AB)

Sum, = (50 + 53 + 51 + 53 + 52 + 53) = 312 paces

M,= S u m, / n , s 3 1 2 / 6 • .>
= 52 paces (mean number of paces ’to walk line AB)

' # PF = L/M, = 45 m / 5 2 paces

= 0.865 m/pace (pace f pc for of surveyor)
i*
b) Determining Unknown Distance;
n2 = 6 (number of trials taken on line CD)

Sum2 = (771 770 + 76 8 + 770 + 77 2 + 769)

= 4 6 2 0 paces
M2 = Sum2/ n 2 = 4 6 2 0 / 6
= 770 pa c es . (mean number of paces to walk line CD)

PD = M2 (P F )
= 770 paces.CO.8’65 m / p a c e )
= 666. I m (paced length of line CD)

Determ ining Relative Precision.

TP = 667.0 m (taped distance)

Pfi> - 666.1 m
•
(paced distance)

RP = (TD - PD)/TD = ( 6 6 7 . 0 - 6 6 6 . | . ) / 6 6 7 . 0
= 0.9/667.0 ‘
.i = 1/741 say 1 / 7 0 0 (relative precision of the measurement)
f . DISTANCE B Y PACINO, In five trials of walking along a 90-m
course on fairly level ground, a pacer for a survey party counted 51,52.5,
51.5, 52,5, and 51.5 strides respectively. He then started walking an un­
known, distance XY in four trials which were recorded as follows; 88.5,
8 9 , 8 8 , and 87 strides. Determine the following;’
- *
a) Pace factor of the pacer.
b) Length of line XY.
 c) Percentage of error in the measurement if the taped length of XY is
150.5 meters. '
S o lu tio n : ■
a) Determining Pace Factor.
•; t ■ * . r
L = 90 .0 m ( l en g t h of course)

5 (number of t r i o l s taken)
‘ Sum| = (51 + 5 2 . 5 + 51.5 -P 5 2 .5 + 5 1 .5 )
259 strides or 5 18 paces
M| = Sunrij/nj = 5 1 8 / 5
= 10 3.6 paces (mean number of paces to walk the. course)

PF = L / M , = 9 0 m / l 0 3 . 6 paces
= 0 . 8 6 9 m/pace (pace f a c t o r of p a c e r )
b) Determining Unknown Distance.

n2 = 4 (number of t r i a l s tGken on XY)

Sunri2 = ( 88. 5 + 89 \ 88 + 87)

- 3 5 2 . 5 strides or 705 paces
Mz = Sum2/ n 2 - 7 0 5 / 4
= 1 7 6 . 2 5 p ac e s (mean number of paces to walk line XY)
PD = M2 (PF) = I 7 6 .25 paces ( 0 . 8 6 9 m/pace)
= i5 3 . 2 m ( p a c e d l engt h of li ne XY)

o Determining Percentage of Error.

TD = 1 5 0 . 5 m (taped distance)
PD = 153.2 m (paced d i s t a n c e )
Percentage of Error = {— 1 0 0 % ) * ( 15Q,| ~ j.5 3 ' 2 ) ( I 0 0 % )
TD j 1 5 0 .0
= 1.79%

J. D IS T A N C E B Y S T A D IA . A stadia rod held at a distant point B is

sighted by an instrument set up at A. The upper and lower stadia hair read­
ings were observed as 1. 300m and 0. 900m, respectively. If the stadia i n-
•erval factor (K) is 100, and the instrument constant (C) is zero, determine the
length of line AB

D = Ks + C
= 100 (1.300 - 0.900) + 0.0
= 40. 0m (length of line AB)

4. D IS T A N C E B Y S U B T E N S E B A R . The following subtended(angles( were

read on. a 2 - m long subtense bar using a theodolite: 0° 54' l 3 " , 0 o2 2 ‘20",
0 ° 32 ' 06 " ,a nd 0° I 9 146". Compu te the horizontal distance from the theo­
dolite to each position of the bar.
D, * I /Tan (0° 54' 13*1/2) = 126. 8 1 m
D2 = I /Tan (0° 2 2 ' 20"/2) = 307.06 m

Uf ASVHtHf NT*or (2 "2

N iN lIX O N T A l O H T A N Q tS wm m mmmmtm w ^ )

I
 D3 * i / ton (0° 3 2 106"/2) * 2 1 4 . 19 m
D,4 - I /Tan (0® l 9 , 4 6 l,/2) = 347.83 m
• -
9
. DISTANCE BY SUBTENSE BAR. A subtense bar 2.000 meters lo n g
is set up near the middle of a traverse line PQ. Using a theodolite set
.up at P, the angle subtended reads 0 o20'l4\<When the theodolite was
transferred and set up at Q, the corresponding subtended angle was o b ­
served as 0®23'47 .' Determine the horizontal length of line PQ.1
F-igJ 6-6. Subtitiae. mexuiuemejtf o£ a tin e,.

D = D, + D2 = 339.81 + 289.09
= 628.90m * (horizontal Unflth of lino PQ)

64, U C A SV R euE U T OF
H O R I/O R T A L O IS T A R C C S *
MEASUREMENT
OF HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
7 -1 . ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
1. B asic VKi.wii.plii.
1. C la s s i f i c a t i o n
а) E te c U o -O p tic a l In stK im en ts
б) MicKoimve InstK um ents
3. Advantages and D isadvantages
4. Uses
5. OpeKating Ranges
7 2. GEODIMETER
73. TELLUROMETER
74. MEASURING TAPES
T. S t e e l Tape. 6. Fib'englass Tape
1. M e ta llic Tape. 7. W ises
3. N o n -H e ta tlic Tape 8. B uildeK ’s Tape
4. Invan Tape 9. PhosphoK-BKonze Tape
5. Lovan Tape 10. N ylon-C oated S t e e l Tape
TAPING ACCESSORIES . .;
1. Range Pole 7. Wooden S ta k e ok Hub
1. Tape Clamping Handles 8. LeatheK Thongs
3. C haining P ins 9. Hand L e v e l 6 C linoneteK
4. T e n s io n Handle 10. Tape RepaiK K it
5. Tape TheKmometen 11, CKayons%
.
6. Plumb Bob

Lesson 7

~JUNno&/r. CO
 7-1. ELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT.

The development of electronic distance measurement (EDM)

has provided a significant advance in ~s~GTveying'^Tnstruttien-r
tation and techniques. These electronic instruments allow a
rapid and accurate determination^ of linear distances,
horizontal and vertical angles suitable even for large
extent'surveys requiring higher orders of precision.

1. Basic Principle. Linear measurements, determined by

EDM instruments are based on the basic principle that the

r
\
time’required for a radio or light wave to travel from one
end of a line to the other is a function of the length mea­
sured (Fig. 7-1). An EDM method requires a very careful
measurement in determining the interval of time between
emission and reception of the transmitted wave. The product
of ' the velocity of the transmitted wave,and the elapsed
time defines the length of the line measured.
Reflector

Trace of
Modulafed/I
Light Beam

Fig. 7-1. T ypical ECU [EjU.ctno-Optical) conAigusutfion. t

2. Classification. Modern innovations and discbverien

in science, particularly electronics and physics/ led to
the development of electronic distance measuring instru­
ments which are now extremely valuable to the surveyor.
These instruments allow very precise and accurate measure
merits of distance which satisfy a host of applications i n
the field of surveying and engineering. A system of
classifying EDM instruments is by wavelength of transmitted
electromagnetic energy; the following are the two • catego

66
 ries:

a) Electro-Optical Instruments. These are the type

of instruments which transmit wavelengths within or slight­
ly beyond the' visible region of the spectrum. The eatlier
models used mercury of tungsten lamps and only had short
operating ranges especially at daytime because of. excessive
atmospheric scatter of this incoherent light. Also, these
models were no.t very portable; being bulky, they require a
larger power source.
The newer models now use modulated laser or infrared
light which permits measurements of longer distances even
during daytime. These models are much smaller in size and
are highly portable. Some models weigh less than 1 Kg and
could be mounted easily, on a theodolite. .The use of iRfra^-
red light as a source of radiation has gained wide accep­
tance since its intensity can be directly modulated. Also,
this has considerably simplified the use of EDM instru-*
ments, and allows extremely precise measurement1of angles
and distances within a single set up.
b) Microwave Instruments. This type of EDM instru­
ment transmits microwaves corresponding to wavelengths of
about 1.0 to 8.6 mm. Its measuring range is comparatively
long and can operate even during a drizzle or., fog. A mic­
rowave system consists of two identical units which basi­
cally includes a transmitter and a receiver. During mea­
surement, one unit functions in the "master'* mode, the
other in the "remote" mode. By simple switching, any unit
may be operated on either mode.
The accessories include an antennae and a built-in com­
munication system. An operator is needed at each end of
ihe line to be measured. Since a set of readings is taken
at either end while using the instrument in it's master
mode, it allows two independent measurements along a line
which serves as a valuable check.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages. When EDM instruments’
wore first introduced these devices were quite bulky and
ho,ivy, aside from being very expensive. Measuring pioce-
■lures then were lengthy and mathematical reductions to ob-
i.iin horizontal distances from observed values were diffi-
>ult and time consuming. None of these instruments was
designed to be used for simultaneously measuring the length
iud direction of a line.
The development of small light emitting diodes sometime
in 1965 greatly improved the design of earliet EDM instru­
ments. Light-wave instruments were* also further improved
when coherent laser light was incorporated into it. There
i no doubt that EDM instruments have revolutionized .many
surveying procedures and that chey have also gained accep-'i
i.Micro worldwide. The following are some of the significant
advantages of the newer models of EDM instruments:
V.
a) Speed and accuracy in measurement <
 f i g . 1 -la . K 6 E RcutgewtLdtex II

Fig. 7-26. K 6 E UirA^angeA I I Fig. 7-2c. lilitd VI20 ViAtowat and T hiodotiti

V___________________ _____
or
68 u ia s u h c n c h t
H O RIZON TAL h tS T A N C f)
 Fig. l-'ld . Topcon GTS-2 Fig. 7-Ze. VecVion V ig ita l
EizcJUonic. ViManc.<L MtX tx Su m tying InMnumint

Fig. 7-Z|(. Topc.on FT-1

l IvctAonic Total Station

A4
HOmnWtT
As
AiitHiCi
Ml
til
,v
ArNUol
r 69,

_
 b)
Lightweight and portable
c)
Low power requirement
d)
Easy to operate
e)
Ease in measurement over inaccessible terrain
f)
Applicable to the measurement of short and long
lengths
g) Automatically measures displays and records:
. slope range, azimuth, vertical angle, horizontal
distance, departure, and latitude
h) Slope measurements are internally reduced to
horizontal and vertical components by built-in
computers thereby eliminating the need to calcu­
late these values
i) Automatically accumulates and averages reading
for slope range, horizontal and vertical angles.
»
4. Uses. EDM instruments are now used for determining
linear measurements required in traversing, engineering
constructions, optical tooling, triangulation, trilatera-
tion, and various other tasks where precise measurements or
layouts are needed. They are extremely useful in measuring
distances over rough and rugged terrain which are difficult
to access, or where conventional taping methods would be
impractical.
5. Operating Ranges. The operating ranges of EDM ins­
truments vary significantly. They may be classified accor­
dingly as short, medium, or long range. When the measuring
capability does not exceed 25 km, the device may be classi­
fied into the short range; group. In this classification
most of the instruments are of the electro-optical type
although some use infrared light. Short range instruments
are usually mounted on theodolites. They are small, light­
weight, portable, and easy to operate. Such instruments are
highly suitable' for conventional surveying measurements and
are now widely used by surveyors, engineers, architects,
and, builders.
In the medium range group, EDM instruments,are' capable
of measuring lengths up to about 75 km. The instruments are
either the microwave or electro-optical (some using laser
light) type. These instruments are now frequently used in
precise geodetic measurements such as those required in the
establishment of control networks. They are also suitable
for land surveys and in engineering construction surveys.
Long range EDM instruments are employed in the measure
ment of lines longer than 75 km. Instruments in this group
operate by transmitting radio waves. There are also some
which employ ‘.tierowaves.’ They are used primarily in hydro
graphic surveys, for measurements required in oceanographic
work, as well as in navigation.

7-2. GEQDIMETEft.

The geodimeter is an acronym for geodetic distance meter

l_7r0v wwwitn HORIZONTALOtSTANCE

kt€ASUtten£NT or

__
It is an electro-optical device which was developed in .19 48
by Erik Bergstrand, a Swedish physicist. , The devipit-
resulted from attempts to improve methods for measuring the
velocity of light. The geodimeter, which is set up at one
station, projects a pulsating visible light beam to a
reflector (at another station) which returns the light to
the instrument. .Its -use..is based upon the known velocity of
licjht. The technology developed for this system makes
possible a comparison between the transmitted and reflected
light such that the time required for the light beam to
make* its return to the instrument is determined. In some
models, the maximum range varies from 5 to 10 km during
daytime and up to about 25 to 30 km at nightime.
The measurable range usually depends on atmospheric
conditions. The precision of measurement attainable is
about 1/200,000 of the distance. It is important’that the
stations are intervisible and that a clear line of sight
exists.

7-3. TELLUROMETER.

In 1957, Dr. T.L. Wadley of South Africa, announced his

invention of the tellurometer which was.to be the world's
second EDM instrument. The tellurometer utilized high
frequency microwave - transmission and was capable of
measuring distances up to 80 km day or night. It consisted
of two interchangeable 13-kg units, one being set-up on
each end. of the line to be measured. A series of radio
waves is transmitted by one of the units toward a receiver
set up* over the other end of the line. The impulses
generated during transmission are run through the circuitry
of the redeiving unit and are transmitted back to the
sending unit. Since distances are computed on the basis of
the velocity of radio waves, it requires an accurate
measurement of the total time taken by the impulse to
travel from one station to another and back. • The recorded
time is'indicated on the control panel-of the transmitting
unit.
It takes about 30 minutes to set up the tellurometer
and undertake a measurement. During measurement it must be
seen to it that the line of sight between the two stations
must be unobstructed. A distinct advantage of this
instrument is that observations can be made on rainy' days,
during a fog, or other unfavorable weather conditions. The
t.ellurometer system can be expected to attain a precision
of 1/300,000 under favorable conditions.

7-4. MEASURING TAPES.

Measuring tapes are made in a variety of lengths, mate-

r iuli, and weights. They are also graduated in several
ways. Graduation marks and numbers are either . etcfied,
■tamped, or printed on tin* tape. The following are some of
the commonly used types of measuring tapes:

1. S t e e l T a p e . A steel tape (Pig. 7-3), also known

•surveyor's or engineer’s tape, is made of a ribbon of steel
0.5 to 1.0 cm in width, and weighsO.8 to 1.5 kg per 30 me­
ters . Lengths of 10, 20, 30, 50, and 100 meters are,avail­
able*. The 30 -m tape is most common. Usually steel tapes are
wound on a reel, or done up in loops about 2 meters long to
make a figure 8. Steel tapes are designed for most conven­
tional measurements in surveying and engineering work.
F ig . 7-3.* S teel tape.
Revolving Lever
'■ »
Tape Reel

Tope

Wooden Handle

2. M e t a l l i c T a p e . Metallic tapes are sometimes called

woven tapes. They are made of water-proof linen fabric into
which are woven longitudinally small brass, copper, or
bron?e wires to increase its strength and reduce stretch­
ing. Metallic tapes are usually 30 or 50 meters long, 10 to
15»mm wide, and come in enclosed reels. It is used# princi­
pally fo« measuring short distances in locating details for
maps, earthwork cross sectioning, and for other measure­
ments where a light and flexible tape is desirable. This
type of tape is unsuitable for precise measurements and
should not be used around electrical installations.
3 . M o n -M e t a llic T a p e . Is a type of.tape woven from se­
lected . synthetic materials with strong dimensional stabi­
lity. The tape is in turn coated with a plastic material to
reduce the effects of moisture, humidity, and abrasion.
Mon-metallic tapes are safe to use when working around
electrical installations or for any type of wprk where a
metallic tape would be unsuitable.
4 . In v a r Ta p e . A special tape made of an alloy of
nickel (35%) and steel (65%) with a v e r y ‘low coefficient of
thermal expansion (1/30 to 1/60 that of a steel tape). Its
name was derived from the word "invariable" since it’ is
less affected by temperature changes than in a steel tape.

lZE j
 Invar* tapes are . used only for prefcise measurements in
geodetic work and for checking the length of other kinds of
tape. They are about ten times as expensive as ordinary
steel tapes. The use of invar tapes will require very care­
ful handling since the alloy is soft and somewhat unstable.
It- is a kind of tape which gets easily bent and damaged.
5. Lovar Tape. A newer type of measuring tape Which has
properties and costs somewhere between those of conventio­
nal steel tapes and the invar tape.
S. Fiberglass Tape. This tape is made by weaving fiber­
glass- in a longitudinal and. transverse pattern. They are
strong and flexible and will not shrink or stretch appre­
ciably with .changes in temperature and humidity. A fiber­
glass tape is best suited for use in the vicinity of elec­
trical equipment.
7.- Mires. Before thin flat steel.tapes were produced,
wires were utilized in measuring lengths. They are still
practical to use in. special cases as in hydrographic
surveys. ^ ,
3. Builder's Tape. Are tapes having smaller cross sec-
ions and are lighter i.n weight »than the engineer's tape.
Such tapes are graduated to suit commonly used dimensions
in building construction.
9. Phosphor-Bronze Tape. A rust-proof tape designed for
use in the vicinity of salt water.
10. Nylon-coated Steel.Tape. Is a flexible crack-resis-
1ant steel core tape with a coating of permanently bonded
non-conducting nylon. It is designed to be resistant to
.orrosion and is immune to rust.

7-5. TAPING ACCESSORIES.

The following are the different accessories used in taping

work.1
2

1. Range Pole. Range poles (Fig. 7-4a), which are also

known as flags or lining rods, are used cis temporary
signals to indicate the location of points or the direction
"t lines, and to mark alignment. They are either circular,
hexagonal, or octagonal in cross section and with one end
pointed. The usual length used is 2.0 or 3.0 meters and it
any be-made of wood, metal, or fiberglass. Range poles are
marked or painted with alternate red and white sections 30
•*r 50 cm long*which can be used for approximate measure­
ments .
2. Tape Clamping Handles. With its scissor~£*ype handle,
tape clamps (Fig. 7-4b) are used to apply tension with a
quick grip ori any part of a steel tape without causing
<l.linage lo the tape or hands of the tapeman. A slight bend
or kink on the tape may result if a tape is held and pulled
without a clamp. Once produced, these kinks on the tape
cannot be easily straightened out.
t. Chaining Pins. Chaining pins (Fig. 7-4c) are. some-
 times called surveyor's arrows or taping pins. They are
stuck in the groundfto mark the ends of measured tape
lengthy or partial tape lengths,, and may* also be used 1 in
place of wdoden hubs or stakes. Host pins are made of heavy,
wire about 30 cm long, are pointed at one end, have a round
loop at the other end, and painted with alternate red and
white bands. Sets of eleven pins carried on a steel ring or
loop are standard. ,
4. Tension Handle: This device, which is also referred
to as a spring scale, is used at one end of a tape for in­
suring thexapplication of the correct amount of pull on the
tape during measurement. The spring balance is attached
between the handle and the tape, and a clip is fitted to
the. end ring 6f t^he tape. Tension handles (Fig. 7-4d) are
only used in precision taping. They are usually dispensed
with in measuring distances requiring ordinary precision.
. *5. Tape Thermometer. In precision taping, thermometers
are used to ..determine the temperature of the air and the
approximate temperature of the tape during measurement?
Those used in the field are about 10 to 15 cm long, and are
usually graduated from -30 degrees centigrade to +50 deg­
rees centigrade in 2-degree or 5-degree divisions. It is
fastened to the tape by means .of clips’(Fig. 7-4e) and-is
kept in a protective metal case when not in use.
6. Plumb. Bob. In taping, plumb bobs are used _for pro­
jecting the tape ends to the ground when the tape must be
suspended above the measured line. Plumb bobs (Fig. 7-$f)
used should weigh at least 0.25 kg and must be attached to
a 1.5-m long string or cord which is free of knots. They
are made of bronze with a pointed end which could be ‘un­
screwed for replacement. • 1 • -••
7. Wooden Stake or Hub. Stakes or hubs (Fig.7-4g) .are
made of 5 cm Jc 5 cm by 30 cm wood to mark points, corners,
or stations on the ground. These temporary markers *aie re­
quired in staking out a building or structure, running the
centerline of a proposed road, and in staking out any line
or grade. The top of the hub is usually, marked b£ ‘driving
a nail or tack into its center.
8. Leather Thongs. A leather thong (Fig*. 7-4h) is at­
tached to a ring located near the zero-meter mark of the
tape to provide a comfortable grip on the tape when measu­
ring. - r
9. Hand Level and Clinometer. The hand level and clino­
meter (Fig. 7-5) is usually a 15_cm long device which
consists of a'metal sighting tube with a level bubble. At
one end the tube has «a.peep sight opening for viewing a
sighted object. A horizontal line of sight is established
if the bubble is centered while sighting, through the tute.
It , is used to keep the tape ends at equal elevations when
measuring over rugged terrain, in approximately determining
difference in elevation of points, and in other field
oper.it ions where it is required to produce a level sigfct.
The clinometer is simply a hand level adapted for measuring
MtAvumtmrnror
P lg fA H ttt 7b
vertical angles, it vertical circle is added upon which
angles may be read. It gives the value of the slope in
terms of arc measure, percent grade, and rise (or fall) per
horizontal run. • * * -
F ig . 7-5. Hand LeveJ and cJ.lnome.tex.

L e v e l V ia l V o r t ic a l S e a l*
and V e rn ie r

Ey e p ie ce

.Clamp

10* Tape Repair Kit. A tape repair kit should be taken

along when ar> extensive taping operation is to be performed
at remote areas. These kits will allow emergency repairs to
be made on damaged or broken tapes. A kit usually contains
sleeve splices coated with solder and flux and are placed
over the two parts or ends of a broken tape. The splice is
hammered down and fastened with eyelets by m^ans of a
puncher and riveter which are also part of the kit.
11. Crayons. Marking crayons used in surveying are
usually lumber crayons. They are about 10 cm long, and are
hexagonal in cross section. Blue, yellow, arid red are the
predominantly used colors. If lumber crayons are not avail­
able, wh^te or colored chalk may be used as a substitute.
Crayons or chalk are used for marking points, corners or
stations by Indicating cross marks on paved., roads, side­
walks, or walls. -

,76 U £ A S U M H e N T ON
N O H IXO N TA I O t S r * N r f 9
MEASUREMENT
OF HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
8-1. COMPOSITION OF TAPING PARTY
. 1. Head Tapeman
2. . Rzc.ox.dZA
3. Flagman
4. Rear Tapeman
8-2. THE PROCEDURE OF TAPING
1. Aligning the. Tape.
2 . StAe.tcM.lng the. Tape.
3. Plumbing
4. Marking Full Tape. Lengths
5. Tallying Taped Measurements
6. Measuring Fractional Length*
8-3. BREAKING TAPE
8-4. SLOPE TAPING
8-5. CORRECTIONS IN TAPING
8-6. CORRECTION VUE TO INCORRECT TAPE LENGTH'
8-7. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Slope Taping
2. Slope Taping v
3. Slope Taping
4. Measurement* with Tape
5. Measurements with'Tape
6. Laying Out Dimensions with Tape

Lesson S
8-1. COMPOSITION OF TAPING PARTY.

Taping is the process of directly measuring distances with

th6 use of a graduated tape, When the measurement is*under­
taken in- fairly level ground in an open field, the taping
party usually consists of the following individuals:

1. Head Tapeman - the person responsible for the accu­

racy and speed of all linear measurements with the tape. He
'determines and directs the marking of points or stations,
orders the clearing out of obstructions along lines to be
measured, and is the person who carries the zero end of the
tape ahead. . I
2. Recorder - keeps a record of all measurements, sket­
ches, and observations taken during the process of measure­
ment. He also checks by pacing all measurements made by the
tapemen for possible errors, mistakes, and blunders.
3. Flagman - the person whose duty is to hold the range
pole (or flagpole) a't selected points. He also helps the
tapemen in making measurements and assists in clearing out
obstructions along the line to be measured.
, 4. Rear Tapeman - the person whose duty is to assist
the head tapeman during a taping operation. He is the one
who holds the 30-m end or any intermediate meter mark of
the tape during a measurement/

8-2. THE PROCEDURE OF TAPING.

The usual procedure in the taping of distances will involve

the process of aligning the tape, stretching it, plumbing
selected tape marks, marking and recording tape lengths.

1. Aligning the Tape. When a line is to be measured,

both ends must first be marked. It may also be necessary to
establishes few intermediate points to serve as guides in
obtaining a straight line. Range poles, held at both ends
of the line are used as markers and chaining pihs are stuck
to the ground to mark the intermediate points. The head
<tapeman hands over one chaining pin to the rear tapeman, he
then takes the zero end of the tape and moves forward in
the • general direction of the line to be measured. At the,
initial point the rear tapeman carefully unrolls t h e . tape
from its reel and sees to it that the tape is not looped or,
unduly twisted so as to cause kinks on the tape.
When the 30-m end of the tape comes up even with the
initial point, the rear tapeman calls out "stop". At this
command the lead tapeman halts and positions himself along
the line to be measured by vocal or hand signals from the
rear tapeman.
2. Stretching the Tape. With the 30-m mari. held at the
initial point, and the head tapeman aligned, the rear tape-
man calls out "all right" or "OK". The head tapeman ' takes
his position just to the left (or right) of the line,
7 0 M EA SU REM EN T OF
h o r iz o n t a l d is t a n c e s
 kneels, and pulls the tape taut. The tape may be held bet­
ween the fingers and the palm. He then sticks a chaining
pi.n> into the ground to mark the zero-meter end of the tape.
When the head tapeman sets his pin, the rear tapeman should
be holding his end of the tape precisely on the mark. .
A steady and firm pull, generally between 4 and 7 kg,
is applied on one end of the tape during stretching. No
measurement -should be made without stretching the tape
since tapes are correct in length only when a standard pull
is applied to it. If the tape is stretched less than the
required standard pull, all recorded measurements will turn
out to be "too short". The tape will correspondingly be
"too long" if the pull applied is greater than the standard
pull. To maintain a steady pull, the leather thongs at the
tape’s end should be wrapped comfortably around one hand. A
firm pull, could also be made by holding on to a chaining
pin slipped through the eye at the end of the tape, or by
using a tape clamp. An efficient method of communication
must continue to be established between the toipeman tc ob­
tain accurate results, save time, and avoid jerking the
tape .
3. Plumbing. When the. ground is covered by obstacles,
weeds, low brush, and irregularities in the ground surface,,
it will be difficult or impossible to lay the tape, on the
ground during measurement. Both ends of the tape should
instead be held above ground (about the level of the waist
or chest) and in a horizontal position. Also, each end of
tape is marked by positioning a plumb line (defined by a
plumb bob and string) held by both tapemen. When the point
is being plumbed over soft ground, the plumb bob *is dropped
and a pin is carefully set in the hole made by the plumb
bob point. If the length to be measured is less than a full
tape length, the head tapeman moves the plumb line to a
selected point on the tape where it can be stretched hori­
zontally, or over a specified or required ground mark.
When the tape is aligned, stretched, and. teady for mar­
king, the rear tapeman continues to hold a plumb line over
the fixed point while the head tapeman plumbs his end of
the line and marks it on the ground. A .firm stance is
important. The head tapeman should position the plane of
his body parallel to the tape, with his legs well spread
apart. His forearm should be in line with the tape, and he
should snug it comfortably against his body.-
During the measurement, it is important to determine if ’
the tape is held nearly horizontal. A hand level should be
used to check if the tape ends are held correctly at the
same elevation so as to obtain an accurate measurement. If
,i hand level is not available, the tape may be estimated to
be horizontal by eye. The task of determining if the tape
I.- held horizontal during measurement may be assigned to
the recorder.
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths. When a full tape length
Is measured the rear tapeman holds his end of the tape op-

UMMUiUM 79,
 posite the pin earlier set on the ground. The head tapemah,
after being lined-in properly, exerts the required pull oh
the tape, notes the zero end and sets’a pin beside it. The
chaining pin may be set vertically in the ground or given a
slant at right angles to the line measured. If the head
tapeman is satisfied that the measurement was done 'accor­
dingly, he signals that the point marked is acceptable. The
rear tapeman then picks up the rear pin set on the ground
and both tapeman move forward. The tape is dragged by the
head tapeman who comes to a stop after pacing an equivalent
tape length. This procedure is repeated until a partial
tape length is to be measured at the end of the line.
In some instances, taping would be done on a hard sur­
face such as a concrete or asphalt road, or on steel rails
along a railroad. Since pins could not be used, the end of
the tape is marked by using colored crayons (keels), chalk,
or paint. The number of tape lengths is recorded beside the
mark .to keep count of the number of full tape lengths mea­
sured.
5. Tallying Taped Measurements. At the initial point
the rear tapeman holds one pin.and the head tapeman begins
with ten pins carried on his steel ring. This is the reason
why a set of eleven pins is normally used during taping
operations; The first pin which the rear taperoan holds
indicates *that one tape length has already been measured,
and the total number of pins in his possession (not coun­
ting the pin still set in the ground) indicates the total
number of full tape lengths that have so far been measured.
When the head tapeman sets his last (11th) pin, a tally
is made. The rear tapeman, who by then accumulates ten
pins, brings these forward and hands it over to the head
tapeman. The same taping process is then continued. Thus,
the number of tallies indicates the number of tape lengths
which have been measured. If a 30-ra tape is used, each
tally of 10 pins means that 300 meters has so far been mea­
sured .«
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths. When the last segment
of the line is to be measured, this will often be a mea­
surement which will consist of a fractional ’tape length.
Upon reaching the end of the line, the head tapeman comes
*fcd ' a halt and the rear tapeman positions 'himself at the
last pin set. The rear tapeman holds the tape in such e
manner that a whole meter mark is aligned with and opposite
the pin. The terminal point should fall within the end
meter mark of the tape which is subdivided into smaller
graduations, usually in centimeters. After the correct pull
is applied, the head tapeman observes the numbei: of centi­
meters which extends beyond the terminal point *of the line
measured, while the rear tapeman observes the nuiriber of the
meter mark he is holding at his end of the tape. The number
of centimeters which the head tapeman observes is subtract­
ed from the meter reading which the rear tapeman observes
to obtain the measured fractional length. Since it is at
OA HEASVKEHEN T OF
IW V — — MU H O R IZ O N T A L D IS T A N C E S
this part of the measurement that mistakes in taping f re­
quently ogcur, tap'-men should exercise extreme care during
this particular measurement. >■ *

8-3. BRBAKING TAPE.

It is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above

ground and to plumb at one or both ends when taping on
sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. This requires the mea­
surement of shorter distances which are accumulated to to­
tal a full tape length.. The procedure is referred to as
"breaking tape".
In measuring down a slope, the zero end of the tape is
carried ahead. When the full tape length is stretched out,
the head tapeman lays the tape on the ground and returns up
the slope to pick up the tape at some meter mark which will
allow him to hold horizontally a convenient length between
himself and the rear tapeman. The tape is usually held ^t
about the level of the waist or chest. After the head tape-
man plumbs his end of the tape and marks its projection on
the ground, he drops the tape and proceeds down the slope
to hold the tape horizontally at some other convenient me­
ter mark. The rear tapeman also leaves his end of the tape
behind and moves forward to hold the meter mark earlier
held by the head tapeman. The proceiure is then repeated
for , a number of segments until the yhole tape length ' is
measured out. '

The technique used in breaking tape is illustrated in

Figure 8-1. As an example Of this operation, assume that
when the 307 m end of the tape is held at the initial point
(A), the head tapeman. can advance only 10 m and convenient­
ly hold the tape horizontally without having to plumb from
above his chest. A chaining pin is then set directly below
the corresponding 20-m mark. The head tapeman drop^ the
tape and proceeds down the slcpe while the rea* tapeman al­
so moves forward but leaves ;ehind the 30-m end cZ the tape
at he initial point. As the rear tapeman holds the 20-m
mark, the head tapeman selects another convenient tape
segment which he can hold horizontally and plumb, say, the
8-m mark.. Finally, with tin- 0 m mark held over the second
pin on the ground, the full 30-m length is marked at the
zero meter end (at B) of the tape.
ft will be noted that.the partially measured tape seg­
ments sum up to a full tape length or 30 meters, as shown
in the accompanying illustration. Although the procedure of
breaking tape'does not require any notekeeping or calcula­
tions, errors and mistakes are likely to occur. It is
usually difficult to maintain good alignment when breaking
tape.' There is a natural tendency to hold the down slope
end of the tape too low. The head tapeman is often unable
ta exert the correct amount of pull on the. tape and also
finds it difficult to drop a plumb line to mark, accurately
points on the ground. A strong wind often magnifies the
problem and may make accurate taping extremely difficult.
Taping down a slope\is often preferred than measuring
up a slope since the rear tapeman can hold his. end of the
tape steady on the ground while the other end is pulled and
plumbed by the head tapeman. When taping up a slope the
forward point may be set firmly on the ground but the other
end held by the rear tapeman somewhat wavers or is un­
steady . *
An alternate procedure to breaking tape is to measufe
only by a sequence of partial lengths where the tape can be
conveniently held horizontally. The measured segments,
which may be of equal or unequal lengths, are then added up
to determine the totaj. length of the line. In this particu­
lar procedure every horizontal segment measured needs to be
properly recorded and carefully added.

8-4..SLOPE TAPING. ■

Taped measurements may be made directly along the slopes

when the ground is of uniform inclination and fairly
smooth, ‘rather than break tape every few meters. This very
practical method is generally preferred since measurements
fcould be made quickly and more accurately than horizontal
measurements.
Fig. 6-2. Slope, toping.

* h (difference
in elevation)

(h o riz o n ta l d istan ce )

If the slope distance between the ends of a line is

M E A S U R E M E N T OE
32 H O RIZO N TAL D IS T A N C E 1
required, the procedure of taping is th*e same as oft l e v e l
ground. The measured slope distance is then reduced to its
corresponding horizontal distance by simple computations.
To perform the computations, either the difference in'ele-
vation between the two ends of the tape (or terminal points
of the line) or the angle of inclination of the slope mea-*-
surement must first be determined. The difference in eleva­
tion may be obtained by running a line of levels between
the terminal points. A clinometer, transit or theodolite
may be used to determine the angle of inclination.
In Pig. 8-2, if the angle oC is known, the horizontal
distance between points A and B can be computed from the
relation

d = sCosoC ..... ....... Eq. (I)

Where d Is the horizontal distance between the two points,

s is the measured slope length between the points, 'and cC '
is the angle of inclination from the horizontal.
If the difference in elevation, h , between the ends of
the line (or tape) is known, the horizontal distance is
computed using the following expression derived from the
Pythagorean theorem

d = is2 - t f . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . Eq.(2)

Long tapes, 50 to 150 meters in length, are suitable

for measuring along slopes. Some especially made tapes have
several extra centimeters of length graduated beyond the
normal end graduation. A slope angle is marked on each of
these extra graduations'. For example, when taping on a 15-
degree slope, the full tape length is horizontally obtained
by measuring the greater length to the 15-degree slope
mark.. When using this type of tape in slope measurements,
no horizontal correction need to be computed .for full tape
Lengths.
In slope taping, a check is made by measuring once'up
the slope and once down the slope. The average of the two
measurements is reduced to the equivalent’ horizontal dis­
tance and is taken as the final value of the, measured dis­
tance. To increase the accuracy of measurement it may be
necessary to measure the line in as many repetitions as
possible..

II-5. CORRECTIONS IN TAPING.

Taping operations could either be of the following: taping

to determine an unknown length, or taping fort the purpose
tit laying out a required or specified length. Regardless of
which of these two categories is involved, there arc some
•orrections which are applied to the original measurements
M t A SU N / M t N T O F
*
I At D ts l ANi. i 83,
to determine the correct and more accurate length.
Confections to taping are applied by the use of the
following rules:

1st RULE: When a line is measured with a tape that is

"too. long", the corrections are applied to the observed
length by adding.
2nd RULE: When a specified or required length is to., be
laid out with a tape that is "too long", the corrections
are subtracted from the known length to determine the cor­
rected length to be laid out.
3rd RULE:, When measuring or laying out lengths with a
tape that is "too short", the corrections are applied oppo­
site to those stated in the first two rules.
'i * iv;*
Considering these three rules, the student should note
carefully when a correction should be added or subtracted.
This should be given an important consideration especially
when the tape used proves to be in appreciable error from
the standard.
During the process of measurement with a tape which is
too long, a large enough' value could not be obtained such
that a positive correction is made. This means that if the
tape is too long, it will take fewer tape lengths to mea­
sure a distance than would be required for a shorter but
correct length of tape. These three r-ules could be easily
remembered by the following much shorter statement: "When
measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, sub­
tract. Do the reverse when laying out."'
The required degree of precision in taping will define
the- procedure of measurement, equipment and accessories to
be used, and the corrections to be considered. . The follo­
wing conditions which could exist during a taping opera­
tion may require the application of corrections.

1. The tape used is not of standard or 'nominal length

due to either faults in their manufacture, or damage caused
by kinks, bends, cuts, and splices on the tape.
. 2. Ends of the tape are not held at the same level when
"breaking ‘tape" along inclined or rough terrain surfaces,
or when undertaking slope taping.
3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight line
during the measurement of in laying out of lengths.
4. Tape is'pot of nominal length due to the difference
in temperature preyailing during the actual measurement and
the temperature for which the tape was standardized.
5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape dw« to the
application of a pull on its ends which differs signifi­
cantly from the pull applied on the tape during standardi­
zation .
6. Distance between the end points of an unsupported
length of tape is less than the specified nominal length
due to the effect of sag or a strong blowing side wind*.

p .A . •
t zzi . . sarssBHHsaHB
M E A S U R E M E N T OF
h o r iz o n t a l o t s t a n c e s
 •8-6. CORRECTION DUE TO INCORRECT TAPE'
• LENGTH.
■*• *• .‘
Manufacturers of assorted measuring tapes do not usually
guarantee their products to be exactly their correct
length. . They do hot provide a standardization certificate
unless requested, and this usually has to be paid an extra
amount. These tapes rarely corresponds exactly with its
specified nominal length since they may actually be
slightly shorter or, longer. This is often due to.imperfec­
tions in their manufacture, stretching, or wear. Also, due
•to constant use tapes become worn, kinked, and may be im­
properly repaired when breaks occur. The net result is that
tapes may vary by a few millimeters of centimeters from
their'correct lengths.
The absolute value for the correction per tape length
(Corr) is determined from the difference between the true
or actual length of tape (TL) and the nominal length of
tape (NL) or 1

C o rr = T L - NL . . . . . . . . . . *Eq.(3)

This discrepancy is normally assumed to be distributed uni­

formly throughout the tape and is directly proportional to
the fractional segment of the tape used. In Eq.' (3), when
the resulting difference is a positive value, the tape used
is too long; and is too short, if negative.
Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured
or laid out with a tape that is too long or too short can
be determined from the following equations

C. = Corr (■££=}....... Eq.(4)

1 NL
, CL = ML + C,...... Eq.(5) .
Where: * ■' ■ v <
■ ci = total correction io be applied to the measured. length or length
to be laid out
CL ~ corrected length of the line to be measured or laid ,out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out .•
NL = nominal length of tape •w

An incorrect length of tape introduces an error each

time the tape is used and is classified as a systematic er­
ror. It is therefore advisable to .periodically calibrate
tape lengths if accurate measurements are desired. When a
big number of measuring tapes is used, it is wise to have
at least one standardized tape that is kept only to check
the lengths ol the other tapes which are regularly employed
1n th<* field.
 8 -7 . IL U # * T R A V » V B P R O B L E M S ,

/. SLOPE TAPING. A m easurem ent is made along a line* th at is inclined

by a v e r t ic a l angle of r 5 * 2 $ '* a s m e asu re d using a han d le v e l and c lin o m e -
te r . The slope m easu rem en t is 7 5 6 . 5 2 ra W hat is the co rresp o n d in g h o r i­
zo n tal d i s t a n c e ?

■ 7 5 6 .5 2 m

d 3 sC o s oC • 7 5 6 . 5 2 Cos ( 1 5 * 2 5 ')
3 7 2 9 .3 0 m (equivalent horizontal length of the lino measured along
the slept)

E. SLOPE TAPING. A ho rizo n tal d ista n c e of 3 2 5 . 7 5 m is to be e s ta b ­

lish e d along a line th a t slo p e s at a v e r t ic a l angle of 1 3 * 0 6 ' . W hat slo p e
d is t a n c e should be la id out ?

d ** s C o s aC and
s 3 d / C o s oC 3 3 2 5 . 7 5 / C o s ( 1 3 * 0 6 ' )
3 3 3 4 .4 5 m (distanco to bo laid out along tho slope to obtain the re -
quirod horizontal distanco)

3
. SLOPE TAPING. ,A lin e X Y Z is m e a su re d on the slo p e in two s e g ­
m en ts. T h e f ir s t segm ent X Y m e a s u re s 8 2 4 .4 5 m and the second se g m e n t
Y Z m e a s u r e s 1 2 4 4 .3 8 m . I f the d if f e r e n c e in e le v a tio n betw een p d in ts.
X and Y is 4 . 2 5 m and th a t betw een Y and Z is 6 . 4 7 m , d e te r m in e the
h o rizo n tal length of the m e a su re d lin e .
F ig . t- 4 . Utcuuium txt o i *£ope t& .

Solution:
dj 3 ^ ( s ,’? - ( h ,) 2‘ 3 ^ 8 2 4 .4 5 ) ? - (4 .2 5 )^ '
" 8 2 4 .4 4 m (horizontal.length of segment XY)

d2 * ^(sg)2- (h2)2 ‘ - N d 2 4 4 .3 8 f - ( 6 .4 7 ^ ‘

i oii
c
■— — i<nMir*r«r
mmuomm. onor
romMo
 3 I2 4 * t .3 6 .. (horizontal length of segment YZJ

D - d, + d2 ■ 8 2 4 . 4 4 + 1 2 4 4 .3 6
* 2 0 6 8 .8 0 m (horizontal longth of lino XYZ)

4. MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE, T h e le n g th of a lin e AB m easu red

w ith a 5 0 - m tap e is 4 6 5 . 2 8 5 m. W hen th e tape is c o r r v jr e d w ith a
s ta n d a r d iz e d in v a r ta p e it 1s found to be 0 .0 1 6 m too lo n g in alm ost
th e sa m e c o n d itio n s of s u p p o r t , te n sio n , and tem p eratu re th a t e x is te d during
m easu rem en t, of th e lin e . D e te rm in e the c o r r e c t le n g th of .AB.
Given:
NL * 50 m (nominal or Indicated length of tape used)
ML - 4 6 5 .2 8 5 m (measured length of line AB)
C o rr * 0 .0 1 6 m (correction per tape length ,w lth tape being too long)

Solution: -
£l . C c rr(^ ) 3 0 .0 1 6 ( )
ML NL •
* 0 .1 4 9 m (total correction to be applied to measured length of
line AB)

CL 3 ML i C , 3 4 6 5 . 2 8 5 + 0 . 1 4 9
* 4 6 5 . 4 3 4 m (correct length of line AB)

Note: I
nmeasuring,whenthet
apeusedI sto ol on g ,t hec or recti o ni s
addedtoth
xmeasuredl e
ngt
htodeterminethec or r e ctl engt ho ft h et in e.
3. MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE, A r e c t a n g u la r lot w a s m e a s u re d
u sin g a 5 0 - m s te e l ta p e w.hich w a s fo u n d to be 0 . 0 2 5 m too s h o r t . If
the r e c o r d e d length an d w id th of the lo t a r e 1 8 0 . 4 5 5 m an d 127^ .062m ,
r e s p e c t iv e ly , d e te rm in e th e fo llo w in g :

a) A c t u a l d im e n s io n s of th e lo t .
b) E r r o r in a r e a in tro d u c e d due to the e r ro n e o u s le n g th o f ta p e .

Given:
NL 3 50 m (nominal length of tape used)
Corr * 0 .0 2 5 m (correction per tape length, with tape being too snort)
W 3 1 2 7 .0 6 2 m (measured width of lo t)
. L 3 1 8 0 .4 5 5 m (measured length of lo t)

Solution:
u) D e te rm in in g A c tlia l D im en sio n s of L o t.

. C w « Corr ( ^ - ) 3 0 , 0 2 5 ( — )

■ 0 .0 6 4 m (total correction to be appHed to the width)

C L 3 Corrtjfa-) = O. 0 2 5 >

* 0 .0 9 0 m (total correction to be anp||«d to the length)

W' - W t Cw - 1 2 7 .0 6 2 - 0 .0 6 4

am A l i m e n t * o t or
87,
 = 126.998 m (correct width of the lot)

L ' = L .± C L » 180.455 - 0 .0 9 0
' = 180.365 m (c or r e c t l e ngt h of the lot)

b) Determining Error in Area.

AREA =■ L x W = 180.455 (127 .062)
“ 2 2 , 9 2 8 . 9 7 3 sq m ( a r e a of the lot b a s e d on un c o r r e c t e d
d imenslons)

AREA* = L1 x W' = 180.365 ( 126.998)

2 2 , 9 0 5 , 9 9 4 sq m ( a r e a of the lot b a s e d on c o r r e c t e d
di mensi ons)
Error = AREA - AREA1 ft
= 22,928.973 - 2 2 ,9 0 5 ,9 9 4
= 22.979 sq m (error In a r e a int roduced due to e r r on e o u s
length of t a p e ) t

6
. LAYINGOUT DIMENSIONS WITH TAPE, A building 38m x 45m
is to be laid out with a 50 - m long' metallic tape. If during standardiza­
tion the tape is found to be only 4 9 . 9 5 0; m , determine the following:
a) Dimensions to be laid out, using this tape,in order that the building
shall have the desired dimensions.
b) Using the same tape what should the diagonals r e a d ?
G iven : ; ,
NL =50 m (nomi nal length of t a p e u s e d )
W =38 m ( w i d t h of building to be laid out )
L s 45 m ( l e n g t h of building to be laid out)

S o lu tio n :

a) Determining Desired Dimensions. ’ •

Corr = 50 - 4 9 .9 5 0 - 0.05 m ( c o r r e c t i o n per t a p e l e n g t h , with t a p e

W , 70 being too s h o r t )
CW
s
Corr (fjj-J
■ 0 0 5 <■§§-> . •

3 0 .0 38 m ( t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n to be appl ied to t h e width)

c L
= Corr ( - i - l
• 0 0 5 ' - I f 11
3 0.045 m ( t o t a l c o r r e c t i o n to be applied to the length)
w' = W 1 Cw = 38 + 0.038
3. 3 8 .038 m ( c o r r e c t width to be laid out)
L‘ = L ± CL .= 4 5 + 0 . 0 4 5
= 45 .0 4 5 m ( c o r r e c t length to be laid out)
•4
b) Determining Length of Diagonal.

D = n|( W1)2 + ( L' )2' = nj“( 3 8 . 038)2 + ( 4 5 . 0 4 5 P '

= 58.957 m ( c o r r e c t length to r e a d on the tape when checking the diagonals)
f
N ote: In laying out dim ensions, when the tope used is too s h o r t, the correction
is added to the length or width to be laid out to obtain the d esire d dim ensions.

PJC l • ____ m c a s u h c h e n t or
m rn m m m m a h o w z o n t a i o u r A N C it
 MEASUREMENT
OF HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
9-1. CORRECTION VUE TO SLOPE
1. Gentle Slope*
2. Steep Slope*
3. Very Steep Slope*
9-2. CORRECTION VUE TO ALIGNMENT
9-3. CORRECTION VUE TO TEMPERATURE
9-4. CORRECTION VUE TO TENSION
9-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Correction Vue To Slope
, 2. Correction Vue To Slope
3. Correction Vue To TempeAatuAe
4. Correction Vue To Temperature
5. Correction Vue To Ten*ion
6. Correction Vue To Tension

Lesson 9
MtA'JUKIVfNT Or
M O A U O N TA i O t$}AN O A * 89,

_
9-1, CORRECTION DUE TO SLOPE.
» ('
When distances are measured along the slope, the equivalent
horizontal distance may correspondingly be determined by
applying an approximate slope correction.
Fig. 9-1. Slope. CoKKeoXion.

Where:
s = measured slope distance between
points A and B
h = difference in elevation between A
and B
d = equivalent horizontal distance AC
Ch = slope correction or tfre difference
between the slope length and the
horizontal distance, Ch = s - d
♦
s

In Fig. 9-1, the correction for slope is derived by.using

the Pythaigorean Theorem. Since t*riangle ABC is. a right
triangle
2
S

Transposing terms and factoring out

h2 = s2 - d2 - (s - d) (s + d)
Since Ch= (s-d) , therefore

h2 = Ch.(s+ d) or Ch " (s + d)

For gentle slopes it is safe to assume that the slope

distance (s) is approximately equal to the horizontal dis­
tance (d) or .

C = -2s
£ Eq. (I)

Equation. 1 gives us the .approximate slope correction which

should be subtracted from the measured slope distance to
obtain the equivalent horizontal distance. The difference
in elevation (hi'between A and B is usually determined by
leveling and the slope distance is directly measured on the
ground by taping.
In^most instances, tapemen usually find it easier and
more convenient to apply this approximate correction when
gentle slopes are involved. It will be sufficiently precise
to subtract this correction since the equation gives cor -
rect answers to hundredths of a meter for a 30*m tape. Ai *

M EAS UR E M EN T O f
u9Q H O R IZ O N TA L 01 S TA N C E S
slope is classified as gentle when it is not greater than
20%. This means a rise or fall of 20 units in a horizontal
distance of 100 units. The slope is calculated by dividing
the difference in elevation by the horizontal distance arid
multiplying by 100% to obtain the slope in percent or

SLOPE - (100%) Eq. (2)

A plus or minus sign must be given to indicate if the slope

is rising or falling, respectively.
* By employing binomial expansion, the equation for slope
correction (Eq. 1) expands to
.2 h4
C. = — + Eq. (3)v
h 2s 8s3
This equation, which now includes a second term, gives more
precise results and is used for steep slopes such as those
ranging between 20% and,30%.
When very steep slopes are involved such as those
greater than 30%, the corresponding slope correction should
be calculated by exact trigonometric relations as follows
(rerer to Fig. 9-1):

Sin 0- d = s Cos’-O- and Ch = s - d

Therefore:

Ch = s - sCos 0 or

Ch = s ( I - Cos 0-) Eq. (4) *

Since Equation 4 is an exact slope correction formula it

mc^y also be employed for gentle or steep, slopes.'
The following, therefore, suigmarl zes the different
slope correction formulas used when reducing slope measure­
ments to equivalent horizontal distances. ’•*

Gentle Slopes (Less than020%) j

2
h
C>
2s
2. Steep Slopes (Between 20% and 30%)

2s 8s3
3. Very Steep Slopes (Greater.tha’n 30%)"
C s ( I Cor> O )

91
For any classification of slopes, the equivalent horizontal
distance.(d) is determined by subtracting tha slope correc­
tion Ch frofn the measured slope distance (s') or

d = s - Ch • Eq.(5)

9-2., CORRECTION DUE TO ALIGNMENT.

It is usually difficult to keep the tape in perfect align­

ment with the end marks when taping through grass or when a
strong wind is biowing. The head tapeman is likely to* set
the zero end *pf £he tape on one side and sometimes on the
other side of the correct line. The linear error due to
inaccuracy in alignment of a tape is similar to the effect
o*f slope and can be computed in the same manner. It is,
however, easier to control and the resulting error is much
smaller in magnitude.
Error due to alignment is generally the least important
among the different errors encountered in taping. Utmost
care in aligning a tape is not extremely important since
the error is practically negligible for measurements of or­
dinary precision. The rear tapeman shotfld be able to easily
keep the head tapeman along a correct line under normal
circumstances. It is only in high precision measurements
that the tapemen are kept accurately^on line with the aid
of a transit or theodolite.
The correction due to incortect alignment, Ca *, can be
calculated by employing the £lope correction formulas (see
Art. 9-1). The only difference is that both h and s are in
the horizontal plane; that is, h is the distance the*tape
is off-line‘at one end and s the length of tape used. Due
to poor alignment, resulting errors are systematic in
effect-rand such'errors make the measured length , slightly
longer than the correct distance.
The error cannot be eliminated, but can be reduced to a
negligible amount b y lining-in carefull-y, setting pins pro­
perly, stretching the tape taut, and keeping the tape
straight. The tape may also be laid out .straight by snap­
p i n g it while tension is being applied. By taking necessary
precautions, the rear tapeman should be able to keep the
head tapeman within 30 cm off the correct course.

9-3. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE.

'The tape lengthens ^s.the temperature rises and shortens as
the temperature falls. Any change in the length of a tape
due to variations in temperature is critical when ^under-
taking precise measurements. It can also be significant
even , for measurements of lower precision as in most engi­
neering-type surveys. In ordinary taping of short distances
it is" not usually considered since the amount involved is
usually small and negligible.

l. 9 2 ,
 Tapes used lh surveying-measurements are standardized
at a specific temperature. Since measurements are taken at?
temperatures which may vary significantly from the tempera­
ture at which the tape was standardized, tapes may be
either too long or too short. Temperature variation is a
source of variable systematic error and is in direct pro­
portion to the number of tape lengths measured. Errors
caused by variations in temperature follow definite physi^'
cal laws and can be computed and their effects reduced or
eliminated by applying corrections. It is important to de­
termine such correction since a variation of a few degree^
would result in an appreciable error in the measurement or
laying out of distances. However,in some instances it is
difficult to determine accurately the required amount o£
correction since the temperature of the tape may vary along
its length depending on dampness of the ground, the tape’s
exposure to sun and shade, and humidity of the air. If the'
temperature varies during the measurement of a 'line, the
error is cumulative so long as observed temperatures are
consistently below or above the value of the temperature
during standardization. However, if during the measurement
some of the observed temperatures are above or below T the
errors tend to compensate.
The correction applied to the length of the tape due to
change in temperature Cf is given by the formula

Qk = CL (T - T#)...... . Eq. (6)

.in which C is the coefficient of linear expansion or the
amount of change in length per unit length per degree
change in temperature, L is the length of the tape or
length of line measured, T is the observed temperature of
the tape at the time of measurement, and T8 is the tempera­
ture at which the tape was Standardized.
The coefficient of linear.expans ion of the tape must be
known when computing the change in length of a tape caused
by change in temperature. If the tape used is made of
•iteel, the value of C is 0.0000116 per degree Celsius. This
means that for every 1 deg C rise (or fall^ in temperature,
ihe tape will increase (or decrease) in length by 0.0000116
limes its length. Thus, the change in length of a tape 1 m
long for a change in temperature of i deg C will be
O.0000116 m. For a 30-m tape, the change for 1 deg C will
lie 30 times 0.0000116 or 0.000348 m.
The value of Tg is usually taken as 20 deg Celsius. In
determining the temperature during taping (T)-, precise ree­
ling thermometers should Only be used. Tape thermometers
uo so designed that these could be attached easily to the
tape by means of clips. It is advisable ‘to use two thermo-
mnters which may be attached near each end of the tape. The
in#an temperature reading should always be used ,when- compu­
ting the amount of correction.
The* result inq sign oi Ct will be either positive or
negative and is added algebraically to the length measured
to obtain the correct length. A positive value will result
if the temperature during the time of measurement is grea­
ter than the temperature used during standardization. This
also means that the tape has lengthened or expanded and is
thus described as too long. Correspondingly, a negative
sign gives us the opposite conclusions.
As a general rule, to obtain more accurate measured
values, taping should be undertaken when the temperature
does not vary significantly from the temperature used du­
ring standardization. If an invar tape is employed, errors
due to variations in temperature are reduced to negligible
amounts because of its very low coefficient of linear ex­
pansion. Better results are usually obtained when measure­
ments * are made on cloudy days, early in the morning, or
late in the afternoon when temperature variations are
small. There may be considerable difference between fche
temperature of the tape and the air during bright sunny-
days. *
f i g . 9-2. TheAmomzteA. A eaJtt.

Some tapes are made with a thermometer scale. The scale

(Fig. 9-2) is used as a means of obtaining additional
accuracy and uniformity in measuring with'the tape. It is
graduated to correspond to the contraction and expansion of
the tape and takes the'place of the terminal mark of the
tape. The mark lies on the thermometer scale which corres­
ponds to the prevailing temperature reading at the time of
the measurement.

9-4. CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION.

During calibration ior standardization) a tape is subjected

to a certain amount of standard pull or tension on its
ends. When used in the, field during taping, it is elongated
or shortened.'accordingly, depending on the amount of pull
applied on i-t. If the pull is greater than that for which
it was calibrated, the tape elongates and becomes too long.
Correspondingly, it will stretch less than its standard
length when an insufficient pull is applied thus, making it
too short. An error in measurement results whenever the
pull applied is different from the standard tension used in
.calibration.
To account for variations in applied tension, a*correc­
tion has to be added to or subtracted from the measured
length. This correction for pull is a function of the dif-

__
ference between the applied pull and the standard pull, he
measured length, the cross-sectional area 6f the tape, and
the modulus of elasticity of the tape material. -
The tape stretches in an elastic manner and, since the
modulus of elasticity of a material can be expressed as the
ratio of unit stress to unit elongation, the change in
length can be determined as follows;

__________ Unit Stress j _ P/A

E = Elongation per Unit Length ” e /L

By substituting the quantity, (Pm - Ps) , to P , and computing

for the value of the elongation, e or Cp the following
formula is obtained

~ Ps>l
Eq. (7)
AE

and
•C . s L ± Cp . . . ................................Eq. (8)

Where:
Cp = total elongation in tape length, due to pull or the correction due
to incorrect pull applied on the tape (m)
Pm = puli applied to the tape during measurement (kg)
Ps = standard pull for the tape or pull for which the tape.i-s calibra­
ted (kg)
L = measured length of line (m)
A = cross-sectional area of the'tape (sq cm)
E =» modulus of elasticity of the tape material (kg/cm2)
L‘ = corrected length of the measured line (m)
By measuring the thickness and width of a steel tape by
means of a caliper, its cross-sectional area can be deter­
mined. The cross-sectional area may also be calculated by
dividing the total weight (W) of 'the tape by the'product of
its* length (L) and the unit weight of steel which is appro­
ximately 7.866 x 10~3 kg/cm3 . This is given by the follo­
wing equation

W
A •• • • Eq. (9 )
L ( Unit Weight)

The cross-sectional area of most light and heavy steel

tapes which are 30 m long vary from about 0.02 to 0.06 sq
cm. The modulus of elasticity of a steel tape usually va­
ries from 2.00 x 106 to 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2 .
Errors' due to variation of pull during taping opera­
tions may be either random or systematic. These errors can
be eliminated by using a spring'balance to measure and
maintain the standard pull, or by exerting a specific
.imo> it of pull consistently and applying corrections for
M t AXt/ftCAfCM T O S
ttO HIZO fi/rAl OtS T A B U 'S 95j
the deviation from the standard pull. Experienced tapemen
sometimes apply a pull which could be greater or less than
the required standard pull., whereas students of surveying
and other inexperienced tapemen usually have the tendency
to exert a pull much less than the standard. This is espe­
cially the case aijiong those who have not as yet trieid using
a spring balance attached to a tape.
9-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. C O R R E C T IO N D U E TO S L O P E . Slope distances AB and BC measures
3 3 0 . 4 9 m and 6 6 0 . 9 7 m, respectively. The differences in elevation '
are 12.22 m for points A and B, and 10.85 m for points B and C.
Using the approximate slope correction formula for gentle slopes,de­
termine the horizontal length of line ABC. Assume that line AB has a
rising slope and BC a falling slope.
Fig. 9-3. Slcpe maMuemejii.

= 330.49 m (slop© length of AB)

= 12.22 m (d ifferen ce In elevation between A and B)
s 6 6 0 .9 7 m (slope length of BC)
h2 = 10.85 m (d ifferen ce In elevation between B and C)
S o lu tio n :
hf ( 12. 22 )
5 S[ - = 3 3 0 .4 9 -
1 2 S( 2 (3 3 0 .4 9 )
= 3 3 0 .4 9 - 0 .2 3
= 3 3 0 .2 6 m ( hori zont al l engt h of li ne AB)

do ~ So - -r^ - * 6 6 0 .9 7 - (10.85)
>2 2 s2 2 (660.97)
6 6 0 . 9 7 - 0.09
660.88 m (horizontal length of line BC)

d - d, + d2 = 3 3 0 . 2 6 + 6 6 0 . 8 8
9 9 1 .1 4 m ( h or i z on t al length of l i ne ABC)

2 . C O R R E C T IO N D U E TO S L O P E . A line AB cannot be measured directly

because of an obstruction on line. Accordingly, the *wo lines AC and CB
were measured as 2 , 4 0 0 .8 5 0 m and 1,320.420 m, respectively. Point C
was set at a perpendicular distance of 155 m from point D on line AB.
Using the approximate slope correction formula for steep slopes, determinr
the length of AB.
G iven:
S( = 2 , 4 0 0 . 9 5 0 m (slop© l©ngth of AC)

•96 UfASOHCUCNT or
HOftUOHTAi. PISTAUCl S
 I.

S2 = !,320.420 m { slope length of C B )

h » 155 m ( o f f s e t d i s t a n c e f r o m line A9)

f i g . 9-4. Oh&tAMCt&d mejuuA.emaU.

di - S i­
ll h 0. ___ {15 5 )2 (155)
*' ~ 2s, ■* 8sf " 2 4 0 0 8 5 2 ( 2 4 0 0 .0 50 ) 8(2400.850)3
= 24 0 0 . 8 5 0 - 5.003 - 0.005
= 2 3 95 .8 42 m (length of lin e AD)

.h2 ( I 55 )2 (155)
do = Sq — = I320.420-
2s 8s| 2 ( 1 3 20 .4 2 0 ) 8(1320.420)3
=• 13 2 0 . 4 2 0 - 9 . 0 9 7 - 0.031
= 1 3 11 .2 92 m (length of line DB)

d = d + d2 = 2 3 9 5 . 8 4 2 + 1311.292
= 3707. 134 m (len gth of lin e AB)

S . C O R R EC T IO N D U E TO T E M P E R A T U R E . A steel tape with a coef­

ficient of linear expansion of 0.0000116/1°C is known to be 50 m long at
20°C. The tape was used to measure a line which was found to be 532.28
meters long when the temperature was 35°C. Determine the following:
a) Temperature correction per tape length
b) Temperature correction for the measured line
c) Correct length of the line
So lu tio n :
a) C| = CL (T - Ts) = 0 . 0 0 0 0 116 (SOM 3 5 2 0 ° )
= +0.0087m (c orrection per tape length due to tem p era tu re . The positive
sign indicates that tape is too long)

b) Ct. = CL (T - Ts) = 0.0000116(532.28)(35°-20°)

= +0.0926m (Correction for the measured line due to tempera ture )

oolution Check (Using ratio and proportion):

532.28
<ct C,< = (532.28) = 0.0087 (532.28)
50 f 50 50
= + 0.0926 m (Checks)

c) L1 = L ! Ct' = 5 3 2. 2 8 + 0.0926
= 532.37m (Correct length of measured line. The correctio n is added
since tho tape Is too long)

(Note When MEASURING, tho correction is ADDED when tape is TOO L O W

97
and ,SUBTRACTED when tape is TOO SHORT.)
A steel tape, known to be
4 . C O R R E C T IO N D U E TO T E M P E R A T U R E .
of standard length at 20°C, is used in laying out a runway 2 , 5 0 0 . 0 0 m
long. If its coeff icient of linear expansion is 0,0000116/ l°C, determine the
temperature correction and the correct length to be laid out when the tem­
perature is 4 2 0C. ,
S o lu tio n :
Cf = C L ( T - T S) = 0.0000116(2500.0 0 ) ( 4 2 ° - 20°)
= + 0.638 m ( C o r r e c t i o n fo r the length to be laid out due to t e m p e r a t u r e .
The p o s i t i v e sig n i n d i c a t e s that ta p e is too long)

L1 = L ! C, = 2 5 0 0 .0 0 - 0,638 . .
= 2499.36 m ( C o r r e c t lengtt i to be Icyd o u t . T h e c o r r e c t i o n is s u b t r a c t e d
s in c e the ta pe is too lo ng )

(Note: When LAYING OUT, the correction is SUBTRACTED when tape is TOO
LONG and ADDED when tape is TOO SHORT.)
5. C O R R EC T IO N D U E TO T E N S IO N . A heavy 50-m tapfe haying a cross-
sectional area of 0.05 cm? has been standardized at a tension of 5.5 kg. If
E = 2.1C x I06 kg/cm, determine the elongation of the tape if a pull of
12 kg is applied.
Pm - PS)L (12-5.5)50
CP = AE = 0.05(2.10 x 10 ®) " 0,003
6 . C O R R E C T IO N D U E TO T E N S IO N , A 30-m steel tape weighing 1.45 kg
is of standard length under a pull of 5kg, supported for full length. The
tape was used in measuring a line 938.55 m long on smooth level ground
under a steady pull of 10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 x I06 kg/cm2 and the unit
weight of steel to be 7.9 x I0"3kg/cm3, determine the following:
a) cross-sectional area of the tape ’ •
b ) correction for increase in tension
c) correct length of the line m-easured
S o lu tio n :
l.451<g
a) A = L(UnitWWeight) “ lOOcm. ,7.9 x I0"3 kg. =1 0.06 cm2
30m( { ' cm3
(Pm- Ps)L (10-5)30
b) CP=
•AE 0.06(2.0 x I06)
= +0.00 I25 m (C orre ction per tape length. Th e positive sign i n d ic a t e s th a t
tape is too long)

___ ____ = 0.00125 m

9 3 8 .55 m ,30 m
Cp= ° ° ^ 2 5 - (938.55)
= + 0.04 m ( T o t a l c o r r e c t i o n f o r m easu re d lin e )

c) L* = l + Cp = 938.55 + 0.04 #
= 938.59m ( C o r r e c t length of l i n e . Th e c o r r e c t i o n is added sin ce tape
is too long)

,98,
MEASUREMENT
OF HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES
10-1. CORRECTION VUE TO SAG
10-2. CORRECTION VUE TO MNV
10-3. NORMAL TENSION
10-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS,
1. Collection Vue. to Sag
2. Collection Vue to Sag
3. Collection Vue to Sag
4. NoimaZ Tension
5. Noimat Tension

Lesson 10
M r /> n u n tu t * ' of 99,
10-1. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG.

A tape, attains its correct length when it is fully support­

ed and subjected to the pull for which it was standardized.
If the support is only at its ends or at the two points
measured, it will sag even if the standard pull is main­
tained because of its own weight. The tape takes the form
of a catenary when it sags, between points of support just
as an electric or telephone wire which hangs and swings
loosely between two posts.

Fig. 10-1. Eiiextf oi *ag on taping operation*.

la)
Tape Supported At
End Points

I *» Support 2nd Support

lb)
Tape Supported At
End* and Uid-Point

lit Support 2nd Support 3rd Support

lc|
• Tape Supported
a t End* and Two
Intermediate Point*
I rt 'upport 3rd Support
C**VC‘2 %
2nd Support
Support

Id)
Tape Supported
At End* and Every
Quarter Point

n„
r-O-m f
StMl TOP* 30- m
( morl< | n'ar^~"'|
le)
Tape Supported
v Throughout
In Fig. 10-1 are shown-theeffects of
tedat different points along its Sa<3ona tape suppor-
F J-ength.
 Sag shortens the horizontal distance between end gra­
duations since the tape length remains the same. Thus, when
a stretched tape sags, the actual distance between the
points is something less than the reading on the tape. The
magnitude of the error due to sag depends on the weight of
the tape, the unsupported length, and the tension applied.
What is given importance is the reduced chord distance
between the end graduations and not the actual sag of a
tap®. 'j
.The correction due to sag is the difference in length
between the arc formed by the tape and the subtending
chord. In determining this correction, the arc is assumed
to be a parabola, and is computed with sufficient precision
by the formula

• • • ■ Eq.( I )
s =f 24P2 ..............."
Since W = nrL ’ gr W 2 = tjlt2 L.2 , and substituting this to
Equation 1, we obtain

W2L Eq.(2)
24 P2
Where: .
C8 = correction due to sag or the differ'enoe between the tape read­
ing and the horizontal distance between supports (m)
ur = weight of tape per unit length (kg/m)
W = totaj weight of tape between supports (kg)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension or pull applied on the tape (kg)
Either of these two equations may be used in determining
corrections due to sag. Equation 1 is employed when the
weight.of tape per unit length (w) is .given, and the values
of L and P are known. If instead the total weight of tape
between supports (W) is given, Equation 2 is used.
Whenever the tape is held above the ground it will
always sag and the effect is that of shortening the tape. A
systematic error is introduced unless the same conditions
during standardization are employed when obtaining measure­
ments. The effect of sag can be reduced by increased
tension but is not entirely eliminated unless the. tape is
supported throughout its entire length.
By applying corrections we can only reduce the error,
however, these errors are not determined exactly. When
conditions allow, it is preferable to measure on the ground
where the tape is supported throughout its entire length
(Fig. 10-le), to avoid the effects of sag.

10-2. CORRECTION DUB TO WIND).

A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of

t
*/ 4
'W R t M f N t O n
NVHUON1M I0I
 taping will move the middle and unsupported portion of the
tape to one side of the line measured. This introduces an
error to the measurement which is similar to the effect of
sag but is Usually much less. To avoid this type of error,
i^: is preferable not to undertake any taping work during
windy days. if it cannot be avoided and the measurement has
tb be done on windy days, efforts should be taken to sup-^
•port the tape from being affected by the blowing wind.

10-3. NORMAL TENSION.

By .exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the

tape when it is suspended and sagged, the tape will , be
stretched and a-considerable decrease in the amount of sag
resultjs. The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to
equal the shortening caused by sag is referred to as the
normal tension. Its magnitude can be computed for a parti­
cular . tape or it can be measured out in the field as
follows:

a) Stretch the tape on a concrete pavement (or level

ground) by applying its prescribed standard pull, and mark
its ends on the pavement.
b) Hold the tape above the ground by supporting it only
at its ends," then, pull the tape until the ends coincid'e
with the marked points on the pavement..

The normal tension is the amount of pull required to make

the end points coincide with the marked points on the pave­
ment. A spring balance should be used in measuring this
value. ,’
Theoretically, the elongation due to increased tension
can be made equal to the shortening due to sag by equating
the correction due to tension to the correction due to sag.
This assumption is made sihce sag produces a shortening
effect on the tape, and an applied tension- which exceeds
the standard pull lengthens the tape. Thus, these two
quantities can be regulated to cancel out their erroneous
effects on a particular measurement. The formula for normal
tension is derived as follows

p2 _ w 2 lae W2 AE
24(Pm - Pa)L 24 (Pm- P8)

w I aT 0.204
i W1ae
P = l24(Pm ->.) 4 . 8 9 8 9 7 9 4 *^Pm - Ps‘
Let PN - P = Pm
P 3 0.204 WijAE1
# • • • Eq.(3)

10k. M EA S U R E M E N T O F .
H O RIZO N TAL D IS T A N C E S
 Where: . .
p = normal tension or the puli'which will eliminate the
N -effect of sag (kg)
W 3 total weight of tqpe between supports (kg)
A 3 cross-sectional area of tape (cm2)
E 3 modulus of elasticity of tape material (kg/cm2)
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg) 1

Since PN occurs on both sides of Equation 3, normal ten­

sion is solved by trial using successive approximations for
PN . There.are various methods which could be employed, to
solve this equation. Two different methods are shown in the
accompanying illustrative problems for this iesson.
Normal tension only makes the tape its normal length
and does not compensate for cumulative errors. Its use may
be preferred to making sag corrections when suspended spans
are measured with standard tension. In precise surveys it
is applied with ,an accurate spring balance and other taping
accessories to control proper tension. However, normal*
tension is not commonly used because it may be too large
for convenient application and is affected with changes in
temperature.

10-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

/. C O R R E C T IO N D U E TO S A G . A 30 - m tape is supported only at
its ends and under a steady pulkof 8 kg. if the tape weighs 0. 9 1 kg,
determine the sag correction and the correct distance between the ends
of the tape.
Fig. 10-2. Tape. MippoAted a t encLt>.
— -____________ L____ r~~a. ---------
l'
_Amount of
. shortening
P«- Om 30 m :-> » P

Support Support
at end at end

G iv en :
L = 30 m- (nominal length of tape)
P 3 6 kg (pull applied on ende of tape)
W 3 0.91 kg (total weight of tape)

So lu tio n :

Cs = W2L (0.91) (30)

24 P2 24 (S)2
0.0162 m (correction due to sag between the end supports)
L - Cs = 30 - 0.0162 f
29 .9 838 m (correct distance between the ends of the tape)
Note: Thu affect of sag always causes shortening of tape.Hence,the cor-
A U i f t t A lt N T O f
H O M lO N T A i O! %\AN> i • 103
r
ectle
ngt
hbetweenth
et a
peendsisdeterminedbys ubt
ractingt hesag
co
rre
ctio
nfromt h
eindi
cate
dornominallength.
2
. CORRECTIOND*?ETO SAO. A 5 0 - m stee! tape weighs 0.04 kg/m
and is supported at its end points and at the 8rm and 25-m marks. If a
pu!l of 6 kg is applied t determine the following:
a) Correction due to sag between the Om 8 8-m marks; 13-m 8 2 5 -m
marks, and the 25-m 8 50-m marks.
b) Correction due to sag for one tape length.
c) Correct distance between the ends of the tape.
Fig. 10-3. Tape. *uppo\ted a t end* and two interm ediate point*.

Steel Tape

Support Intermediate Support at Support

a end su pport mlt - point at end

...... -S . L2 L3

H t-- -------------- L ------------ :----------------------------<

Given:
L = 30 m (total length of tape)
Li = 8 m (length of 1st span)
L-2 = ' 17 m / (length of 2nd span)
L3 25 m (length of 3rd span)
P = 6 kg (pull applied on ends of tape)
TIT = 0 04 kg/m (unit weight of tape)

S
olu
tio
n:
a) Determining Correction Due to Sag for each Span.
-ur2 L? (0.04)2(8)3
CS, ■ 24 (6)2
24 P2
= 0.0009 m (correction due to sag between the Om and 8m marks)

—
-w 2 l |
(0.04)2(I7)3
____
O
n
W

24 P2 24 (6)2
CM

= 0. 009 1 m (correction due to sag betvteen the 8m and 25m marks)

u r 2L| (0.04)2(25)3
Cq =
S3 24P2 24 (6)2
y= 0.0289 m (correction due to sag between the 25m and 50m marks)

b) Determining Total Sag Correction for one Tape Length.

Cs 3 Cs, + cS2 + cS3
= 0 . 0 0 0 9 + 0.00 91 + 0.0289
= 0.0389 m
H£ASU/fiM£MT Or
, 1 0 4 R«*O B *W ?tS n o n u o n T A i . o is t a m c t s
c) D e te rm in in g C o r r e c t D is t a n c e B e tw e e n T a p e E n d s .

L 1 * L - C s * 50 - 0 . 0 3 8 9
* 4 9 .9 6 1 1m
9. CORRECTION DUE TO SAC. A 5 0 - m steel tape weighing 0.035
kg/m is constantly supported at mid - length and at its end points, and
is used to measure a line AB with a steady pull of 6.5 Kg. If the measured
length of AB is 1268.256 m, determine the following.
a) Correction due to sag between supports and for the whole tape length.
b) Total sag correction for the whole length measured.
c} Correct length of line AB.
F<9* 10-4. Tape. Aupp&ited at end& and at midpoint.

L 50 m (nominal l e n g t h of t ap e )
L« 25 m ( l e n g t h of l e t s p a n )
L2 25 m ( l e n g t h of 2 n d span)
P 6 . 5 kg (pull a ppl i e d on e n d s of t a p e )
TXT 0.035 kg/m ( u n i t weight of t a p e )
Length AB 1268.256m ( m e a s u r e d l e n g t h of line)

Solution:
a) Determining Sag Correction Between Supports.
W = ur L = 0 .0 3 5 (50) . *
= I . 7 5 kg ( t o t a l weight of t a p e )
W, = w L , = 0.035 (25)
0 . 8 7 5 kg (weight of tape between’ the Om and 25 m marks)
\al = ■urL2 = 0 . 0 3 5 ( 2 5 )
= 0.875kg (wei ght of tap® be t we e n t h e ' 25m and 50 m morks)
Solution Check:
w = W, + w2
75 = 0.875 +• 0 . 8 7 5
75 1.75 (checks)

w,2L| _ (0 .8 7 5 ) (25)
24P2 2 4 (6.5)2
St 0 .0189 m (correction dus to
2
W L
~L2±2L (0.675) (25)
C *Z * 24 P2 24 (6.5)2

105
 ~ * . 0 .0 1 8 9 m (eorrscriorrdu*to #og bstwssn tha 2 5 m and 50 m marks)

CS = Cs,' + Cs2 » 0 .0 1 8 9 + 0 .0 1 8 9
* 0 .0 3 7 8 m (correction dus to sag for ons taps Isngth)
f• i
b) Determining Sag Correction for Measured Line.
B y r a t io and p ro p o rtio n :
Total C;> ' Cg .
Length AB L

Total Cs » ( Length AB) = -Q ^ - - (1268.256)

= 0.9588 m
c) Determining Correct Length of AB.
Correct Length of AB = Measured Length - Total Cs
= 1268. 256 - 0 . 9 5 8 8
= 1267.2972 m
4. NORMAL TENS/ON/ A steel tape weighing 0.85 kg has a cross-sec­
tional area of 0.05 cm2.The tape measures exactly 30.00m when support­
ed throughout its length under a standard pull of 5.5 kg. If the modiulus
of elasticity is 2.10 x I06 kg/cm2, determine the tension required to make
the tape equal to its nominal length when supported only at the end points.
G
lvo
n:
L = 30.00 m Ps = 5.5 kg
W = 0.85 kg E = 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2
A = 0.05 cm2
f i g . JO-5. VeX&Amining normal tejUtion.

0.204 w! aT _ 0.204(0.85) 10.05 (~2JO x IQ6 ) _ 56.188

■n[ V ? ■V h ~ 5-5' ^ V 5-5'
Try PN = 5.00 kg: Try PN = 17.00kg:
56.188 17.00 * 56.188
15.00 =
"\jl5.00-3751 •>[17700-575'
15.00 * 18.23 17.00 16.57

. 106 .
 Try PN = 16.50 kg: Try PN « 16.75 kg;
16.50 = 56188 lb.-»e
tr. CO _
- -— 56.188
.==zr
^16.50-5.5' -'116.75-5.5
16.50 / 16.94 16.75 =16. 75 (Checke)
, Therefore, P- = 16.75 kg. This is the tension required to make the tape ex­
actly equal to 30.00m when stretched and supported only at its end points.
5. N O RM AL T E N S / ON. A steel tape having a cross-sectional area of
0.06 cm2 and a modulus of elasticity of 2 . 0 x I06kg/crp2 , weighs 0.03kg/h:
Its length is 30.00m when standardized at a pull of 5kg and supported
throughout its length. Determine the tension at which the effect of sag will!
be eliminated by the elongation of the tape due to increased tension.
G iven:
A = •0.06 cm2 L = 30.00 m
E = 2.0 x I06kg/cm2 P. = 5 kg
ult = 0.03 kg/m
Fig. 10-6. VzteAaiining notriuZ tm u ion .

S o lu tio n :
W = nrL = 0.03(30) = 0.90 kg (Total weight of the tape)
0.204 W^IaE _ 0.204 (0.90) "Jo 06 (2.0 x lO6)’ 63.6*
pN -
firs’ - t v 5’-
Cross multiplying and squaring both sides of the equation, then simplifying
*2 _ „ .2
(PN = (63.6)'
P| ,P N ' 5 = 4044.96
N " 5PN = 4044.96
PN3 - 5P2 - 4 0 4 4 . 9 6 = 0
Let f(PN) PN
3 - 5P* - 4 0 44 . 9 6

Note: In this solution the objective is to determine, by trial a value of

>n "hich when substituted to the equation for •f IPN) g,vss i so/ur/on w h k h
will be equal to or nearly z e r o

1 0 7 .
 Try PN = 17.00 kg:
f (17.00) = (17.00)3 - 5 (17.00)2 - 4 0 4 4 . 9 6 - 576.96
Try PN = 17.50kg:
f (17.50) = (I7.50)3 - 5(17.50)2 - , 4 0 4 4 . 9 6 - 2 16,83
Try PN = 17.78 kg:
f (17.78) = (17.78 )3 - 5U7.78)2 - 4 0 4 4 . 9 6 - 4.84
Try PN =/ 17.79kg: '.v
f (17.79) = ( I7.79)3 - 5(17.79)2 - 40 4 4 . 9 6 + 2-87
Try PN = 17.80kg:'
f (17.80) = (17.80 )3 - 5 (I7.80)?' - 4 0 4 4 . 9 6 + 10.59
From the above five trials, it can be seen that the value of Pn which •
gives o solution nearest to zero is 17.79 kg, therefore, PN= .1^.79 kg. The
exact value is actually somewhere between 17.78 and 17.79 kg. Since
only two digits after thedecimal point would be sufficient, the value 17.79
was selected.

,108.
MEASUREMENT
OF HORIZONTAL
DISTANCES 9 ________ _______

11-1. COMBINED CORRECTIONS

11-2. SURVEYS WITH TAPE
1. Electing PeipendiculaA. To Line
a I Chaid-Bi*ection Method
b) 3:4:5 Method
2. Mea*uAing Angles With Tape
3. Laying o U Angle* With Tape.
4. Determining Ob*ti.ucted Distance*
11-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
O
1. Combined CoMection*
2. Combined CoM.eo.tion*
3. Combined CoM.ec.tion*
4. Meatuiing Angle* With Tape
5 * Mea*uiing Angle* With Tape
6i Ob*txucted Pittance*

JLessem 11
M A Y U H lM t N T Or
M O N U O N 1A I O I S T A M U I
109,
11-1. COMBINED CORRECTIONS.

The corrections tor the effects of incorrect length of

tape, temperature, tension, slope, and sag may be combined
as a single net correction per tape length. Each correction
is computed separately arid it is important to identify
which correction* tends to'make the tape too long or too
short.
Since the s.ign of each correction can be determined du­
ring computa'tion, it is then a matter of adding these quan­
tities algebraically to arrive at a single and overall cpr-
rection to'lengths which are measured or laid out. Combined
corrections are usually determined on the basis of the
nominal tape length since each correction is relatively
small and do not appreciably affect each other. The result­
ing net correction per tape length may be used as long as
conditions remain constant during taping. Variation- in con­
ditions may be due to changes in temperature during the
day, non-uniformity of pull exerted on the ends of the
tape, the ground may be shch that it becomes necessary to
support the tape at various intervals, and some other
factors which may affect the taping operation.

11-2. SURVEYS WITH TAPE.

The -tape is not necessarily limited only to the measurement

of distances. There are various problems arising in survey­
ing fieldwork which can be solved just by the use of a
tape. Some of these surveying operations include: erecting
perpendicular to a line, measuring angles, laying off ang­
les, determining.obstructed distances, locating irregular
bounderies, and determining areas of different shapes.

1. Erecting Perpendicular To Line. There may be some

instances when it would be necessary to erect on the ground
a perpendicular to an established line. For example, when
the floor dimensions of a building or a road ^intersection
are to be laid out, it becomes necessary to erect perpendi­
cular lines. Commonly employed for such particular require­
ments are the chord-bisection method and the 3:4:5 method.

a) Chord-Bisection Method. In Fig. 11-1, it is re­

quired to erect a perpendicular to the. line AB at point a.
Two equal lengths, mb and me, are measured on each side of
point m. With b as center and taking any convenient length
of tape as radius,. an arc of a circle is described. The
same procedure is repeated at point c. The intersection of
the two arcs locate point d, and line da is the desired
perpendicular to AB.
b) 3:4:5 Method. This method of erecting a perpendi­
cular to a given line is illustrated in Fig. 11-2. The me­
thod involves the setting up oh the ground of a triangle
whose three sides are made in the proportions of 3, 4, and
Fig. 11-1. ChoAd-J>i6ection method. Fig. 1 1 - 2 . 3 - 4 - 5 method.

5. Point A is selected on line MN where a perpendicular is

to be erected. From A and along line MN, measure 3.0 m to
set point B. Then, with the zero end,_of the tape held by
the first tapeman at B and the 10-m mark held by the second
tapeman at A, a loop is formed by the third tapeman to
bring the 5-m and 6-m marks together. The third tapeman
then pulls each part of the tape taut to locate point C on
the ground. The line joining points A and C is the desired
perpendicular to line MN.
Although this task is better and easier performed by
three tapemen, it is still possible for just one person to
perform the layout by fastening the tape ends to stakes
securely anchored at points A and B. Also, any other
lengths in the proportions of 3,4, and 5 can be used such
as 6:8:10, 9:12:15, and 12:16:20. ' •
2. Measuring Angles With Tape. A tape is not frequent­
ly used in engineering constructions for measuring or lay-
Fla. 11-3. UejuuA.lnq anate bu choid method.

Where:
L = any convenient length
d = chord distance
•0 = angle to be measured
lng out angles. 'There may be some occasions,, however, when
a' theodolite or transit is not readily available that the
tape is instead used. The measurement of very small angles
wi-th tape usually gives satisfactory results. All angular
measurements by tape are accomplished by the application of
very basic geometric and trigonometric principles.
In Fig. 11-3, let it be required to measure the angle
BOC (or-Ov). One way to do it is to lay out any convenient
length (L) along lines OB and QC to establish points a afid
b. If the chord distance ab (or d) is measured and bisect­
ed, the angle BOC can be computed as follows^

S in t f- J * — 2. . . . . . . . . . . Eq. ( , )

Equation 1 is only valid if the lengths of Oa andtOb are

equal. If unequal lengths are laid out, as AB and AC in
Fig. 11-4, .then upon measuring the distance BC, the angle
BAC (or<$A) can be computed using a n y vof the following tri­
gonometric equations
Fig. 11-4. UeaAUAtng angle, with tape.

Eq.(2)
2(AC)(AB)

\ sinjA, . J(S-AC)IS-AB)1- Eq.(3)

•\ S'n(2' \(
AC) (AB)

Where AB, AC, and BC are the sides of tiriangle ABC and S =
(1/2 )(AB4-AC+BC) .
The accuracy of measuring angles with tape depends on
the care taken in laying out lengths and in establishing
the needed points on the ground. It would be difficult to
measure angles when the terrain is very irregular or where
vegetation obstructs the desired measurement.
The use of the tape in measuring angles is rather slow
and should only be employed on surveys covering relatively
small areas. A transit or theodolite should be used to mea­
sure or lay out angles on surveys of wider scope and where
higher degrees of precision would be required. .
3. Laying Off Angles With Tape. There are different me­
thods which may be used to lay off an angle using a tape.
In Fig. 11-5 is illustrated a method which employs a simple
principle of trigonometry. Along line AB a convenient
length, AP, is first laid out. Then P P ’ is erected perpen­
dicular to the line at P by using a length which is deter­
mined by multiplying the length of AP (or L) by the natural
tangent of the angle to be laid off or PP ’ = L (Tan-0-).
Angle PAP1 (or-0-) should give the desired angle at A.
Another method requires the determination of a chord

.112 M t A S U tU M IN T O F
'H o m r Q H x a i o f t t a n a t
 Fig. 11-5. Laying oil-an angle. Fig. 11-6. Laying otf|janangle
i tuing a petpendiculaA. tint. (Ming a chotd length.

length which will detine the desired angle. In Fig. 11-6/

it is required to lay off an angle inPn (or-0-) from line PA.
The chord length is first determined from the equation d =
2LSin(-0/2), where -0 is the desired angle and L is any con­
venient length laid out along line PA. Then, point m is
established by laying out from P, and along line PA, a
convenient length of tape. The tape is then swung through
»n arc and accordingly the arc traced is marked on the
ground. With m now as center, the computed chord length is
.ilso laid out and swung through an arc, and its inter­
section with the first arc establishes point n. Line nun is
the required chord length, and the angle mPn is the desired
angle. •
4. Determining Obstructed Distances. In some instances
It may not be possible to directly measure distances due to
m obstruction. The required length may also be inaccessi­
ble or difficult to measure. The following are some of the
indirect methods which could be employed tc determine obs­
tructed or inaccessible distances.

a) In Fig. 11-7, point C is established at a conve­

nient location away from the obstruction and it is seen to
iI that lines AC and BC intersect at right angles. Both
iines are measured as accurately as possible. If A an' B
'lefine the end points of the required line, the length of
line AB can be computed by the Pythagorean theorem or

AB = N(AC)2 + (BC)2' ..............Eq.(4)

b) The length of line AB in Fig. 11-8 could not be
■I«•Iermined because of an obstruction somewhere at the mid-
•I11- of the line. To determine its length, the head tapeman
..'hors one end of the tape at B and swings it using any
■"iivenient radius. The rear tapeman positions himself at
point A and lines in the other _:nd of the tape with a dis-
' nit pc int as D and directs the marking of points a and b
on the ground where the end of the tape crosses line AD.
i'Ih mid point of: line ab is located to establish point C.

• AU A t U t U N l
nONIIONIAl
,Vf‘
Of II K
(>l\\*H(./ \ null I I ..•m ' ' ^
Fig. 11-t.
 With line BC established perpendicular to line AC, the,
length of AB can be indirectly determined also by the;
Pythagorean theorem since AC and BC are known.
c) In Fig. 11-9, the length of AB can be determined
due to the similarity of triangles ABD and BCD. A line feD
of predetermined length is first established perpendicular
•to line ABC. The length of line BG is then measured and AB
»is computed as follows: *
. ■ ; ' 'i

•|§- * f§- or AB • (BD)^BC) .......,, Eq.(5)

d) The length of AB in Fig. 11-10 is determined by

using the tangent function of trigonometry. At a convenient
location along the shore line, AC is set out perpendicular
to AB ar\d its ?angth measured. With the use of a tape,
angle BCA is determined by the chord method. The required
length is then determined as follows
AB = (AC) Tan « BCA).............................. • • Eq.(6)

e) In Fig. 11-11, point C is established at a suita­

ble location away from the obstruction and the lengths of
AC and BC are measured. On the extension of both lines,
points D and E are established such that CD = (AC)/2 and CE
= * (BC)/2. The length of AB is parallel to and twice the
length of DE which can be measured.
*f) The method illustrated in Fig. 11*-12 is one where
two lines, BD and CE, are established perpendicular to the
line ABC. The distance between the two perpendiculars (or
BC) is measured and with points D and E both lined up with
• A, the length of AB can then be determined by(similarity of
triangles or ;. *

= ■■■—■C+E BC-' j AB (CE) = BD (AB + BC)

AB (CE) = BD (AB) + BD (BC)

AB (CE) - BD (AB) = BD (BC)
BD (BC)
AB (CE - BD) = BD( BC) or AB .- Eq.(7)
(CE-BD)
g) In Fig. 11-13, it is required to determine the
length- of line AB which apparently could not be measured
directly because of an intervening body of water. The re­
quired length is determined by*establishing a line CD which
is parallel to and equal in length to AB. In this method,
perpendicular offsets AC and BD are established by tape. If
AC and BD are equal in length, CD, when measured, should be
equafl to the length of A B .
¥ h) In Fig. 11-11, the obstructed length of AB may be
indirectly determined if the length DE can be measured. In
this method,' point C is first selected such that it is a
h it A S U N l NT Of
, tO H U O N lA i O/ $ 5
TA N Ct
 Fig. 11-13.

— n
O bstru ction

Fig. 11-14.

Obstruction

Fig. 11-16.
Fig. 11-15.

U C A S O F E U F N T OF
H O R U O H T A L D IS T A N C E S
certain distance away from the obstructed line. The lengths
of AC and BC are then measured and their respective middle
points (D & E) established. The length of AB is twice that
of, DE. : '\
i) One convenient method of getting around obstruct­
ions such as a large building, involves using an equilate­
ral triangle as illustrated in Fig. 11-15. From the proIon-,
gation of the preceding line, a 60-deg,angle is' laid off at
A and a sufficient length is laid out to ,clear the obs­
truction^ Another 60-deg angle is laid,off at C and the
distance Cfi is taped equal to AC* Point B should fall on
the prolongation of the original line and the measurement
may be continued further. The length of AB, should be equal
to either AC or CB.
j ) Shown in Fig. 11-16 is a typical problem encoun­
tered when determining the width of a stream or a wide ri­
ver. Here, BD is set out perpendicular to the required
length and point C is located at its mid-length. DE is next
set out perpendicular to BD and point E is located so that
it is in line with points A and C«t If the,length of DE is
accurately measured, it should be ec^ual to the len'gth of
the required line AB. *
<11-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. COMBINED CORRECTIONS. A line was determined to be 2395.25 m
when measured with a 30-m steel tape supported throughout its length
under a pull of 4kg and ot a mean temperature of 35°C. Determine the cor­
rect length of the line if the tape used is of standard length at 20 °C
under a pull of 5 kg. The cross - sectionql area of the tape is 0.03 sq
cm, its coeff icient of linear expansion is 6.000011 6 /J #C, and the modu­
lus of elasticity of steel is 2.0 x I06 kq/cm2 .
Gi von:
L = 2395.25m T 35 “C A- = 0.03 cm2
NL = 30 m T8 20 °C C •= 0.0000116 / l°C
Fm = 4 kg ' P3 5 kg E = *2.0 x I06 kg/cm2

Solution:
a) C = CL (T - T#) = 0.0000116 (2 3 9 5 .2 5 M 3 5 - 20)
-' + 0 . 4 2 m ( C o r r e c t i o n fo r th e m e a s u r e d len gth due to t e m p e r a t u r e .
T h e p o s itiv e sign I n d i c a t e s th a t ta pe Is too-long)

(4 - 5) 2 3 9 5 .2 5
b) C, - tPm-- Ps)^
AE * 0.03 (2.0 x I06) 1
= - 0.04 m ( C o r re c t io n f o r the m e a s u r e d l in e due to t e n s i o n .T h e n e g a ­
t iv e sig n I n d i c a t e s t h a t ta p e Is too sh o rt )-
i
c) L’ = L ± Ct t Cp = 2 3 9 5 .2 5 + 0.42 - 0.04
= 2395.63m (L en gth of measured line c o r r e c t e d for e f f e c t s of te m p e ­
ratu re and p u ll ) , , >•

2.COMBINED CORRECTIONS.A 5 0 - m steel tape is of standard length

uncV>r a pull of 5.5 kg when supported throughout its entire length. The
tape weighs 0 .0 5 kg/m, has a cro ss-sectio n al area of 0 .0 4 sq.cm , and be­
ing made of steel, its modulus of e la sticity is 2 .1 0 x lO^kg/cm2 .T h is tope
was used in the fie ld to m easure a distance th'di was determined to be
4 5 8 .6 5 0 m . At the tim e the m easurem ent was made, the constant pull>
applied was 8 kg with the tape supported only at its end points. D eter-
mine the c o rre c t length of the lin e .

NL s 50 m A = 0 .0 4 cm2, „
P* « 5 .5 kg E = 2 .1 0 x icfkg/cm
-ur = 6 .0 5 kg/m L = 4 5 8 .6 5 0 m •
P
r m = 8 kg
S o lu tio n :

C p * <Pm-Ps)L (8 - 5 .5 ) 4 5 8 .6 5 0
a)
AE 0 .0 4 (2 .1 0 x 106)
= + 0 .014 m (Correction for the measured line due tp tension. The po-
. ' sltive sign Indicates that tape Is too tong)

b) c - ~uj~2L-3 . ..-.(O-OS^ISO)3 ,
sl 24 fo2 " 2 4 (8)2
= - 0 .2 0 3 m (Correction due to sag per 50-m span. The effect of sag
always make the tape too short)

r - W 2 L3 _ (0 .0 5 )2 (8 .6 5 )3 * .
s2 “ 24^ 2 " “ 24(8)2
- - 0 .0 0 1 m (Correction due to sag for the 8.65 m span)

N o te: S in c e there are nine 5 0 -m spans and one 8 .8 5 m span in m ea­

su ring a total distance of 4 5 8 .6 5 0 m .
cs B 9 t-C#i) - C, = 9 ( - 0 . 2 0 3 ) - .0 .0 0 1
s - 1 .8 2 8 m (Total correction due to sag) ,

c) L* = L + Cp +GS = 4 5 8 .6 5 0 + 0 .0 1 4 - 1 .8 2 8
3 4 5 6 .8 3 6 m (Length of measured line corrected for effects of tension
and sag)

5 . COMBINED C O R R EC TIO N S. In problem no.2 , If the tape used was

standardized at 20°C and during the measurement the mean temperature
observed was 18^0, determ ine the correct length of the line for the com­
bined e ffe c ts of t^n^ion, sag, and tem p eratu re. Assum e the co efficient of
linear expansion of the tape to be equal to. 0 .0 0 0 0 1 1 6 per J,<fieg C.
G iven:
cp * + 0.014 m T * 18 °C
C8 - - 1.828 m C = 0.00 00 II 6 / r c
Ts = 2Q°C L = 458.650 m

So/u tion :
a) Ct e C L (T - Ts ) - 0 .0 0 0 0 1 1 6 ( 4 5 8 . 6 5 0 ) ( I 8 - 2 0 )
-O.OIIm (Correction for the measured lint due to temperature. The
negative sign indicates that tape is too ehorf)

,!!8, V tA S U tU H C N T O f
N O IH IO N J M t U X l A M l i *
b) L' B L ± Cp i C j t C t = 4 5 8 . 6 5 0 + 0 . 0 1 4 - 1 . 8 2 8 - 0,011
a 4 5 6 .8 2 5 m (Length of rhe measured line corrected for , the combined
effects of te n sio n ,,sag , and temperature)

4 . M EA SU R IN G A N G L E S W ITH T A P E .The angle between two in te r­

secting fen ce s is to be determined with a tape. A point on each fence
line is established 3 0 .0 m from the point of intersectio n . If the distance
between the established points is 1 2 .2 0 m, what is the intersection angle?
Fig. IV-17. " ‘

Sib l — ~) = ~3q ^q 0 ;2 0 3 3 3 3
cC = 23° 2 7 '5 0 " (The
Intersection angle}

5. M EA SU R IN G A N G L E S W ITH T A P E . In the q u ad rila te ra l A BCD .

shown in F ig . 11-18, the follow ing lengths were m easured by ta p e : AB
= 7 6 0 .5 m , BC = 3 9 0 .8 m , CD » 371.6m , DA * 5 9 5 .8 m , and AC = 7 6 5 .4 m .
Compute the interior angle at each corner.
Fig. 11-U.

G iven:
AB = 7 6 0 .5 m
BC = 3 9 0 ,8 m *
CD ■ 3 7 1 .6 m
DA = 5 9 5 .8 m
AC = 7 6 5 .4 m
R e q u ir e d :
< A, < B , < C , and <D

S o lu tio n :
Determining Values of Individual Angles. b

(AC)2 + (DA)2 - (CD)2 _ (765.4)2 + (595. 8)2 -•(37I.6)2

Cos <3 CAD
2 (AC) (DA) 2(765.4)(595.8)
— 0.880135603
<J CAD = 28°20'23.5" say 28°20''29"
(DA)2 + (CD)2 - (AC)2 _ (595.8)2 + (37I.6 )2 - (765.4)2
Cos <tADC 2 (DA) (CD) 2(595.8) (371.6)
= -0.20951504
■<t ADC =' I02°05'38.2" say I02°05' 38"
(CD)2 t (AC)2 - (DA)2 (37I.6 )2 + (765.4J2 - (595.8)2
Cos <1ACD
2 (CD) (AC) 2(371.6)(765.4)

UtktANUX N9,
 = 0 .6 4 8 5 8 7749
<XACD = 4 9 ° 3 3 ' 5 3 .3 “ say 4 9 ° 3 3* 5 3 h

(AB)2 + (AC)2 - (BC)2 (7 6 0 .5 )2 + (7 6 5 .4)2 -(3 9 0 .8 )2

CosCBAC
2 (AB) (AC) 2 (7 6 0 .5 M 7 6 5 .4 )
=. 0 .8 6 8 8 3 3 4 3 1
<IBAC = 2 9 ° 4 0 '3 5 .9 " say 29° 4 0 '3 6 "

(AB)2 + (BC)2 - (AC)2 (7 6 0 .5 )2 + ( 3 9 0 .8 ) 2 -( 7 6 S .4 )2

Cos <3 ABC
2(AB) (BC) 2 (7 6 0 .5 ) (3 9 0 .8 )
■= 0 ,2 4 4 3 5 7 4 5
<1 ABC = 75°51' 22" •
(AC)2 + (BC)2 - (AB)2 (7 6 5 .4 )2 + ( 3 9 0 . 8 ) 2 - (760.5)2
Cos <IBCA
2 (AC)(BC) 2 (7 6 5 > 4 )(3 9 p .8 )
" , t = 0 ,2 6 7 7 8 9 5 9 9
<BCA = 7 4 ° 2 8 '0 2 "

Determining the Interior Angles.

< A = <ICAD + <IBAC = 2 8 ' » 2 0 ' 2 9 " + 2 - 9 '4 -0 '3 6 "
= 5 8 ° 0 l'0 5 " (i nterlor angle at corner A)

<1 B s <A 3C
=' 75°5! 22 (Interior angle at corner B )

<XC = <BCA + <ACD = 7 4 ' 0 2 S ' 0 2 " + 4 9 ° 3 3 '5 3 "

= 124° O l ' 5 5!' (i nterior angle at corner C)

<D = <Xa DC
= I02 °0 5 38 ( i n te ri o r angle at corner D)
6
. OBSTRUCTED DISTANCES. In Fig. 11-19, I ines NQ and PR are es­
tablished perpendicular to line MNP, and points Q and R are lined up with
the distant point M. If NQ = 318.55m, PR = 475.62, and NP = 210.38m,
determine the length of MN which represents the width, of the river.
Fig. 11-19.
G iven:
NQ = 3 18.55 m
PR = 475.62 m
NP = 210.38 m

By similar triangles , MN _ NP
NQ J P R -NQ)
And m n = - m m o L . - 210,38(318.55)
(PR) - (NQ) 475.62 - 318.55
= 426.67m (width of the river)

.120,, A SU H L M f N T 0r
H O m lO N T A l D !5 iTA N C £ s
MEASUREMENT OF
VERTICAL
DISTANCES
P art III: Lesson Nos. 12 Thru 16
OF VERTICAL
DISTANCES
12-7. LEVELING
12-2. DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Level. Surface 6. Mean *Sea Level
2. Level. Line 7~. Datum
3. Horizontal. Surlace 8. Elevation
4. Horizontal. Line 9 . Di^erence in Elevation ‘
5. Vertical Line
12-3. LEVELING METHODS ■ ,.
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling
2. Reciprocal Leveling . *.
3. Profile Leveling
4. Trigonometric Leveling .
5. Stadia Leveling •
6. Barometric Leveling • *•• •’!
7. CrotA-Section Leveling
8. Borrow Pit Leveling
12-4. TYPES OF LEVELS
1. Dumpy Level . 6. Geodetic Level
2. Wye Level 7. Transit at a Level
3. Builder1t Level 8. Later Level
4. Automatic Level 9. Hand Level
5. Tilting Level \ 'C
\ .

Lesson 1Z
IE3,
12-1. LEVELING.

Levelihg is the process of directly or indirectly measuring '

vertical distances to determine the ■elevation of points or
their differences in elevation. It is a vital1and important-
aspect of surveying since leveling operations are underta­
ken to provide necessary data for engineering design and
construction, and the production of topographic maps.V The
suitability of a site for development can be better deter­
mined by using the results obtained from leveling opera-'
tions. Through the processes of leveling, buildings, roads#
canals, and other vertical and horizontal structures can be
designed and laid out to best conform to the configuration
of the ground.
m ’ *
12-2. DEFINITION OF TERMS.
To better understand leveling operations, the following
basic terms are defined below, and some Of which are illus­
trated in Figure 12-1. ’» „ •
1. Level Surface. It is a curved surface which is at
any point perpendicular to the direction of gravity or the
plumb line. It is best represented by the surface of a
large*body of still water. However, a level surface is not
a plane and does not have a regular form because of local
deviations* of the plumb line. To some effect, the direction
of gravity depends on the distribution of the masses of the
earth's crust and on their densities. Such that, if a plumb
bob is held vertically at the base of a mountain, it will
hav£ the tendency to deflect toward the mountain* Although
the de-flection would be small and negligible, nevertheless
it makes the level surface slightly irregular.
2. Level Line. A level line is a curved line in a level
surface all points of which are normal to the direction of
'gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface. -It is a plane that is tangent to
a level surface at a particular point. The horizontal sur­
face is also perpendicular to the plumb line at the same
point. -
4. Horizontal Line. A straight line in a horizontal
plane which is tangent to a level line at one point. This
line is perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the
point of tangency. Since the mean radius of the earth is
comparatively large, it is practical for most purposes to
assume that a level line and a horizontal line are the same
for short distances.
5. Vertical Line. A vertical line at any point is a
line parallel to the direction of gravity. It is exempli­
fied by the direction taken by a string supporting a sus­
pended plumb bob passing through a point. For ordinary pur­
poses it is convenient to assume that the jearth is a true
sphere with a smooth surface, and that a plumb line held at

j 24j k / f A S U * € MC N T o r
y e n r /c a l o im a n c a m
 12-1. tyUationihip he.tue.en level 4uniac.ee,

/■Earth's Surface
Difference In Elevotion _ E l e v o r ion
/'Between A a B__ ______ / o f B (*)

^Ele vation
f * o f A {♦)

■difference \
In Elevation]
D iffere n ce Between
Nn Elevatio n . A a C Elevation
Betw een B B C of C l " )
To E a r t h 1*
Center

any point on its surface is always directed toward the cen­

ter of the sphere.
6. Mean Sea Level. Mean sea level is an imaginary sur­
face of the sea which rs midway between high and low tides.
It is taken as the reference surface to which most ground
elevations are referred. This surface is determined by ave­
raging the height of the sea's surface for all its tide
stages over a long period of time which may extend to about
20 years. Readings are usually taken at hourly intervals on
various properly distributed stations. Mean sea level is
not a steady frame of reference due to the melting of ice
in the polar regions, the effects of volcanic activity, and
many other influencing factors. It is for these reasons
that it is necessary to have a continuing observation of
;ea level fluctuations to detect changes. This surface,
which is considered to be at zero elevation, ’ conforms to.
the spheroidal shape of the earth and is perpendicular to
the direction of gravity at every point.
7. Datum. Datum is*any convenient level surface coinci­
dent or parallel with mean sea level to which elevations of
.1 particular area are referred. Any surface may be used as
.i datum when relative elevations over a limited area needs
to be established. It is done by assigning an assumed
■levation to a reference point and determining the eleva­
tion of other points in the vicinity with regard to this
value.
8. Elevation. For a particular point, its elevation is
ihe vertical distance above or below mean sea level or ar y
■>Iher selected datum. Points on or near the surface* of the
c.irth have either positive or negative elevations, depend­
ing if the point is above or below mean sea level.
* 9. Difference in Elevation. The difference in elevation
between two points is the vertical distance between the two
level surfaces in which the points lie.
A W ftr M IN T of
VIM r n M (If* TAN( t K 125k
12-3. LEVELING METHODS.

There are various methods which could be employed to deter­

mine the elevation of points and their differences in ele­
vation. These methods may be undertaken either directly or
indirectly, in the field. The principle involved in each
method differ in some -aspects. . Also, they may differ with
respect to tyie type of instruments used, the procedure em­
ployed, and the attainable degrees of precision. Traditio­
nal methods’ of leveling have been used for so many years
and they still continue to be useful in the present time.
Such methods include: direct leveling, trigonometric level­
ing, and barometric leveling. •
Concurrent with recent developments in surveying ins­
truments, newer and more precise techniques have been deve­
loped. Some of these utilize electronic *instruments such as
total geodetic stations, the airborne profile recorder, sa,-
tellite doppler systems, and inertial surveying systems. In
the following lessons no attempt will be made to discuss
these new leveling methods. Concentration will be made only
on conventional and traditional methods of leveling, this
being an elementary course of study in surveying.

1. D ire c t o r S p i r i t L e v e l i n g . Direct leveling is the

commonly * employed method of determining the elevation of
points some distance apart by a series of set ups.of a le­
veling instrument along a selected route. This, method of
leveling is also referred to as spirit levelirtg-since the
device used is a spirit level. Differential leveling, dou-
ble-rodded leveling, and three-wire leveling are forms of
direct leveling. In direct leveling vertical’distances are
measured above or below a level line and these values are
used to compute the elevation of points or their differen­
ces in elevation. Being the most precise method of leve­
ling, it is used when a high degree of accuracy is re­
quired .
2. Reciprocal Leveling. Reciprocal leveling is the pro­
cess of accurately determining the difference in elevation
between two intervisible points located at a considerable
distance apart artd between which points leveling could not
be performed in th'e' usual manner. This method is commonly
employed when leveling across a wide river, a dee^ravine,
or across canyons and gullies where it would be difficult
or impossible to maintain a foresight and a backsight dis­
tance of nearly equal lengths. Reciprocal leveling provides
a faster method of determining differences in elevation and
when it is carefully conducted, it could be as precise . as
direct leveling. In determining the difference in elevation
between the two points, it will require two sets of obser­
vations and the mean of which is used. Since there is ine-
qualitj* between the sights taken, the process of recipro­
cal leveling is expected to eliminate the errors resulting
from curvature of the earth and the refraction of the <»t

26.
 mosphere, p ro v id e d ttia t a tm o s p h e ric c o n d itio n s do hot
change d u r i n g the process of l e v e l i n g .
3. Profile Leveling. This method of leveling is used td;
determine differences in elevation between points at desig­
nated short measured intervals along an established line to
provide data from which a vertical section of the ground
surface can be plotted. In the design of roads; railroads,
'canals, drainage systems, and transmission 1ines, it is ne­
cessary to first obtain a profile of the existing ground
surface. It is, this method of leveling which will best suit
such requirements.
4. T r i g o n o m e t r i c L e v e l i n g . This method of leveling is
employed in determining by trigonometric computations the
difference in elevation between two points from measure-
merits of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical
angle between the points. The required distances are usual­
ly obtained’by stadia, triangulation, or by direct taping.
By most leveling standards, trigonometric leveling only
provides a very rough determination of differences in ele­
vation. Its degree of precision may be improved by using
precise measuring instruments such as optical. theodolites
and total geodetic stations which measure angles to se­
conds. However, there are certain occasions such as in map­
ping or surveying over very rugged terrain when it would be
fully justified to undertake trigonometric leveling. It is
also, a convenient method to adapt when it is required only
to determine the elevation of principal stations or con­
trol points. .
5. S t a d i a L e v e l i n g . Stadia leveling combines features
of direct leveling with those of trigonometric leveling.
This method is in fact a form of trigonometric leveling. It
♦can provide reasonable accuracy for preliminary siirveys,
mapping, and rough leveling where quick measurements are
needed. In stadia leveling, differences in elevation bet­
ween points are computed from observed vertical^angles and
the three intercepts on a rod held at each point backsight-
ed or foresighted. Any surveying instrument may be employed
in stadia leveling as long as it has a telescope to read
vertical angles and is equipped with stadia bai,rs in addi­
tion to the standard cross hairs.
6. B a ro m e tr ic L e v e l i n g . Barometric leveling involves
the determination of differences in elevation between
points by measuring the variation in atmospheric pressure
at each' point by means of a barometer. This leveling method
depends on the basic principle that differences in eleva­
tion are proportional to the differences in atmospheric
pressure. The readings of a barometer at different points
on the earth's surface provides a measure of the relative
elevations of these points. It* is an accepted fact that the
pressure caused by the weight of a column of air above the
observer decreases as the observer goes higher in altitude.
The method is particularly useful for low precision! level­
ing over rough terrain where extensive areas need1 to be

127.
covered and differences in elevation are large*. It is
principally employed on reconnaissance surveys or other
work requiring only approximate values. However, it is not
desirable t,o employ when the atmospheric pressure in the
area changes rapidly.
7. Cross-Section Leveling. In highway or railroad cons-'
tructions it is often necessary to obtain a representation
of the ground surface on either side of the centerline.
Short profiles at right angles to the line of work' are.
usually plotted at regular intervals for this purpose. This
type of data is obtained in the field by a process referred
to as cross-section leveling.
8. Borrow-Pit Leveling. Borrow-pit leveling is a method
of determining the relative elevations of points in borrow-
pit excavations for the purpose of calculating volumes of
earthwork. This type* of work is usually encountered in the
construction of roads and railroads.

12-4. TYPES OF LEVELS.

There are various types of instruments used in leveling

work, the basic instrument used, however, is the spirit le­
vel. Other instruments employed in leveling work include
the hand level, alidade, transit, theodolite, aneroid baro­
meter, and EDM instruments. Although these instruments may
differ somewhat in design, each can be used to establish a
horizontal line of sight by means of a telescope fitted
with a set of cross hairs and a level bubble.
Fig. 12-2. Dumpy
 1. Dumpy Level. The dumpy level (Fig. 12-2) Is the most
widely used direct leveling instrument. It has a long te­
lescope which is rigidly attached to the level bar. The
telescope, which can be rotated through 360 degrees, fixes
the direction of the line of sight. Attached to the level
bar is a level vial which always remains in the same verti­
cal plane as the telescope. A leveling head supports the
telescope and permits the bubble in the tube to be. centered
by means of the leveling screws. The whole instrument is in
turn supported by means of a tripod.
The dumpy level is simple in construction. Its main
parts are all made in one casting which are fastened rigid­
ly together. Since there are only a few moving parts which
could be worn out or displaced, the instrument requires
fewer adjustments. *
2. Wye Level. The wye level (Fig. 12-3) is very identi­
cal to the dumpy level. The only distinct difference bet-

H g . 12-3. ittye -fever.

L»v«! Viol ------------------v Focu»lng Knob ,

--------- Dtiachoblo T«l«»cop»

ween these two instruments is in the manner by which their

telescopes are attached to the supporting level bar. The
wye level has a detachable telescope which rests in sup­
ports called wyes. Tt can be removed from the Y-shaped
supports and turned end for end during adjustment by relea-
s irig the two clamping collars which fit across the tops of
AHUNf Aft lYT O
H TlC A l Oi M A N U
 the Y's.v Curved clips are used to fasten the telescope in
place *
The wye level is now almost obsolete and seldomly used
since newer levels are better constructed and satisfactory
?for most leveling.work. Although this leveling instrument
was not as popular as the other levels, many of its older
‘models have more sensitive bubble tubes than the other
types of engineer’s level. '
3. Builder's Level. This instrument is used primari
in the different phases of building construction where a
high degree of precision is not a primary requisite. En­
gineers, architects, and builders use it in the setting of
concrete forms, batter boards, and in establishing grades
for earthwork.
fig . 12-4. B u itd tA 'S ltv U .

Tt is often called a construction level or an archi­

tect •s level. The level vial is not as sensitive as in
other levels and its telescope has a much lesser magnifying
power. The horizontal circle, which is found between the
level vial and the leveling head, is its special feature.
This circle is used when measuring or laying out horizontal
angles.
4. Automatic Level. Self-leveling features are incorp
rated in automatic levels. This type of level has become
popular for conventional leveling work because of the ease
and speed of their operation. It does not use a level vial
and its ability to level itself depends upon the action of
a complex pendulum-and-prism device.
x An automatic level is equipped with a prismatic device
called a compensator which is suspended on fine, non-magne-
tic wires. When the instrument is approximately centered by
means of a bull’s-eye level, the force of gravity on the
compensator allows the optical system to swing into a posi­
tion which will automatically make the line of sight hori­
zontal. The line of sight remains horizontal as long as the
circular bubb.le remains approximately centered.

!30
 F*g. 12-5. hUomaXic level.

The level is not affected by any slight movement or

'.ettlement which would disturb the bubble or line of sight,
its pendulum action automatically shifts to maintain a
truly horizontal line of sight whenever the instrument is
•.lightly disturb. This type of leveling instrument is par­
ticularly useful where the ground is soft or when jstrong
winds blow against the instrument since it ,can automatical­
ly relevel itself.

I VI- I'/ A. Ulifd t i / t i n g level w i t h K o ta X a b le F ig . 12-7. I'Jifd geodetic le v e l

ti/titAc.opv and AevVA-kib/e. tubutaA / e ve ./.

HtAlUMHtNl Of
i t uncAi o n i ANt t 131.
 5. Tilting levels. This type of leveling instrument
(Fig. 12-6) can be tilted or rotated about its horizontal
axis. A bull’s-eye level is employed for its quick and
approximate leveling. The tilting knob is used to rotate
the telescope into a correct horizontal position. Tilting
levels are commonly employed for very ^precise leveling
operations and in other general leveling work. It is also
equipped with a horizontal circle which makes it suitable
for layout and construction surveys.
6. Geodetic Level. The geodetic level is basically ano­
ther type of tilting level. Mpst of its metal parts, are
made of invar to reduce the effects of temperature. Geode­
tic leyels (Fig. 12-7) are employed in first-order leveling
work where extreme precision is' an important requirement.
The instrument is equipped with stadia hairs in addition to
the standard vertical and horizontal cross hairs to make it
suitable for three-wire leveling; When using the instrument
the observer has to stand erect since i.t is designed with a
high tripod to bring the line of sight way above any inter­
vening ground surface. This was purposely done to lessen*
the effects of differential refraction of extra long lines
of sight.
7. Transit as a Level. The engineer’s' transit has al­
ways been referred to as the ’’universal ’surveying instru­
ment" because of its variety of uses. There is no doubt
that it can also be used for leveling work. It can provide
results which are fairly precise although not as good as
those obtained with conventional levels. This is because*
the transit has a relatively shorter telescope and level
vial.

Fig. 12-8. Itiild AM? converted to a laAZ\ Fig. 12-9. LcueA AyAtem mounted on a
level tUting a G L02 tn&vi eyepiece. leveling itutAument.

8. Laser Level. A new innovation introduced to survey

ing operations is the use of lasers. A laser system is a
separate unit equipped with a portable, power supply and ,may
be a helium-neon laser or gas laser. They are usually
mounted or attached to conventional surveying instruments
such as levels, transits, and theodolites. The Wild NA2

J3£,
 (Fig. 12-8) with an attached laser eyepiece is an example
of a laser converted level. The eyepiece includes a special
reticle which has a small free spot in its center to allow
the laser light beam to pass freely. Surveying instruments
with laser attachments are ideally suited for applications
in*leveling work, building construction and layout, and in
many other engineering activities, where reference lines
have to be established accurately.
Laser light is a low-powered beam of red light which is
suitable for projecting a line of sight since it is cohe­
rent and highly collimated. A sharply defined light spot is
focused at the target when the telescope image is focused.
The laser.beam can be projected along an optically straight
path and it spreads only very slightly as the distance fro'i
the source to target increases. Projected is a visible
"string line" beam which can be seen on targets under dif­
ferent lighting conditions. The maximum range of the laser
depends on atmospheric conditions and rhe nature of the
target surface. During daylight the range is about 300 m
and at nightime it is about 600 m.
fia* 12-10. LaAeA -iy-Uem mounted on a builde*1* ttveA.

9v Hand Level. The hand level (Fig. 12-11) is a hand-

v , M t*r 0 fr
f t ICA I x 132
 13-1. LEVELING RODS.

A leveling rod is a graduated rod which is used for measu­

ring the vertical distance between the line of sigfyt
through a leveling instrument and the point whose elevation
is either required or known. Rods are made of wood, fiber­
glass, or metal and have graduations in meters and decimals
which start from zero at the bottom and extending upward to
lengths of 3 or 4 meters. Wooden rods are made from select­
ed straight grain, hard wood, carefully sanded and treated
with a preservative stain that resists moisture absorption.
The ends' of the rod are protected by hard metal shdes and
caps. A wide choice of colors, patterns, and graduations is
available. Some are made in one, two, or three’sections and
may be either telescoping or hinged for ease in transpor­
ting. Most leveling rods have conveniently designed pat­
terns which allow readings to be taken easily and with less
chance of committing mistakes. Leveling tods may be either
of the following:

1. Self-Reading Rod. This is the most commonly used

tfype of leveling rod. It can be read directly by the ins-
trumentman through the telescope by noting' the apparent in­
tersection of the horizontal hair on the rod.
2. Target Rod. This type of rod has a sliding target
which is set and read by a rodman at the position selected
by the instrumentman.

It can be expected that reSults obtained by reading the rod

directly is practically as accurate as that done by reading
the rod with the aid of a target. Under favorable condi­
tions, leveling rods are readable through the telescope for
distances up to about 90 meters from the instrument. A tar­
get should be used when longer distances are involved. The
target is extremely useful when readings are t$ken in dim-
lighted areas, in dense vegetation, and wheh establishing
several points on the same straight grade line.
13-2. OTHER TYPES OF ROD.

There are Several other types of rod used in leveling work.

Among these are:

1. Rods Named After Cities or States. Leveling rod

named after cities or states include the Philadelphia,
Detroit, Chicago, Florida, Boston, New York, Troy, and San
Francisco rods.
The Philadelphia rod (Fig. 13-1) is a combination self­
reading and target rod and is the commonly used type of
rod. It is made in two sections in which the rear section
slides over the front section. Readings less than two
meters are taken using the rear section of the rod and is
referred to as readings on the short rod. For readings bet

,136, UCASUNfNFNT Or
vcttriCAL p is iA N c rs
Fig. 13-1. Philadelphia nod.6

AtirtOt#
V i S T I C Mi
r.nt Of
iyrA cut 137,
 ween two and four meters, the long (or high) rod is used by
fully extending the rear section.
The zero mark is at the bottom of the rod and the gra­
duations extend upward to usually four meters. Red colored
numbers are used to portray the full meter marks on the
face of the rod. Black numbers are used for tenths, and the
hundredths are shown by alternate black and white horizon-*
tal bars. The graduations on the rod are continuous when
the rod is fully extended. The Philadelphia, rod can be read
accurately with a leveling instrument at distances up to 90
meters. For much longer distances a target should be used.
The Chicago rod comes, in three sliding sections and
usually extends to either three or four meters. It is
graduated similar to the Philadelphia rod except that the
figures on the face of the rod are wider and thus more sui­
table for longer distances. The rod is designed to be col­
lapsible for ease in transporting. This type of rod is
widely used in construction surveys.
2. Rod Ribbons. This is an improvised type of rod used
in leveling work. The graduations on this rod are marked
either on canvass or metal strips which are attached to a
long piece of selected lumber by staples. Rod ribbons are
quite handy as these can be easily removed from the wood to
which it is attached, rolled, and put into one's pocket
after it is used. Since rod ribbons can be easily compared
With a standardized tape before it is used, they are suffi­
ciently precise for ordinary leveling operations.
3. Precise Rod. The precise rod is a form of rod rib­
bon which uses a graduated invar strip permanently fastened
to a four-meter long wooden or metal frame. It is equipped
with a rod level to allow the rodman to hold the rod verti­
cally when used. For precise leveling work a thermometer is
attached to it for purposes of reading the air temperature.
4. Geodetic Rod. This rod is similar to a precise rod
except that a nilvar metal strip is used instead of invar.
Nilvar is an alloy of metal with a very low coefficient of
linear expansion. The graduations on a geodetic rod are
painted upside down for use with inverting telescopes, and
are shown in meters, decimeters, and centimeters.
5. Tape Rod. This seldomly used rod is also known as
the automatic rod. It is used advantageously when numerous
elevations are to be determined from a single set-up of the
leveling instrument. When employed in leveling work, the
tape tod eliminates the need to add backsight readings to
determine the height of instrument or to subtract foresight
readings to determine the elevation of sighted points.
The tape rod is useful in profile leveling, in taking
cross sections, and for the different phases involved in
building construction and layout. A three-meter long gra­
duated metal tape is looped around the frame of the rod by
means of rollers located at both ends of the frame. The
tape can be rotated or fixed temporarily in any position
for a sequence of desired rod readings. Harks inscribed on
|T ft M C A S U R rH tN T o r
V C R T tC A L V t a iA N C e s
 the rod are similar to those used in Philadelphia rods
except that graduations increase downward.
, To illustrate the use of this rod, assume that a tape
rod is held vertically on a point whose elevation is 123.45
meters. The rodman then rotates the tape around the frame
until, the line of sight of the leveling instrument falls on
3.45 m. The tape is then clamped into this position. The
rod is next moved to a point whose elevation is to be
determined. A rod reading on the point of, say 2.86 m means
an elevation of 122.86 m; for 3.07 m the recorded elevation
is 123,07 m; for 1.98 m the recorded elevation is 121.98 m;
etc. The foresight readings on the rod gives elevations di­
rectly and eliminates the need to perform subtraction,
until the instrument is moved to another set-up. Should
there be a need to transfer the instrument to another loca­
tion, the clamps of the rod are released and the tape loop
is reset. This is done by again sighting on a point of
known elevation. The process of determining elevations of
foresighted points is continued in a similar manner as ear­
lier explained.

13-3. ROD LEVEL.

The rod* level (Fig. 13-2) is a device

used for fast and correct plumbing of a
leveling rod. It is L-shape in design and
consists of a small circular spirit level
fastened to the rod or to a small bracket
held- against the side of the rod. When
the bull's-eye bubble is centered, the
rod is plumb or correctly held vertical.
A different type consists of a hinged
casting on each wing. It is mounted pn a
level tube, and held parallel to the face
of the rod. The rod is plumb when both of
the bubbles are centered..

13-4. TARGETS.
A target is a small device attached to
the rod when extremely long sights make
direct reading of the rod difficult or Fig. 13-2. Rod UveJL.
impossible. Targets are made of metal and
may be circular., elliptical, or rectangular in shape. Hor i-
zontal and vertical lines are formed by the junction of
alternating red and white quadrants painted on its face. It
usually has a rectangular opening in the front to expose a
portion of the rod in order that readings can be made. A
small vernier may be attached to the target to allow more
accurate readings on the rod.
Targets are used not only on extremely long sights, but
also when the rod is field in poorly lighted places, where
at mosphepic conditions may cause adverse effects on rea-

133,
 Fig. 13-3. t L U p tic a l mttaZ t m g e t .

tangular Opening

Clamp White Painted

Q uadran t

Vernier Red Painte d /•

Q uadran t

Leveling
Rod

ding a rod accurately. They are also used when vegetation

or other obstructions to a line of sight make the reading
difficult, or when setting a line .of stakes at the same
elevation. The target is moved up or down under the direc­
tion of the instrumentman until it appears to <be bisected
by the cross hairs, but it is read by.the rodman. Shown in
Figure 13-4 are other forms of targets used on rods.
F ig. 1 3 - 4 . O th e A i o A m i OjJ t a i g t t J , .

13-5. TELESCOPES.

The telescope of a surveying instrument is a metal tube

containing a system of lenses which are used to fix the di-

J40, A ff A S U R F k it ' N T O F
V tN T lC A L O f S TA N C C S
rection of the line of sight and in magnifying the apparent
size of objects in its field of view. A Dutchman, Jan
Lippershey, invented the first telescope in 1608. The great
mathematician Johannes Kepler was the one who suggested how
the telescope could be employed for use in surveying ins­
truments. This led to the development of the Keplerian.br
astronomical telescope which consists of a tube with varia­
ble length which has an objective lens, cross wires, and an
eyepiece. . •
Fig. 13-5. KiVionamicat teJt2Miop<u>.

ExtZAnal Focusing TvX<U>c.opi.

In some telescopes the objective leps is mounted on a

sleeve which moves back and forth in the telescope barrel
as an object is brought into focus. This is called external
focusing. Internal focusing telescopes have an additional
auxiliary lens which moves back and forth between the
objective and the cross hairs as the focusing screw is
turned. Both types of telescope are illustrated in Figure
13-5.

1. Objective Lens. It is a compound lens composed of

crown and flint glass mounted in the objed€ive end'.of the
telescope and has its optical axis concentric with "the tube
axis. The function of the objective lens is to allow light
rays to enter the telescope and form an image of the object
sighted within its field of view.
2. Eyepiece. The eyepiece is a form*of microscope con­
taining either two or four lenses and is used to enlarge
altogether the image and the cross hairs. It allows the
instrumentman to sight and read accurately the graduations
on a leveling rod. Leveling instruments may have either an
erecting o-r inverting eyepiece depending on the arrangement
of the lenses. Each type of eyepiece has a focusing move­
ment so that it: can be focused on the image to suit each
individual eye.
An erecting eyepiece consists of four lenses which both
magnify and erect the image. This type of eyepiece is popu­
larly used since it allows sighted images to be observed
right side up. The inverting eyepiece is another type which
has only two lenses. It can only magnify the image but not
erect it. Although the observer sees the image upside down,
it is clearer and better illuminated since a lesser amount
of light is absorb by the two lenses. The inverting eye­
piece is superior in its optical properties and is prefer­
red by most engineers and surveyors. Most precise levels
employ inverting eyepieces.
3. Cross Hairs. The cross hairs (Fig. 13-6) consists
of a pair of lines which are perpendicular to each other
and are used to define the instrument's line of sight. They
are mounted on a reticle or cross hair ring near the eye­
piece of the telescope and located at the principal focus
of the objective optical system. It is fixed into position
by two pairs of capstan screws placed at right angles to
each other. These screws are also used to adjust the posi­
tioning of the cross hairs. In telescopes of older surve­
ying instruments, cross hairs were made of spider web or
fine filaments ofplatinum wire. Some are madeof fine
glass threads and others have a glass diaphragm on which
lines are etched. The disadvantage of spider threads is
that they slacken when moist and require some skill to
mount with just the right amount of tension.

Fig. 13-6. CA0&4 hai* Aing oa Aetic^£.

In newer instruments, cross hairs are ruled and etched

on a thin glass plate, with dark metal filaments deposited
to make the lines visible. Cross hairs mounted on glass
alfeo have a disadvantage since it causes a slight loss of
light and allows dust to collect on the glass which fogs
the image. Most levels used for ordinary leveling work only

M2 rn*rai Mr*su*cucnr nr
.1 v c v n c H oisr*Nr:r\
Fig. 13-7. OtheA pcUteAru iu>zd caoaa haiAi and sta d ia hairu.

have one horizontal and one vertical hair. Instruments used

for precise leveling have two additional horizontal hairs
called stadia hairs. Stadia hairs are shorter, are parallel
to and equidistant from the horizontal hair. One of the
stadia hairs is positioned above the horizontal hair and
the other is positioned below. Various-patterns of cross
hairs and stadia hairs are used. Some of these are illus­
trated in Figure 13-7.

13-6. MAGNIFICATION.

The magnification of a telescope is the ratio of the appa­

rent size of an object viewed through a tele’scope to its
size as seen by the unaided eye from the same distance. It
may also be taken as the amount by which an object is in­
creased in apparent size. The amount of magnification is
fixed by the ratio of the focal length of the objective and
the eyepiece lenses. Magnification is expressed in terms of
diameters.. For most levels, the magnification may vary from
25 to 40 diameters. High magnification is not always an ad­
vantage since it limits the field of view of the telescope
and reduces the brightness or illumination of the viewed
objects.

13-7. LEVEL VIAL.

A level vial (Fig.13-8) is a sealed graduated glass tube

containing some amount of liquid and a small air bubble. It
is used to determine the direction of gravity. The type of
liquid used must have a low viscosity and freezing point.
It: must be able to move quickly with very slight shifting

143,
 or tilting of the vial, -and should be* relatively stable in
length under normal variations in temperature. Alcohol mix­
ed w,ith ether, .and pentane hydrocarbons were popularly used
earlier. Newly designed level vials now. use purified syn­
thetic alcohol. '
Fig. 13-8. Level viat.
. S e a l e d G la s s
A i r Bubble Tu be (g ra d u a te d )

A d ju s t in g
Screw

P r o t e c t i v e Metal
lio u sin g

Uniformly spaced graduations, about 2 mm long, etched

on the tube's -surface locate the bubble's relative posi-
tion. When the liquid drops 'to the lower part of the vial,
the entrapped a ir bubble moves to th£ highest point in the
tube. A line tangent to the top center of the bubble is a
horizontal line which is perpendicular to a plumb line. The
line of sight of the telescope is said to be horizontal
when the bubble is located at the center of the graduations
or} the tube .
Fig. 13-9. Coincidejfc.e. bubble.

\ ) .-4
— -J\
(a ) (b)

A p p e a r a n c e of B u b b l e s B e f o r e C e n t e r i n g and
D i r e c t i o n Taken in T u r n i n g the L e v e lin g S c r e w s .

A p p e a r a n c e of B ub ble when Centere d

13-8 COINCIDENCE BUBBLE. ,

This type of bubble \s used on most modern and precise ins­

truments such as the tilting and automatic levels. It em­
ploys an optical device which splits the bubble longitudi­
nally, then turns one end around to make it appear adjacent
to the other end. When the two ends form a smooth curve
which apparently looks like the tip of a hot dog,the bubble

,144.
 I

is correspondingly centered.
With -the use of a coincidence bubble, the set up and
leveling of an instrument can be made more accurately than
by means of the conventional level vial. The use of a coin­
cidence bubble, however, has a disadvantage since it is not
always clear which way the level needs to be tilted to
bring the images together.

* Fig. 13-10. Type.* oi lAlpodt,.

Le ve lin g ,H e a d

—Wooden or
A lu m in u m L e g s -

S I iding-
s e ctio n

Spur-

-Shoe

UJ ib)
Lix ed-Leg T\lpod 'Cxteji6ion Ttlpod

13-9. TRIPODS.

Tripods serve as a base to prevent movement of the instru­

ment after it is set' up. A tripod consists of three wooden
or aluminum legs which are. securely fastened to the tripod
head by means of a hinged joint. The legs are spread wide
enonqh to provide a stable platform for the instrument.
When setting up it is good practice to center and level the
instrument first by adjusting the tripod legs. If the leve­
ling head is established nearly horizontal by means of the
tripod, only a minimum of shifting and adjustment with the
leveling screws would be necessary.
Two types of tripod are used with a leveling instru­
ment. A tripod whose legs are made of a solid piece of wood
is called a fixed-leg (or high) tripod. If the legs have a
sliding section it is called an extension tripod. The

Ut A tUHf Mr A / or IA
M A! i', >MV. I
** >
fixed-leg tripod is more rigid and makes it possible to
keep the line of sight higher above the ground. This re­
duces considerably the effect of atmospheric refraction. On
the other hand, an extension tripod is suitable for use in
rough terrain set ups where the legs need to be adjusted tp
fit the configuration of the ground.
At each end of a tripod is attached a pointed piece of
metal called a shoe. The shoes of the tripod are forced
into the ground by stepping on it with ope's foot. Usually
each shoe has a spur which facilitates pushing the point
in. It is necessary to press them deeply enough so chat the
tripod will not settle especially when settjng over soft
or unstable ground.

146 . yt*TiC4l />!%,.^ r.

OF V E R T IC A L

14-1. SETTING UP THE LEVEL

14-2. LEVELING THE INSTRUMENT
1. Instruments With Four Leveling Screws
2. Instruments With Three Leveling Screws
14-3. HOLDING THE LEVELING ROD
14-4. TAKING A ROD REAVING
1. Position The Rod
*2. Focus On The Rod
3. Read Thehod
14-5. DETERMINING DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION
14-6. LENGTHS OF SIGHT
14-7. WAVING THE ROD
14-8. CARRYING THE INSTRUMENT
14-9: ARM AND HAND SIGNALS
1. Move Right o k Le$t 9. Plumb the Rod
2. Give a Sight 10. Establish a Turning Point
3i All Right 11. This is a Turning Point
4. This is a Point 12. Wave The Rod
5. Move Back 13. Face'The Rod
6. Pick Up Instruments 14. Reverse The Rod
7. Raise [ox Lower) Target 15. Move Forward
8. Come In 16. Use The Long Rod \

Lesson *14
tV
Vinaf.4AltUn
pf
/M
st
TN
AT o,
VCi^,
 14-i- SETTING UP THE LEVEL.

The leveling instrument may be set up at any suitable or

desired location., When starting a leveling operation* the
mstrumentman should first consider where he intends to
position the instrument. The level is then pulled out from
its box by holding the level bar or base plate and screwed
securely onto the tripod head. Care should be exercised ir
•screwing the level. The instrument should fit snugly and
bear firmly. If loosely fitted,, the instrument will wobble
and be unstable; if too tight due to excessive pressure* it
would be difficult to unscrew-the instrument later and may
cause some damage.
Solid ground should be selected when setting up the
instrument. Muddy and wet areas should be avoided as these
are unstable to stand on and may only cause serious errors
in leveling work. Tripod legs are spread so that the foot,
plate will be approximately horizontal. It will* be easier
and quicker to level the instrument later if the plate is
already horizontally positioned. The legs should be far
enough apart for a rigid set up, and they should be pushed
firmly into the ground to make it stand stable. The instru-
mentman should see to it that the telescope is at a conve- \
nient height for sighting and he must be able to stand 1
comfortably between the tripod legs. A preferable and con­
venient height of setup is one which will enable the ins-
trumentman to sight through the telescope .without having to
stretch or stoop.
When setting up the instrument on hillsides or along a
slope, one of its legs should extend uphill and two down­
hill. It is advisable for the instrumentman to carry along a
hand level to determine the approximate height at which the
instrument should be set up- in order ‘that points to be
sighted will fall within the established line of sight.
. ■■
14-2. LEVELING THE INSTRUMENT.

A considerable amount of practice in leveling the instru­

ment will be needed by a beginner. It is only by constant
practice that one would really be- able to feel and ex­
perience the proper turning of leveling screws to bring the
bubble in a level vial to its center. Most conventional
levels are designed with four leveling screws. The 'screws
ire used to center the bubble in a level tllLe which is
attached to the telescope of the instrument. Newer models
often have only three leveling screws to center the bubble
of either a level tube or a .circular bull's-eye level. The
procedures followed in leveling each type of instrument are
outlined as follows: <

1. Inst ruments With Four Leveling Screws. The bubble is

fir t centra zed approx urate ly over one pair of opposite le­
veling screwv (Fig. 14-1). Time is wasted by exact cente-

I'■ tr4Mt"*tUk'"OfvCft

I
ring in the first attempt, since the bubble will be thrown
off during cross leveling. The telescope is next turned 90
degrees (either clockwise or counterclockwise) and poai^
tioned. over the two other opposite leveling screws.' The
bubble is again centered approximately. This procedure is
repeated about three or more times with increasing cafe
until the bubble finally remains centered in any direction
the telescope is pointed. The instrument is leveled if the
bubble thus remain centered. This condition will occur only
with a properly adjusted level vial since its vertical axis
assumes a truly vertical position when the bubble is -cen-*
tered. .

• Fig. U -1 . Centexing bubble, with 6oiu leve lin g m a w a .

The thumb and the index finger of each hand are used to
,turn the screws. Screws are turned always in opposite di­
rections; that is, the thumbs should move either away from
each other or-toward each other. It is only during final
centering when just one screw needs to be turned to move
the bubble thru a small graduation on the level vial. It
will be important to remember that when the leveling screws
are turned, the bubble moves, in the direction of motion of
the left thumb. Since all screws have exactly the same
thread length, one should be extended and the other shor­
tened by turning in opposite directions. Turning opposite
screws should b e a t the same time and also at about the
same rate. This procedure will allow the screws to cons­
tantly • bear evenly on the foot plate while the instrument
is being leveled. The instrumentman must see to it that the
screws should be snug and not se*t too tight to avoid damage
to threads and the base plate. It should yield easily to a
turn when held between the thumb and index finger.
2. Instruments With Three Leveling Screws. For instru­
ments* with only three leveling screws, the telescope is
turned until the bubble tube is positioned parallel to the
line through any two of the screws. The bubble is then cen­
tered on the level vial by turning these two screws in op­
posite directions. As usual, ^the thumb and the index finger
of each hand are used to turn the screws. Also, the bubble
will still move in the direction of motion of the left
thumb.
The telescope is next rotated about the vertical axis
of the instrument so that the bubble tube is brought per­
pendicular to a line through the two screws turned earlier.
Again, ' the bubble is brought carefully to center by means
of the' third screw alone. This process of leveling is il­
lustrated in Fig. 14-2.
Direction of Bubble Movement.

Fig. 14-t. Centering bubble, utiih thn.ee leveling AcneuxA.

The instrument is leveled if the bubble remains center­

ed on the level vial when the telescope is brought back to
.its first position. If the bubble does not remain , within
the center graduations, the process is repeated until it
remains in the center for any position of the telescope.
This method of repeated centering will only work if the le­
vel vial is in adjustment. Should it be out of adjustment,
n6 amount of .repeated centering will work.
In automatic and tilting levels, a three-screw head and
a circular bull's-eye level are usually employed. Prior to
leveling it is important that the legs of the tripod are
positioned so that leveling head is nearly horizontal, and
the bubble in the circular level is brought as close to the
center of the vial. With the telescope in any convenient
position, the bull’s-eye bubble is centered in one direc­
tion by operating two leveling screws. It is then centered
in the other direction by means of the third screw. The
process of centering the bubble is done by alternately tur­
ning two screws and then the other one singly. The teles­
cope does not have to be turned to any direction during the
process of leveling.

14-3. HOLPING THE LEVELING KOD.

The leveling rod is held on a point by a rodman when a

sight is to be taken on it. To obtain the correct distance
from the line of sight to the point on which the rod is
Fig. 14-1. Holding the. \od. .placed, it is extremely important thatr:
the rod be held plumb when the reading
is made. The instrumentman checks t h e -
rod by observing through the*telescope
and noting if it is held parallel to
the vertical cross hair. If the rod is;
not correctly plumbed, the instrument-'
man giyes out a signal to plumb ttie
rod. The accuracy of a leveling opera*
tion is significantly improved if the
rod is always held correctly, pnd It
also increases the speed with which the
work may be performed. ,
The rodman either stands beside the
rod or behind it. He should face the
instrumentman and see to it that the
rod is held nearly at right angles to
the line of sight. The vertical side of
,a building, a smokestack, or a flagpole
are convenient aids to, the rodman 'in
judging if his rod is plumbed properly
when a reading is taken on it. The rod
is lightly supported between the fin­
gers of both hands and is allowed to
balance on its own weight. The fingers
must not cover the face of the rod. The
rodman should see to it that the gra­
duations are always clearly visible and
not obstructed..
Ip high precision surveys the leve­
ling rods used are equipped with a rod
level. Although this device is not
generally used in ordinary leveling
work, it is advisable to useofie when
inexperienced rodmen are employed. A
rod level is securely held against the
back of a rod or it may be permanently
attached to it. It should not in anyway
obstruct the rod graduation*.

14-4. TAKING A ROD READING.

Before readings are taken on a rod, it

is important to first examine how the
graduations are indicated on it. The
metric rod in Figure 14-4 is graduated in centimeters and
numerals are indicated for every full meter and decimeter
mark. The single dot shown below each numeral indicates
that readings taken on it are in the 1-m range. Since most
rods extend to lengths of either 3 or 4 meters, three or
four dots are used to correspondingly identify each meter
and decimeter graduation.
Each blackened graduation and each space between gra-
H t n i i l N r N t H I iW
V f f f r / i x i i **\r A N i t \ .151,
 duation is one centimeter ('6.01'in) high. The full meter
marks are identified on the rod by large numerals which are
usually painted in red. The decimeter marks ar«e' identified
by smaller black-painted numerals.In Figure 14-5, the read­
ings for six different positions are given as examples. It
will be noted that readings to thousandths of a meter are
estimated as in *3 and £ which are 2.165 m and 2.235 m,
respectively. • *• *
»
Fig. 14-4. Hod graduations. Fig. 14-5. Heading a leveling rod.

~^Yrt
m r
T •* i-*b i n
■
m 2
00 ' o •* 2 «2 0 0
■

■ 0 = 2 . 1 bo m

c = 2. 130 m
■

b = 2.050m

s
LyY-1
o = 2.000 m

Once the instrument is set up and leveled, the follow-

ing steps, are performed in taking a rod reading:

1. Position The Rod. The leveling rod is held by the

rodman on the designated point whose elevation is to be
determined. He stands beside or behind the rod, faces it
toward the instrumentman, and holds it as nearly plumb as
possibles Since directions and signals emanate from the
instrumentman, the rodman should always focus his attention
on him. .
2. Focus On The Rod. The instrumentman aims and focuses
the telescope on the rod at the same time seeing to it that
the bubble continues to remain in the center of the level
vial. He makes use of the vertical hair to check if the rod
is held plumb.
3. Read The Rod. If the self-reading rod is used, the
instrumentman observes directly from the telescope and re

,152 H i A MU f f f H I N T o r
VI N t fCA t P l t f A M C S i
 4
F ig . 14-6. The le v e lin g Jiod <u> teen through th e te le sco p e .

cords the reading indicated by the line of sight. The read­

ing is shown by the apparent position of the horizontal
cross hair on the rod. The vie*w through the telescope is
similar1 tp that shown in Figure 14-6. When using a target
rod, the process of reading is identical except that the
target is set (raised or lowered) so that the horizontal
cross hair bisects it while the bubble is in the center of
the level vial. The instrumentman directs the setting of
the target but the rod is read by the rrodman. It is
extremely important that a check is made on the centering
of the bubble before and after readings are taken on the
rod. . ' . .
14-5. DETERMINING DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION.

Figure 14-7 illustrates a typical set up for determining

difference in elevation between two points, A and B, using
the engineer's level and leveling rod.
\

The sequence of steps involved are as follows:

- ’ ' ■*v
1. The instrument is set Up and leveled at a point
about halfway between A and B.
2. Sight on the rod held vertically at point A- and
record the rod reading. In the given illustration the rod
reading at A is 2.00 meters. This means that point A on the
ground is 2.00 m below the horizontal plane of reference
(or line of*sight) established by the level.
3. Rotate the telescope carefully about the vertical
axis and sight*on a rod held vertically at B. . Record the
rod reading at B. To avoid instrumental errors only one rod
should be used during the measurement. The illustrated rod
reading at B is 3.50 m which means that point B on the
ground 3.50 m below the same horizontal plane of refe-

53,
•renee.
'4. The difference in elevation' between points A and B
is determined by noting the difference in their respective
rod readings or, 3.50 - 2.00 = 1 . 5 0 m. This value corres­
ponds to the vertical distance between the two imaginary
level surfaces (assumed to be horizontal lines) passing
through points A arid B.

Fig. 14-7. VeXenauning dlHexenq^. In tXzvatlon.

From the given illustration, it can easily be seen that

point B is lower in elevation than point A since its ver­
tical distance measured downward from the established line
of sight is greater than that taken at point A. Also, if
the elevation of point A is known, the elevation of point B
may be determined by subtracting the computed difference in
elevation from the elevation of A. The procedure • just
described where the engineer's level arid a leveling rod
were employed for measuring differences ,in elevation is
called direct or spirit leveling.
1 4 - 6 . LENGTHS OP S IG H T.

It is always best to take, sights at moderate lengths to

attain speed and accuracy in leveling work. However, very
short or extremely long sights should be avoided. The most
suitable sight lengths will depend upon the required degree
of precision, the surface of the terrain, the type of ins­
trument used, and upon the distance at *-which the rod
remains readable to the instrumentman. Under ordinary con­
ditions the length of sight should not exceed about 90
meters where elevations to the nearest 0.001 m are desired.
Beyond this length it is difficult to read the rod accu­
rately and the errors caused by curvature and refraction

J54, Mt A tu n th ti n r
VCtriCAl Pt$rAfiCiM
or
 have to be c o n s id e r e d .
• Irregular refraction during summer months ' usually,
causes "boiling” of the air. In such a condition, the
%refraction is quite large and precise results could not be
expected when very long* sights are taken. They should be
made considerably shorter especially .if the line of sight
clears the ground surface by only as much as one-half me­
ter. Extra long sights, however, may be taken where the
(terrain is fairly level, only an ordinary degree of accu­
racy is required, and completion time is of primary impor­
tance . Very short sights cannot be avoided when the ground
’surface rises or falls rapidly such as in mountainous areas
and where the terrain is significantly rough.

1 4 -7 . WAVING THE ROD.

By aligning the rod with the vertical cross hair, the,ins-

trumentman can determine if a rod is held in a vertical
plane passing through the instrument. He cannot, however,
tell if the rod is tipped forward or backward in this
plane. This can only be accomplished by waving the rod. The
procedure is used to determine whether the rod is plumb
when a reading is taken, on it. It is accomplished by slowly
waving or tilting the top of the rod through an arc, first
toward the instrument and then away from it (Fig. 14-8). To
the instrumentman, • it will appear that the cross hair is
moving up and down the rod.
F ig . 14-i. Having the nod.

As the rod is waved, the instrumentman takes note of

‘the rod readings which will alternately increase and
decrease. The minimum reading observed is considered as the
correct rod reading at the particular point sighted.
When the long rod is used it is always advisable tq
wave the rod If the target rod is used, it must be raised
or lowered until there is found just one position when the
target rises as high as the line of sight while the rod is
being waved. -

1 4 -8 . CARRYING THE INSTRUMENT.

The level should always be kept in a box when it is not

u t A tu tu n t n r o r
v t * r k At o u r A n a x I5§,
used. It should remain in its carrying case when transpor­
ted to the work site or when it has to be moved to another
distant set up 6r over rough terrain. The level does not
have to be detached from the tripod when transferring to
another nearby station, provided that it is securely fas­
tened to the tripod and is carried properly. In open
spaces, the level may be carried on the shoulder in prefer--
ably a near-vertical position- The spindle, /is clamped
slightly so that the telescope does not rotate when
carried. .• .
In densely forested areas, the level should b*e cradled
between the arms and held close to one's left or right
chest. It must be in full view of the person carrying it to
avoid hitting into trees artd underbrush. The spindle should
be unclamped to allow the telescope to turn freely and give
away readily to any pressure or possible collision with an
object.

1 4 - 9 . ARM AND HAND SIGNALS.

An arm and hand signal is any gesture or motion that con­

veys information or gives a command, direction or warning.
The use of signals is essential in surveying since it is
usually difficult or impossible at times to communicate
verbally in the field due to distanc'e, wind conditions, and
surrounding noise. In many instances it is necessary or
practical to use signals rather than call out directions
since much of the work involves long si gfits where calling
out to one another is impractical. It is in sucfy instances
that arm and hand signals allow the survey party members to
better communicate wit-h each .other.
Any set of signals which can be mutually understood by
the members of a. survey party are acceptable. In surveying,
no standard set of hand signals has as yet been accepted.
It is usually left upon the surveyors themselves to devise
their own signals. Each survey party should adopt some set
of definite signals as these will speed up and iipprove the
efficiency of surveying procedures and operations. All
signals used, however, must be distinct so as to leave no
doubt as to their meaning. To fit unusual situations, spe­
cial signals can be invented for a particular need. They
can easily be devised for different kinds of distant work
and for various conditions.
The set of arm and hand signals illustrated in Figure
14-9 are suggested for.use in leveling work. These signals
are used to transmit the following commands:
•
1. Move Right or Left. The instrumentman uses this sig­
nal to direct the rodman to move either to the left or to
the right. The desired direction of movement is pointed out
by the forefinger. *
2. Give - a Sight. The right or left hand is raised up
and is held for a moment in a vertical position.
M l A 10 H I Ml'N T o r
,156, venrU A L 0!STANCH

I___
 3. All Right* The levelman extends both arms h o r i z o n ­
t a l l y and moves them up or down. When both arms are b ro u g h t
s till ahd h o r i z o n t a l *it is meant t o t r a n s m i t a command to
"h o ld s t e a d y . " .. v
• 4. T h i s i s a P o i n t . The rodman r a i s e s the rbd and h o ld s
ijt in a h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n over h i s head. I t c o u ld a l s o be
taken to mean, "G iv e me a L i n e . "
5. Move Back. The instrumentman uses this signal'to di­
rect the rodman to move back farther. He transmits ' the
command by raising his right hand with the palm facing
toward the rodman and then moving it into a horizontal
position with his palm faced down.
6 . P ic k Upt In s t r u m e n t s . When a new set up of the level
is desired, the chief of party signals the instrumentman by
first extending both arms downward then raising them up
quickly as though an object is being lifted.
7 . R aise ( o r Lower) T a r g e t . - The instrumentman motions
to the rodman by either raising his arm above his shoulder
to raise the rod, or by dropping his arm below his waist to
lower the target. When the raised or lowered target’ ap­
proaches the desired setting, .the arm is brought back to a
horizontal position.
8. Come I n . The chief of party or the instrumentman
uses this signal to direct any member of the survey party
to come in or assemble. It is executed by moving the arm
into a circular motion starting from below the waist to the
front of his face.
9 . Plumb The Rod. The hand is extended vertically above
the head and moved slowly in the direction it is desired to
plumb the rod.
10. E s t a b l i s h A T u r n i n g P o i n t . To establish a turning
point, the arm is swung slowly in a circle above the head.
11. T h i s i s A Tu rn in g P o in t . To identify a turning
point, the leveling rod (or range pole) is raised overhead
in a horizontal position. It is then lowered into a verti­
cal position and held on the point. ..
12. Wave The Rod. The instrumentman holds his arm above
his head and continuously waves it back and forth.
13. Face The Rod. This is a signal given out by the ins­
trumentman to direct the rodman to face the rod towards the
line of sight. It is executed by raising both arms above
the head and twisting both hands back and forth.
14. Reverse The Rod. The command to reverse the rod is
transmitted to the rodman by extending the arms above the
head and slowly rotating both arms -.in a circular motion to­
wards one side of the body.
15. Move F o rw a rd . From a position where both arms are
extended horizontally, the arms are slowly bent on the
elbows and the hands raised into a vertical position. This
signal is used to direct the rodman to move forward.
16. Use The Long Rod. To give the signal to use the long
rod, the instrumentman extends both arms downward then
slowly raises it over his head.
M C A*Jilt M IN T o r
v t t t n c A i t)t\rAN i f \ 157,
 F ig . 14-9. Atm and Hand 4igmaJU used in t t v t lin g to&ik.

J uia this hand

•Ignat to transmit a
command to ‘ MOV!
*A C K \

This hand (Ig­

nat (Imply msahs,
‘ PIC K UP THE
IN8THUMENT8’.

>158, M C A SU R EN C N T
vennCAi omrANccv OF
OF VERTICAL
DISTANCES
IS-1. SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING
K Instrumental Errors
a) Instrument Out oh c) Vehective Tripod
Adjustment
, 6) Rod Not Standard Length
2: Personal Errors
a) Bubble Not Centered e) Incorrect Setting oh
b) Paradox. Target
c ) Faulty Rod Readings h) Unequal Backsight and
d) Rod Not Held Plumb Foresight Distances
3. Natural Errors
a) Curvature oh The c) Temperature Variations
Earth d) Wind
. 6) Atmospheric Rehrac- e) Settlement oh The Instrument
tion h\ Faulty Turning Points
COMMON MISTAKESIN LEVELING
1. Misreading The Rod 4. Rod Not Fully Extended
2. Incorrect Recording 5. Moving Turning Points
3. Erroneous Computations
15-3. ADJUSTMENT OF THE DUMPY LEVEL
1. Adjustment oh the. Cross Hairs
2. Adjustment of, the. Level Vial
3. Adjustment oh the. Line, oh Sight
1S-4f ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
1. Two-Peg Test

Lesson 15
HrAioNrurNr
v r t f u At O / t r A N C i X
159,
15-1. SOURCES OF ERROR IN LEVELING.

The accuracy of leveling work may be affected by numerous

factors. However, it' is not difficult to obtain accurate
and precise, measurements in leveling as there are different
safeguards which could be taken against expected errors and
mistakes. Accuracy in leveling operations is primarily
‘influenced by the type of instrument used. A great deal
will also, depend on the skills of the members of a level
.party and the degree of refinement with which the whole
operation is performed. If correct leveling procedures and
care are adapted in leveling work, systematic errors could
be significantly reduced or eliminated. The remaining
errors expected to occur would only then be random errors.
The principal sources of error in leveling work may
emanate from either instrumental, personal, or .
• natural
errors. These sources of error are each discussed below as
to their nature, magnitude, and how they may be minimized
or eliminated.

1- Instrumental Errors. These errors are attributed to

imperfections in the instruments either from faults in.
their •manufacture or from improper adjustment. I.n leveling
work instrumental errors are usually due to a defective
tripod, a leveling rod not of standard length, or when the
instrument used is out of adjustment.

a) Instrument Out of Adjustment. The most common

instrumental error is caused by the level being out of ad­
justment. Particularly significant is when the line of
sight of the telescope is not parallel to the axis of the
level vial. The line of sight will be inclined either upward
or downward when the bubble is not brought to the center
of the tube. When a reading is taken on a rod, the result
is an error consistently either plus or minus, and with a
magnitude which is proportional to the distance between the
instrument and the rod. This source of error can be elima-
nated or kept at a minimum by frequently testing the ins­
trument and keeping it always in good adjustment. The error
will also be greatly minimized or eliminated if the back­
sight and foresight distances are kept nearly equal. Since
it would be difficult to predict when an instrument goes
out of adjustment, the latter method is the more certain
and should always be used for careful, leveling.
b) Rod Not Standard Length. It is possible to have
inaccurate . graduations or divisions on a rod. This is
usually due to imperfections in their manufacture. Inaccu­
rate rod graduations can cause errors in measured vertical
distances similar to those resulting from incorrect mar­
kings on a tape. In any case, a rod of incorrect length
'■'Ml introduce a systematic error in leveling work.
It is important that rod lengths are compared periodi­
cally with a standardized steel tape. Any error in length

16 0 .
 cht5uld be determined and necessary corrections applied to
all measurements mad with the rod. Also, the rod must al­
ways be handled carefully. A Philadelphia rod is -easily
damaged when the upper part of'the rod is allowed to slide
down so rapidly that the blocks on the two sections are
crushed. Its bottom shguld be kept clean when used in muddy
areas or where the ground is relatively soft. If the rodman
is not careful, he may easily have some amount of, soil,
clay, . dirt or mud sticking to the bottom of the rod. Tijis
can cause severe errors in leveling,
c) Defective Tiripod. The movement o.f the level due
to settling of the tripod legs can cause possible errors in'
leveling work. The tripod usually settles in soft ground or
'due to vibrations caused by passing vehicular traffic. .It'
is important to always set up the tripod rigidly as this
can lead to erroneous measurements and waste of time. Bolts
and nuts at hinged joints of the tripod should be checked
regularly and tightened. To avoid sliding of. tripod,, legs
due to vibrations, the instrument should be set up only at
firm and stable ground. Smooth surfaces such as concrete
pavements and steel plates should be avoided.

2. Personal Errors. Although personal errors occur

largely due to the limitations of the senses of touch,
sight, or hearing of individuals, the skills, training, and
teamwork of the members of a leveling party are also major
factors to be considered. Personal errors - are usually
caused by erroneous manipulations and careless handling of
instruments when making observations. Such errors include
the following:

a) Bubble Not Centered. Rod readings will be in

error .when the bubble is not centered in the level vial.
The magnitude of the error depends on how sensitive the
vial has been designed. There are various conditions in the
field which may cause the bubble not to remain centered. It
.could be caused by a tripod leg settling in soft ground,
<the instrument may not be leveled properly or' it may be out
of adjustment. These are factors which could all be attri­
buted to carelessness on the part of the instrumentman.
The instrument should not be handled unnecessarily
after it is set up and.leveled. Its tripod should not be
grasped when taking a sight, and vertical pressure exerted
on any part of the instrument should be avoided.' The error
introduced by a bubble wnich is not centered varies as the
distance from instrument to the rod. It is therefore impor­
tant to exercise great c;re in leveling the instrument when
extra long sights are taken.
b) Parallax. If a pre sure gauge or any ^aitovdUaued
circu at meter is viewed from different angles, oVyL will
notice that a number of slightly divergent value1 id be
read. This is due to the effect of parallax. f if
the pointer and scale of the gauge were po.siuioned at

i/rAft
tr/.A<iu f fon’
a t V t NT
AN'fv
 exactly the same plane, parallax would be totally elimina­
ted. A similar condition occurs when sighting through the
telescope to read a leveling rod. the effect of parallax is
to cause relative displacement between the image of the
cross hairs and the image formed by the focusing lens. Pa­
rallax can be eliminated by careful focusing of the teles­
cope. until no apparent movement of the horizontal hair re­
lative to the rod can be detected when the eye is moved up
and down while sighting.
c) Faulty Rod Readings. The instrum'entman at times
may misread the number of meters and decimals when taking a
rod reading. An incorrect rod reading is usually the r*esult
of the length of sight, poor weather conditions, and the
skill of the instrumentman and the rodman. In ordinary le­
veling work it is advisable that the length of sight should
not exceed 90 meters. The number pf reading, errors is
significantly reduced when short sights are taken. When
long . sights could not be avoided, a series of readings
should be taken on the distant rod and only the mean rea­
ding should be used. Extra long sights are common such as
when leveling facross a wide river or a deep ravine.
In precise leveling work, instruments'Used are equipped
with three horizontal* hairs. Three readings are usually
recorded at each sighting. Since the two extra hairs (or
stadia hairs) are equally spaced from the center middle
hair, the difference between the readings of the middle and
lower hair should be equal to the difference between the
readings of the middle and upper hair. ' The instrumentman
should take time to compare these two quantities before
transferring to another set up since it is an effective
precaution against faulty rod readings.
d) Rod Not Held Plumb. Aside from holding the rod on,
a firm and definite point, it should also be hevld as nearly
vertical as possible. If it is held.off the vertical, it
will be intersected by the.line of sight farther from the
base and the reading will be much greater than what it
should really be.- The reading on the rod will be lowest
when, it .is held plumb, •
Appreciable inclinations of the rod should be' avoided
particularly.when a high rod is used • In differential.Leve­
ling, errors due to npn-yerticality of the rod tend, to com­
pensate at turning points,: . howeve\ , if the foresight read­
ings are consistently greater tl m the ,backsights, the
error becomes cumulative. It is easy to determine if the
rod is held plumb or not since it.can be checked if it is
held parallel to the vertical cross hair. However, the ins­
trumentman cannot check if the rod is leaning toward or
a way from the instrument'. This type of g^ror can be. avoided
either by waving' the. rod or attaching a rod. level to it to
facilitate holding it plumb. The use of a rod- level- allows
the rodman to plumb the rod by simply centering .the bubble,
Its us£ is preferable to swinging or waving the rod-.
e) Incorrect Setting Of Target. It is important to

162 U C A $ l '* e A t e R r
VERTICAL DiSTANCeS nr
 always handle the leveling rod carefully.. The rodman at
times fails to set properly the target when a high rod rea­
ding is made with it. During use, the target may slip down­
ward because it is not damped firmly at the exact position
signaled by the instrumentman. To avoid this type of error,
the instrumentman should always take a second sight on the
target after it is clamped by the rodman in order to. be
sure that it has not slipped. .
£) Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances. In
leveling work it is usually good practice to make, backsight
and corresponding foresight distances nearly equal. -In such,
a practice, errors due to imperfect adjustment of the ins-•
trument and also those due to curvature and refraction are.
reduced or totally eliminated since the error in the back­
sight is equal to that in the foresight.
It is suffix lent to approximate only by eye foresight,
and backsight distances in ordinary leveling work. For more-
precise work, pacing, direct taping, or stadia measurements
are employed in determining sight distances. Balancing
foresight and backsight distances, however, may not always
be practical or possible. This situation may occur when the
terrain is extremely rugged or when leveling across wide
rivers. For example, in leveling up a steep slope the dis­
tance to the foresight will be about one-half the' distance
to the backsight. The two distances could still be kept
nearly equal by properly positioning the level a certain
distance from the straight line between, the turning points.
The whole length of the level route is traversed by a zig­
zagging manner in order to eliminate this source of error.

3. Natural Errors. These are errors which.are due to

•natural sources and could not be tota1ly removed.but their
effects can be reduced by applying corrections and using
good judgment. Such errors include the effects of the
earth's curvature, atmospheric refraction, variations in
temperature, wind, and etc. -

a) Curvature of the Earth. The effect of curvature

of the earth is to increase the rod reading. . From, this
source the error amounts to about 0.07 cm per 100 meters.
This error is introduced even if the instrument used is in
perfect adjustment. It, however, only occurs in extra‘long-
sights and when backsight and foresight distances are not
ms^e equal. Since sight distances in ordinary leveling do
not vary significantly, the resultant.etror arising, from
this source is so small and is considered a negligible
quantity.
When long sights could not be avoided, the error may be
eliminated by applying a correction to the computed diffe­
rence in elevation or by -employing the method of reciprocal
leveling. In other situations, the error due to curvature
can be eliminated by keeping the backsight and foresight
distances from the same set up nearly equal.
H f ' A S U N t Atr v r OA I
V i K l I C A ' ( ) { S l A N O ‘> *•
 v b) Atmospheric Refraction, The presence of heat
waves on a hot day is a sign of rapidly fluctuating refrac­
tion in the atmosphere. Reading errors ate likely to occur
when heat waves are present since it makes the ...rod appear
unsteady when a sight is taken on it. Since the refraction
is usually larger when sights are taken close to the ground
surface, the line of sight should be- established at •least
one meter above the ground. Because it may be♦impossible to
read the rod when heat waves are particularly intense,
leveling work should only be resumed when heat waves rsub­
side .
To reduce the effects of atmospheric refraction only
short sights should, be taken. Balancing the lengths- of
backsights and foresights also eliminates errors due to
refraction. Its effect is negligible in. ordinary leveling,'
but in precise leveling/ combined corrections for curvature
and refraction are applied to observed'rod readings.
c) Temperature Variations. Changes in temperature
causes leveling rods to either expand or contract and these
.could introduce errors when taking rod readings. To 'guard
against such effects, invar or nilvar graduated strips are
used on rods for precise,leveling work. Heat also causes
warping or twisting of the parts of a level. The liquid in
the level vial expands and the bubble shortens when i-t is
heated. This temporarily disturbs the adjustment of the
instrument and may affect the accuracy of rod readings. It
is preferable to use a surveying umbrella since this will
prevent the rays of the sun from falling directly on the
level and thus reduce the effects of heat.
d) Wind. A strong wind can shake.a leveling instru­
ment making it difficult to center the bubble in the level
vial. It can also exert a sufficient amount of force to
causr an extended rod to vibrate making it stand unsteady
and hard to read or plumb. If leveling has to be performed
during windy days, the instrument’mah should either exert
efforts to shelter the instrument or wait for a lull in the
wind. Setting up. the level behind a building or close to a
large tree,trunk should reduce the effects of wind. In an
open field,' long sights should be avoided to limit the use
of a high rod.
e) Settlement of the Instrument. In soft or thawing
ground, mud, and swamps the instrument may settle in the
interval of time between rod readings. This source of error
is . cumulative since every settlement 'of the instrument in­
creases the computed elevations of all other observed
points by the amount of the settlement. Errors due to set­
tlement can be avoided if the instrumentman takes the
necessary precautions to insure that the level is always
set up on firm and stable ground. It is also important that
as little time as possible should be taken between rod
read ings.
f) Faulty Turning Points. In differential leveling
work, a poorly chosen turning ’point may be a source of

164.
 error. This condTFion -is similar to that'resui't'ing f*6n*
settlement of the instrument.* It is a cumulative type gf
error. Since two rod readings are always taken at a turning
point from different set ups of the level, it is important
to select firm and solid turning points. , They must also b.ie1
easily identified. Care should be taken not to strike the
rod against the turning point or to exert any pressure on
it. In soft and unstable ground, it is advisable to use a
peg or a steel plate as a support to prevent settlement o,f
a turning point. The instrumentman should guard against
movement of the turning point and the rod should be held at
exactly the same point when another reading is to be taken
fon it.

*5-2. COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING.

The following are some of the most commonly made . mistakes
in leveling work:

1. Misreading The Rod. During leveling the instrument-

man may occasionally r^ad the rod incorrectly; for example,
he may read 2.75 m instead of 1.75 m. This mistake most
frequently occurs when the line of siqht to the rod is par­
tially obstructed by vegetation or other objects in the
field. It is important that the instrumentman alwa'ys care­
fully note the full meter marks-above" and below the ob­
serve rod reading, Also, it is preferable to call out read­
ings as they are taken or to use a target and h£ve the’ins­
trumentman and the rodman take and compare their respective
readings.
2. Incorrect Recording. The recorder should always call
out the readings as he records then) ’in order to prevent the
recording of incorrect values. To detect mistakes in recor­
ding rod readings, the best method is.to read the rod,
record the reading, and then sight the rod again to check
if the value recorded is" the correct reading. It is impor­
tant that the recorder understands the leveling process.. He
should be able to visualize the operation for which he
makes his recordings. For example, he should knowtin which
column backsight and foresight readings should be entered*
3. Erroneous Computations. Although level notes only
require simple additions and subtractions, mistakes in
these computations are still committed. For this reason,
mathema’tical checks should always be performed to ensure
that only correct values are determined.
4. Rod Not Fully Extended. When q^ing a Philadelphia
rod it is important that it is fully extended when reading
the high (or long) rod. The two sliding sections should
lock properly into position. The clamp should also be tigh­
tened firmly to avoid the upper portion of the rod from
sliding downward.
5. Moving Turning Points. A turning point carelessly or
accidentally moved out of its position by a rodman will
cause a serious mistake in leveling work. This mistake
could be prevented by using only stable and clearly defined
turning points or by marking the position of the rdd with
paint, lumber crayon, or chalk. The mark shotfld be made on
the selected point before ’the first sight is taken on it
and the rodman should be careful to use the same marked
spot when another reading is to be made.

15t 3- A d j u s t m e n t op the dumpy l e v e l .

The manufacturer does not guarantee that the dumpy level

will always remain in perfect adjustment. Although it is
made and assembled with great care and precision, . it still
has to be checked occasionally to determine if it has re­
mained in proper adjustment. No amount of careful handling
will assure us that it will never get out of adjustment.
Its moving parts will become loose and worn out after con­
tinued use in the field.
Keeping the dumpy level in adjustment should always be
given utmost consideration if better Results are desired in
leveling operations. The level is so designed that field
adjustments can be made without having to return the ins­
trument to the manufacturer. However,.extensive repairs and
the replacement of major parts should only be left to the
manufacturer or its authorized service and maintenance
representative. The main parts of a dumpy level which often
require periodic adjustments are the cross hairs arid the
level vial. A particular sequence is usually followed when
making the field adjustments. They are simple to perform
and can be easily learned even by an inexperienced instru-
mentman. When the entire set of adjustments has been per­
formed, it must be checked all over.’ Everything may be found
in order during the second process of adjustment. However,
the complete sequence has to be repeated if some parts
still remain to be adjusted. Th'e adjustment is only termi­
nated if all required checks are’satisfied and the inherent
errors \ are eliminated. Following are the three field ad­
justments often required for a dumpy level:
' 1. Adjustment of the Cross Hairs. The reticle or the
cross hair ring is adjusted to see to it that the horizon­
tal cross hair lies in a plane perpendicular to the verti­
cal axis of the instrument. If this particular requirement
is not satisfied, an error will occur each time a reading .
is made.

a) Procedure of Testing. The instrument is first ap­

proximately leveled then one end of the horizontal- cross
hair is focused and sighted on some well defined stationary
point. The telescope is slowly turned about the vertical
axis using the tangent screw to see if the point sighted
appears to move along the hair throughout its lenqth. If
the point sighted remains on the horizontal hair, the cross
 hairs are in adjustment; if it departs from the dross hairy
an adjustment is necessary. •
( b) Making the Adjustment. The adjustment is. made by
'.loosening two pairs of capstan headed screws which hold the
reticle. An adjustment pin is inserted int^ one ■of the
holes cff the screws to turn it slowly while using the pin
as a lever. The reticle is then turned as necessary by
trial or tapped lightly with a light object to allow it to
move into a correct position. The testing procedure and the
process of adjustment are repeated until the point nolonger
departs from the horizontal cross hair. The screws are then
tightened upon completion of the adjustment.

2. Adjustment of the Level Vial. The purpose of th's

adjustment is to make the axis of the level vial perpendi­
cular to the vertical axis of the instrument. >

a) Procedure of Testing. Align the level vial along

an opposite pair of leveling screws and carefully center
the bubble. Rotate.the telescope through 90 degrees and
again center the bubble by manipulating the other opposite
pair of leveling screws. Then turn the telescope through
another 90 degrees (in the same direction as the first ro­
tation) such that this time it is positioned again along
the fi st pair of opposite screws. After the bubble is
brought exactly to center, turn the telescope about (end
for end). If the level vial is in adjustment, the bubble
will remain centered; if not, a field adjustment is neces­
sary.
v- b) Making the Adjustment. This time bring the bubble
halfway back to the center by raising or lowering one end
of the level vial by means of a- capstan screw. By manipula­
ting the leveling screws, now bring the bubble exactly to
center. Repeat the procedure of testing and continue under^-
taking the corresponding adjustment until che bubble re­
mains centered at any time the telescope is rotated end for
end. If the adjustment has been performed correctly, the
bubble should remain centered before and after reversal of
the telescope. Three ‘ or four trials may be necessary to
finally adjust the level vial.

3. Adjustment of the Line of Sight. The line of sight

is adjusted to make it parallel to the axis of the level
vial. There is always the possibility that the line of
sight of a dumpy level will be inclined either above or be­
low the horizontal. Such a condition will introduce corres­
ponding errors when determining differences in elevation.
When this adjustment is made the line of sight is truly
horizontal when the bubble is centered on the level vial.
To check and adjust the line of sight, a procedure known as
the "two-peg0 test is employed. There are two ways by which
the test is undertaken. One procedure is described in this
lesson; another is explained in, the succeeding lesson.
Fid. 15-1. Two-pta U M .

Where;
? Z rpn h inn °n A with instrument set up near A
b - rod reading on B with instrument set up near A .
c - rod reading on B with instrument set up near B
d - rod reading on A with instrument set up near B
a) Procedure of Testing. Two pegs, 60 to 90 meters
apart are established on the ground (Fig. 1 5 -1 ). It is pre­
ferable that the two pegs have.a considerable difference in
elevation in order to arrive at more accurate test results.
The instrument is set up and leveled in a location such
thatthe eyepiece is 20 cm or less infront of the rod held
on one of the pegs as at A. A rod reading, a, is ■taKen on
the rod held at point A by sighting through the objective
end of the telescope. In this procedure the cross hairs
will not be visible, but the field of view will be so small
that its center may be determined easily by holding a poin­
ted pencil on the rod. The telescope is then turned toward
the rod now held over the other peg at B and a rod reading,
b, is taken on it.
The instrument is next moved, set up, and leveled near
B where a second set of rod readings, c and d, are taken on
the rod held at B and A, respectively. The computed diffe­
rence in elevation for the two set ups are:
t

DEa = (a - b) and DE*, = (d - c)

If the two differences in elevation are equal, the line of

sight* is in adjustment. When the line of sight is inclined
from the horizontal, the error in the line of sight for the
distance AB is e or the difference between d and d' as
shown in Figure 15-1. Considering the rod readings taken
with the instrument set up near A and also near B, the true
difference in elevation between A and B for each set up
would be

TDEn = a - ( b - e ) and T D E b «= ( d - e ) - c

168,
 TDEa + TDE^ a - (b - e) + ( d - e) - c
2 * ^ 2 ~ ~~
c o^b+e+d-e-c
2
= (q - b ) + ‘ (d .- c)
2

I f , DEa is not equal to DEb , the correct rod reading at A

with the instrument still set up near B is

d' = c + TDE = c. + l?.Lt Ld.r c>.

If d is greater than d* , the line of sight is inclined up­

ward; if d is less than d', it is inclined downward. It is
important to remember that the values of TDE and d' must
always be solved with due regard to signs. Also, it is
always advisable to draw a sketch of the set up and the ob­
servations made in the field to avoid confusion..
b) Making the Adjustment. Before making any adjust­
ment, the bubble is first brought to the center of the
level vial. The adjustment is then made by moving the cross
hair ring vertically until the line of sight cuts the rod
at d*. If the line of sight is inclined upward, the capstan
screw on top at the reticle is loosened and the capstan
screw at the bottom is tightened. The opposite is done if
the line of sight is inclined downward. Two or three trials
may be necessary to obtain the final adjustment.
15-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM.
/. T W O - P E G T E S T . In the two-peg test of a dumpy level (Fig. 15-2)
the following observations were taken:

ROD READING INSTRUMENT 9 E T UP I N S T R U M E N T S E T UP

NEAR A NEAR 8

On Point A 1 . 505 m 0.938 m

On Point 8 2.054 . 1.449

F ig . 1 5 -2 . Rod A ta d in g * Atqu.iA.eA ioA tio o -p tg t < u t .

Requirements:
a) Determine if the line of sight is in adjustment and explain your answer
b) If the line of sight Is not in adjustment, determine the correct rod
reading on A with the instrument still set up near B.
c) Determine the error in the line of sight for the net distance AB.
d) Explain how the line of sight of the instrument should be adjusted.
S
olu
tio
n:
a). DEa = a - b '= 1.50.5 - 2 , 0 5 4 ,
- - 0 .5 4 9 m ( d if f e r e n c e in elev atio n between A and B 'd e t e r ­
mined with instrument set up near A)

DEb = d - c = 0.938 - 1.449

= - 0.511 m ( d if f e r e n c e In e le v a t io n between A and B deter­
mined with in stru m en t set up ne#r B)

Since DEa ? DEb , the line of sight is not in adjustment.

DE, DEi - 0 . 5 ^ 9 + (-0.511)
b) TDE =
= - 0.530 m (t r u e d i f f e r e n c e in elev atio n between A and B)

d’ = c •+ TDE = . 4 4 9 + ( - 0 .5 3 0 )
= 0.919 m ( c o r r e c t rod reading on A f o r a horizontal line of
sight w it h instrum ent set up near B)

c) e = d - d = 0.93 8 - 0 . 9 19
= 0 . 0 19 m (e rro r in the li n e of s ig h t )

d) Since d > d‘, the line of sight is inclined upward. To ad just the line
of sight, loosen the upper capstan - headed screw and tighten the
lower screw until the horizontal cross hair reads 0 . 9 1 9 m (or d‘) on
the rod held at A while the instrument is still set up near B.

,170 H f A S U N t H F N T OF
V tH U C A i tnSTANCeS
M EASU REM EN T
OF V E R T IC A L
D IS T A N C E S
16-1. ALTERNATE PROCEDURE TOR TWO-PEG TEST
1. •PAoceduiue oi Testing
2. Making the Adjustment
16-2. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION
16-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Two-Peg Test
2. CuAvatuAe and R e d a c tio n
3. CuAvatuAe and R e fra c tio n
. 4. CuAvatuAe and R e fra c tio n
5. CuAvatuAe and R e fra c tio n
6. CuAvatuAe and R e fra c tio n

Lesson 16
,T
A ll A U N F M f N T Of
V I NT U A t v i $ T ANt n 171
 ^ ^ Iti/a-hcw
16-1. ALTERNATE PROCEDURE FOR TWO-PEG TEST.

In the previous lesson the test and adjustment of the line

of sight of the dumpy level was illustrated by a procedure
called 1*he two-peg test. This lesson will show”another pro­
cedure by which the two=~peg test is employed to check the
line of sight; and how to obtain the necessary data for
making the adjustment when it is needed/"'"Tt T5~15asect ‘""TTpon
tKe "principle cnar "i-f- the.SSie^of sight of the instrument
is not horizontal, it ,will deviate up or down in direct
proportion to the horizontal distance from the instrument
to the rod.

Fig. 16-1. KtXxxnaXe. p*ocedu*e iwo-peg

a = rod reading on A with instrument set up- at M

b = rod reading on B with instrument set up at M
•’ c = rod reading on A with instrument set .up at P
' d = rod reading on B with instrument set up at P
c' = correct rod reading on A for a horizontal line of sight
d' = correct rod reading on B for a horizontal line of sight
Da = ’horizontal distance between points A and P
Db = horizontal distance between points B and P
en = error in the reading on the near rod (held* at A)
e = error in the reading on the far rod (held at B)
I - inclination of the line of sight in the net distance

v 1. Procedure of Testing. Two pegs designated as A and B

are set 60 to 90 meters apart on fairly level ground (Fig.
16-1). The instrument is first set up and leveled &t a
point M which is equally distant from both pegs. -Then rod
readings a and b are taken on A and B, respectively. The
true difference in elevation between the two pegs is
IDE = DEm = ( a - b) ’

Since the two pegs are equally distant from the instrument,
this difference will be correct even though the leve1 is
not: in adjustment. , ., *#>-'A
The instrument is then moved and set up at point p
within 2 to 3 meters from A. It is preferable but not
necessary to set up on line with the two pegs. The distan­
ces from P to A (or Da } and from P to B (or Db ) are mea­
sured either by taping or by the stadia method. Rod read­
ings c and d are then taken on A and B, respectively, and
the difference in elevation calculated as follows
DEp « (c - d)

If DEm is equal to DEp , the line of sight is parallel • to

the axis of the level tube, and it can be concluded that
the line of sight is horizontal. If not, DEp is called -the
erroneous or false difference in elevation, and the
inclination of the line of sight from the horizontal is

I = DEm - DEp = (a - b) - (c -.d)

From Figure 16-1, the error in the reading on the far rod
at B can be determined by proportion as follows

or ef (I)
(D, Da> <Db - Da>
The correct rod reading d' at the far rod (held at B) for a
horizontal line of sight is determined by subtracting al­
gebraically from the rod reading d the amount of ef . Thus

d' = d - ef 11

If d is greater than d ’, the line of sight is inclined up­

ward; if d is less than d 1, it is inclined downward.
Similarly, the error in the reading on the near rod at
A is

or Da
en = r. (I)
I Pb- Do> <Db “ V
7
The correct rod reading c' at the near rod (held at A) for
a horizontal line of sight is determined by also
subtracting algebraically from the rod reading c the amount
of en or

c. = c - ,en

To# check the computations, the difference in elevation

computed from the two corrected rod readings (c1 and d')
should be equal to the true.difference in elevation (a-b).
Thus
( a- b) = ( c1 - d1)

2. Making the Adjustment. The adjustment is then made

 with the instrument still in position at pointyP. T1
zontal cross hair is moved up or down accordingly by means
of- the ^capstan-headed screws. One screw is loosened slight­
ly andjthe opposite one 1sPTightened a similar amount, thus
moving, apparently, the position of the horizontal cross
hair on the leveling rod. This is continued until the
desired reading (dV) is obtained. Several trials may be
necessary to get an exact reading. The horizontal pair of
capstan screws should be left untouched to avoid disturbing
the previous adjustments made. ^

16-2. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION,

The' effects of earth curvature and atmospheric refraction

are taken into account in leveling work since the measure­
ments are made in vertical planes and these effects all
occur in the same plane. The combined effects are represen­
ted in Figure 16-2. Due to the earth's curvature, a hori­
zontal line departs from a level line by 0.0785 ra in one
kilometer, varying as the square of the.length of the line.
This expression for earth curvature is based on the mean
‘radius of the earth which is about 6371 km. In the given
figure the vertical distance between the horizontal line
and the level line (or BD) is a measure of the earth's
curvature.

Fig. 16-2. CuAvatune. and *e.£taction.

In physics, we learned that when a ray of light passes

through air strata of different densities, it is refracted
or bent downward towards the denser medium. This bending is
referred to as refraction. The effect of refraction is
greatest when the line of sight passes near the ground or
when it skims through bodies of water where temperature
differences are large. It is here that large variations in
air densities occur. During summer, heat waves or boiling
air indicates rapidly changing refraction.
Atmospheric refraction varies with atmospheric condi­
tions. Under ordinary conditions, it is approximately equal
to 0.0110 m in one- kilometer, also varying directly as the
square of the length of the line. This is about one-seventh

174 M C A tu F ru rK T
vtuncAtmsTAHcrs or
the effect of curvature of the earth. In Figure 16-2, it
can be seen that due to refraction,' a ray of light which
apparently is the straight line AB actually follows the
curved path AC. The point observed through the level (at A)
appears to be point B but is actually point C. The angular-
displacement resulting from refraction is variable. It
depends upon the angle the line of sight makes with the'
vertical and the surrounding atmospheric conditions.
The combination of the earth's curvature and atmosphe­
ric refraction causes the telescope's line of sight to vary
from a level line by approximately 0.0705. minus 0.0110 or
0.0675 m in one kilometer, varying as the square of the
sight distance in kilometers. This may be represented by a
mathematical equation as follows
.|F7, ■1 —
h' = 0 . 0 6 7 5 K .
where h' is the departure of a telescope line of sight- from
a level line (in meters) and K is the length of the line'of
sight (in kilometers). The value 0.0675 is called the
coefficient of refraction. Its value actually varies to a
certain degree for different elevations, but is taken with
an average value of Q.,067 5. ,
For surveys of ordinary precision, corrections for the
combined effects of curvature and refraction may be pmit-
ted. The correction is only necessary in precise leveling
work and where the difference in length of backsight and
foresight distances is great. If the backsight distance
were exactly equal to the foresight distance for each set
up of the instrument, the errors caused by atmospheric re­
fraction and the earth's curvature would cancel each other.
Since refraction changes rapidly with changes in tempera­
ture, it is advisable to undertake precise leveling during
cloudy days or at mid-afternoon on sunny days when the
ground and air are uniformly warm.
16-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. T W O - P E G T E S T . In the two-peg test of a dumpy level, the follo­
wing observations are taken:

INSTRUMENT SET UP INSTRUMENT SET UP'

ROD READING NEAR M NEAR P
On Point A 0.296 m 1.563 m
On Point B 0.910 2. 140

Point M is equidistant from both A and B, while P is 2 . 5 0 m away from

A along the extension of line AB and 79.27m from B.
Requ irements:
•
a) Determine the true difference in elevation between points A and B.
b) Check if the line of sight is in adjustment.
c) If the instrument needs to be adjusted, determine the following:
"fc'se" difference in elevation, inclination of- the*1 line of sight, and

175,
 the error in the reading on the far rod.
d) With the level still set u£> at P, determine the rod reading on B to
- which the line of sight should be adjusted. Explain how the line of sight
should be adjusted.
e) Perform the customary check.
Fig. J<-3. Two-peg t u t .

a) TDE = DE^ ® (a - b) = (0.296 - 0.910)

- —0.614 m (T r u e d i f f e r e n c e in e le v a tio n b etw een A and B)

b) DEp = <c - d) = (1.563 2.140)

= -0.577 m
Since DEm / DEp , the line of sight is not in adjustment,
c) "False" DE = DEp = -0.57.7m
l- = DEm - DE = - 0 . 6 1 4 ( - 0 .5 7 7 )
. = -0.037 m ( Fnclination of the line of sight)

79.27
<L b " La>
(I) =
<79.27 - 2.50) ( - 0 . 0 3 7 )
- 0 .0 3 8 m (Error In the reading on the far rod)

d) d - <* - ef = 2 . 1 4 0 - (-0.03 8)
- 2.178m (Correct rod reading on the far rod held at B
for a horizontal line of sight)

Since d-cid1, the line of sight is inclined, downward. To adjust, set

the target on the leveling rod at a reading equal to d' and bring
the line of sight on this mark by moving the horizontal cross hair
upwards. Do this by loosening the lower capstan screw and tighten
the upper capstan screw.

e) 2.50 (-0.037)
en = (I) =
(79.27 - 2.50)
<L b - L a'
= - 0 .0 0 1 2 m (Error In the rod reading on the near rod at A)

c = c - -en = !.563 - (-0.0012)

176.
 ■ • •5 6 4 m (Correct rod reading on the oear rod held at A fot
a horizontal Une of eight)
(a -ib> = Cc* - d')
(0.296 - 0.91 0) * ( 1 .5 6 4 - 2.178)
-0.6-14 = -0 .6 1 4
. ' .{ -. .
the tvyo quantities are equal, it is then safe to assume
S in c e that
the above solution is correct.
2 . C U R V A T U R E AN D R E F R A C T IO N . Determine the combined effects
of the earth's* curvature and atmospheric refraction on sight distances
of 60, 90^ 120, 150, and 500 meters.
h'60 0.06 75 K2 = 0 . 0 6 7 5 ( 60 )2 = 0 . 0 0 0 2 4 3 m
000

90
0.06 75 K2 * 0.Q6 75 ( j | ^ - ) 2 = 0 . 0 0 0 5 4 7 ni

h1 r - 0 . 0 6 7 5 K2 ■« 0 . 0 6 7 5 ( ( q| ^ -)2 = 0 . 0 0 0 9 7 2 m
nl20 "

150
0 . 0 6 7 5 K2 * 0 . 0 6 7 5 (-i ^ l ^ -)2 * 0 . 0 0 1 5 19 m

500 0 .0 6 75 K2 = 0 . 0 6 7 5 ( - j ^ ~ ) 2 = 0 . 0 1 6 8 7 5 m

3 . C U R V A T U R E AND R E F R A C T IO N . Two points, A and *B, are 525.850

meters apart. A level is set up on the line between A and B and at a
distance of 240.500m from A. If the rod reading on A is 3T455 m
and that on B is 2 .8 0 6 m , determine the difference in elevation bet­
ween the two points, taking into account the effects of curvature and at­
mospheric, refraction.
.1 n — ,.2 n nr™ . 2 4 0 . 5 0 0 . 2
hfl - 0. 06 75 Ka = 0 .0 6 7 5 ( \0 0 q ~ )
= 0 . 0 0 3 9 0 4 say 0 . 0 0 4 m (Effect of curvature and refrac­
tion on the sight at A)

- , 5 2 5 .8 50 - 240.500 t2
hL * 0.0675 K 0 .0 6 7 5 (-----------fooo-----------)
0.005496 say 0.005 m (Effect of curvature and refrac­
tion on the sight at B)

a = a - hg = 3.455 - 0 . 0 0 4
* 3.45 1m (Corrected rod reading on A)

b' = b - h^ 2.8 06 - 0.0 05

= 2.801m (Corrected rod reading on B)

DE = a' - b' * 3.451 - 2.80

= 0.65 m (Difference in elevation between
A and B, considering the effect
of curvature and refraction)

4 . C U R V A T U R E AND R E F R A C T IO N .
A man on shore standing close
to the sea's water edge looks out toward the direction of the sen. If his
eyes measure 1.72m above sea level, determine how far out to sea is

,177,
ms visib le h o riz o n , neglecting the e f f e c t of w a v e s .
h‘ » 0 . 0 6 7 5 K2 or 1.72 s 0.0675* K
; .-V .
K = J 1 72 1 . 5 . 0 4 7 9 km or 5 , 0 4 7 . 9 m
\ 0.0675
5. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. A woman standing on a beach
can just see the top of a lighthouse 2 4 . 140 km away. If her eye height
above sea level is 1. 7 3 8 m , determine the height of the. lighthouse above
sea 1%vel.

Since Kw + KL = >24.140km
Kl 3 24.140 - Kw = 2 4. 1 4 0 - 5.07 4
= 19.066 km (Distance of Irghthouse f.om
point of tangency)

hL = 0.0675 K2 - 0.0675119.066)2
'= 24.537m • (Height of lighthouse above sea
level)
6
.CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Neglecting the effect of' tide and
waves, determine how far out to sea a boat will be when a light on its
mast 60 meters above the water disappears from the sight of a man
on shu.e whose eye level is 1.583 m above the water.
F ig . 16-5. Combined e{&exia, oi tuA.va.hne and \e& \actlon.
Mon on Light on
S h or t Point of Mott
fTangtncy
■Hari»tnql~UiM-

(Distance of man from point of

tangency)

0. 06 75 K2 or 60 = 0 .0 6 7 5 K2
"60 (Distance of boat from point of
tangency)

( D i s t a n c e of th e boat from the

man s t a n d i n g on shore)
178 M CASVPtM EN T op
V l f t r i C A I . r / S T A H C ffJ
 LEVELING
METHODS
P art IV: Lesson 17 Thru. 23
LEVELING
METHODS
17-1. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
17-2. DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Bench MaAk
2. Baduigkt
3. FoAfL&ight
4. Backlight Vintoned
5. FoAdAight Dt&tanc.d
6. TuAning Point
7. Hdight InAtAumdnt
17-3. PROCEDURE OF DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
17-4. LEVELING NOTES
17-5. CHECKING LEVEL NOTES
17-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Di^ldAdntiaZ Ldvdting
2. DliidAdYitlaJL Ldvdting
3. OmdAdntial Ldvdting
4. Dii^dAdntiat Ldvdting

lesson 17
17-1. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING.

Differential leveling is the process of determining the

difference in elevation between two or more points some
distance apart. It requires a series of set ups of the ins­
trument along a general route and, for each set up, a rod
reading back to the point of known elevation and forward to
a point of unknown elevation are taken. The basic equipment
used in differential leveling include a graduated leveling
rod and a leveling instrument such as a dumpy level, auto­
matic level, or an engineer's transit. These leveling ins­
truments are used to establish a horizontal line of sight
and to measure the vertical distance between the line of
sight and the point on which the rod is held.

1 7 -2 . D E F IN ITIO N OF TERMS.

The different terms commonly used in differential leveling

work are graphically illustrated in Figure 17-1. A cursory
look at the figure may imply that the points along the le­
veling route all lie in a straight line. It is important to
understand that it is not always the case in actual level­
ing work. The points and the instrument stations may in
fact be positioned in plan along a zigzagging pattern.

Fig. 17-1. PiUeAentia/ leveling.

may be permanent or temporary. Permanent bench marks (PBM)

are those which are established at intervals throughout the
country by ti\e Philippine Coast and Geodetic Surveys (PCGS)
or the Bureau of Lands. They serve as points of reference
for levels in a given locality and their elevations are de­
termined by precise leveling methods. Permanent PCGS bench

182, trvft tt*

Hi 1H O D S
marks (Fig. 17-2) consist of bronze or brass disks which
are permanently set in concrete foundations. They are mark­
ed with the elevation above sea level, the year it was es­
tablished, and it's reference number. Temporary behch marks

Fig. 17-2. PeArnamnt PCGS bunch maAk.

(TBM) are those set up by the surveyor for his own use in a
particular surveying project and may have assumed eleva­
tions. They should be stable and semi-permanent marks such
as a wooden peg set in concrete,* a nail or spike driven
into a tree, an X-mark on a bridge abutment, « a notch cut
out in. the root of a tree, or the top of a f ire' hydrant.
It is important that bench marks are easily recognized
and located where they will have the smallest likelihood of
being disturbed. Accurate records' should f>e kept for each
bench mark since they may be frequently referred to later,
by other surveyors. They should be thoroughly described in
the field notes. In some areas, bench marks may have to be
re-established where their position and elevation have been
disturbed by earth movements such as those caused by
slides, .earthquakes, floods, engineering constructions, and
mining operalTldnsl._ ' *.
2. Backsight (BS). A backsight is a reading taken on a
rod held on a point of known or assumed elevation. It* is a
measure of the vertical distance from the established#line
of sight to the point sighted, and is always the first rod
reading taken after the instrument has been set up and le­
veled. Backsights are frequently referred to as plus (|S)
sights since they are added to the elevation of points
being sighted to determine the height of instrument. -The
backsight does not necessarily mean that it is always a
Sight taken backward.
3. Foresight (FS). A reading taken on a rod held on a
point whose elevation is to be determined is called'a fore­
sight. It is represented as a vertical distance from the
line of sight of the instrument to the point observed.
Since the reading for a foresight is subtracted from the

it
*/VtiHt
OOi 103^
 ' I

height of instrument to determine the elevation of the

point on which the rod is held, a foresight is usually re­
ferred to as a minus (-S) sight. Foresights are often taken
forward or in the general direction in which the leveling
work proceeds. It is usually the last reading taken before
the leveling instrument is‘ moved to another location.
4. Backsight Distance (BSD). The backsight distance is
measured * from the center of the instrument to the rod on
which a backsight is taken.
5. ’Foresight Distance (FSD). The horizontal distance
from the center of the instrument to the rod on which a
foresight is taken is referred to as the foresight dis­
tance. Its length is usually made nearly equal to its cor­
responding backsight distance.
6. Turning Point (TP)'. A turning point is an interve­
ning point between two bench marks upon which point fore­
sight and backsight rod readings are taken to enable a le­
veling operation to continue from a new instrument posi­
tion. It is also sometimes referred to as a change point .
(CP), and is Established as far away as practical in the
general direction of the line of levels. In order that the
rod can be removed and later positioned back iji the same
place as many times as may be necessary, the turning point
should be located on some stable object; For this ^purpose,
a rock, a stake driven into the ground, or a paint mark on
a concrete pavement is preferable. Turning points are
usually" numbered consecutively and it is not necessary to
described them in detail since they are only used to carry
forward a line of levels.
7. Height of Instrument. The height of instrument (or
height of collimation) is the elevation of the line of
sight of an instrument above or be.low a selected reference
datum. It, is; determined by adding the rod reading on the
backsight to the elevation of the point on which the sight
is taken. ; -.
' •
1 7 -3 . PROCEDURE OF D IFFER EN TIA L LEVELIN G.

The procedure followed in determining the difference in

elevation, between two points is illustrated in Figure 17-1
in which a line of levels is run from BMa to BMb There
should be at least two persons to undertake differential
leveling; the rodman who carries and holds the rod, and the
instrumentman who sets up the level and determines "the re­
quired rod readings. The instrumentman can record the data
in a field notebook or a third person may be employed as a
recorder. If a bigger leveling party could be formed, a
chief of party, a pacet, an axeman, and utilitymen may be
added to complete the team.*
The leveling instrument is set up at any convenient lo­
cation along the level route and a backsight is taken on a
leveling rod held vertically on BMa . The backsight reading
added to the known or assumed elevation of the initial

184. [ «
bench mark gives the height of instrument above datum or

HI * Elev BM + BS
»• *c-' a
The rodman moves forward along the general direction of Brib
and holds the rod at a convenient turniftg point (TR, ). The
instrumentman takes a foresight on the rod. This foresight
reading subtracted from the height of instrument gives the
elevation above datum of the.turning point or

Elev TP, = HI- FS

The * level is then transferred and set up at another
convenient location beyond TP, , but. still in the general
direction o’f BMb . The exact .’location at which the level is
set up is of little importance. The more important thing to
consider is that the level is set up at a location where
backsight and foresight rod readings can be made. A back­
sight is then taken on TP| to establish a new.height of
instrument (HLg). The rodman finally moves forward to the
location of BH^ and a foresight is taken on the rod held on
it. Since the new HI has already been determined, the ele­
vation of BMb is computed by subtracting the foresight
reading from the height of instrument,.
If the terminal point ’ (BMb ) is still some distance
away such that more turning points have to be established
before it could be foresighted, the procedure of reading a
backsight, the rodman moving ahead to establish another
turning point, and reafding a foresight is repeated. This is
done as many times as necessary until the elevation of BMb
is finally obtained. The four illustrative problems given
in this lesson should provide the student a clearer idea as
to how differential leveling is undertaken, how the notes
are kept, and how the customary arithmetic check' is made.

17-4. LEVELING NOTES.

It is important that all data gathered in differential le­

veling work be.properly recorded in a special field note­
book ruled with suitable lines. There is a standard format
used in recording leveling notes and a typical example is
illustrated in Figure 17-3.
The left-hand page is usually divided into columns for
observed and computed data and the right-hand page is re­
served for sketches and descriptive notes or remarks con­
cerning bench marks and turning points which may be useful
in subsequent field operations. The standard column head­
ings on the left-hand page are: Station, Backsight, Height
of Instrument, Foresight., and the Elevation.’ Acpepted
abbreviations are normally used. It must be remembered that
the station is not the point occupied by the leveling ins­
trument, but it is the point on which the rod 'is held. The
following additional information may also be indicated on

r 4f
Fig. 17-3. Typical d iU tA c n lia l leve lin g note*.

f August 13,1983 Cloudy and Cold

9-/2AMSI8‘C Assumption Hoad

'2
. 1VFFE \L LE /ELIN ?

3
'Lab Exercise No.5 Grp No.3/CE 221
A. Tabu/itIon o)LevelAores.
STA BS HI FS ■ ELE 'ATION \f.1/ rf
BNt, 1.246 5/3.727 512.481m s K ft 0r-r ff07 f i h5//1>f/c/7 £?
TP, 0.952 512.674 2.005 5/1.722 7|a a7C?/'d £p?/
1.342 5/2.120 1.896 510.778 p r Lri
2.556 514.289 0.387 511.733 i
rp4 0.595 513.312 1.572 512.7/7 p<7r otc c P 9 77 JIf |
BNU 0.664 511.861 2.1/5 511.197 9if? f/7J9 />r 7/ rGGXL £7£d 145ft/7 /p/
rZr~ 1.228 5/0.205 2.884 508.977 *
TP* 1.355 509.993 1.567 308.938 ‘cpc•ri1C •u/>
2.053 5/0988 1.063 508.930
8Mw 0.749 5/1.074 0.663 510.325 9if r IB•c am?£#
1.396 511.969 0.505 310.569 7117- ■o73(C «waA
1.915 5/2.445 1.335 510.S30 3fi r'Cm ?< c if»> // p 97
8M* 1.902 510.543 9 Crnaft 7if• s1; ■cJ, «a>a7.T /fc* rr/
15.956 17.894
(SBS) ISFS) : ?/ uiJ Lsa1

ft Arithnotic Clock. H < ■ r '* i; l■£ • 1 - -j

5/2.48,,m [> lE/svatio} of BM)
*15.95tm V EBS) Vh91s ■ff / r0r//s7 n0VIc0/(
777- lSami 9? c<rf/ r/a r ?<<
5/0.54.'m ICheck} ►ith E/evitionotBMt. - rM/>/t/ 0 ni1c
r ‘
I i/»£r07<£PIit< t//7,
V

the upper portion of the right-hand page: . date and time of

survey, average temperature observed, and weather condition
prevailing during the survey. For student field notes, the
lab exercise number 3nd the group number is usually inclu­
ded. It is customary to portray the arithmetic check at the
foot of each page of level notes, and the signature of the
ohief of party must also be indicated to authenticate the
field notes. ' / ■ .
1 7 -5 . CHECKING LEVEL NOTES.

The calculations in differential leveling work are limited

only to determining heights of instrument and the elevation
of stations or points. As pointed out earlier in the
procedure of differential leveling, there are only two
simple steps performed in the computation. First, the back­
sight reading is added to the elevation of the benchmark, to
determine the height of the instrument; and second, the
foresight reading is subtracted from the height of instru­
ment to determine the elevation of the point foresighted.
A check on the addition and subtraction in each step is
made by adding separately the backsight and foresight read­
ings. The difference between the two sums should equal the
difference in elevation between the first and last stations
unless a mistake is made in arithmetic. An agreement bet-

L f V I LIN O
m. meTWOOS
ween these two quantities signifies that the process of
adding .and subtracting has been done correctly. It does
not, however, provide a check against mistakes in observing
and recording data or whether the field work was performed
satisfactorily. The rod can be misread or an observed read­
ing recorded incorrectly without affecting the arithmetic
check.
It is customary among surveyors to always make an,
arithmetic check on all data which are calculated and re­
corded in the field notebook. Level notes are considered
incomplete unless the check is properly indicated. The
arithmetic check should be done before the survey party
leaves the site. It is only by using correct field proce­
dures and giving careful attention to the work being under­
taken that mistakes and errors can be prevented.
17-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. .
I. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING* Complete the d if f e r e n t ia l level notes,,
shown below and perform the cu sto m ary a r it h m e t ic check.

L e v e l Notes from BM, to BM4 1

STA BS H, FS ELEV
BM , 1 .2 5 6 i . ; >•" V<(» •’V"'V 127 .13 3 m
TP, ,6 <7.886
} z 'a , - S o y
tp2 . 1.2 28 1 .5 2 7
0 f af; :
bm 2 Jr. 189 : <Cs. .K M 2* 2 4 6
bm3 , f .0 7 0 ~2'.~0 17 \i~ rT K :
»7 i . «Sf:
tp3 1.831 f X i[ , -:Wl JSr:h56 •»• a
bm 4 1 <•' f * ^ A
-'V
J J - 1 ■?•'(/ > 7 6 5 ....

Fig. 17-4. Level Aoutz taken.

a) Level Route from BM| to T P 2 '.

b) Level Roufe from T P 2 t0 Br^3‘
"■*— Leveling Rod

Lev%l Llnf

E le v T P 2
* 126.092m aI

"t” "t*
c) Level Route from BM3 BM4
-Leveling Rod

Elev BM3 h i5
= 124.246m = 125.316 m j C.I WV

I= 122 BM4
Datum (Mean Sea Level) = 121.726m
--------- ■f — 4 —
S o lu tio n :
a) Computation of Hi s and Elevation of Stations:
127.1 3 3 (Elev BM|) 125.074 (Elev BM2)
+ 1 .256 ( BS on BM|)' + 1,189 ( BS on BM2)
128.389 (HI,) 126.263 (Hl4 )
- 1.886 (FS on TP,) - 2.017 (FS on bM3)
126.503 ( Elev TP, ) 124.246 (Elev BM3)
+ 1 . 1 16 ( BS on TP, ) + 1.070 ( BS on BM )
127.61 9 (Hl2) 125.31 6 ( HI 5) '
- 1.527 (FS on TP2) - 2.656 (FS on TP3)
126.092 (Elev TP2) 122.660 ( Elev TP3) •
+ 1.228 ( BS on TP2) .+ 1 . 8 3 1 (BS on TP3)
.127.320 ( H 13 ) 1 2 4. 491 chi 6 )
- 2.246 (■FS on BM2) - 2.765 {FS on BM4)
*12 5 . 0 7 4 ( Elev BM2) 121.726 ( Elev B M 4 )‘
Determining Backsight and Foresight Sums:

183
 • S B S = 1 .2 5 6 + 1.116 + 1 .2 2 8 + 1.1 89 + 1 . 0 7 0 + 1 .8 3 1 = + 7 .6 9 0 g m
S F S * - (1 .8 8 6 + 1 .5 2 7 + 2 . 2 4 6 + 2 . 0 1 7 + 2. 6 5 6 + 2 . 7 6 5 ) * - 1 3 . 0 9 7 $
c) Tabulated Solution:

STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM| 1 .2 5 6 1 2 8 .3 8 9 127.1 3 3 m
TP| , 1 . 116 1 ,2 7 . 6 1 9 1 . 886 1 2 6 .5 0 3
t f 2 1 .2 2 6 1 2 7 .3 2 0 1 . 527 . 1 2 6 .0 9 2
bm 2 1. 189 1 2 6 :2 6 3 2 .2 4 6 , 1 2 5 .0 7 4
BM 3 1 .0 7 0 1 2 5 .3 1 6 2 .0 1 7 1 2 4 .2 4 6
TP3 1 .8 3 1 1 2 4 .4 9 1 2 .6 5 6 1 2 2 .6 6 0 -
bm4 2 . 765 1 2 1 .7 2 6
+ 7 .6 9 0 -1 3 .0 9 7
(SEBS) (3EFS)
d) A rith m e tic C h e c k :
1 2 7 .1 3 3 m (E le v a tio n of BN y
+ 7 .'6 9 0 m (S B S )
1 3 4 .8 2 3 m (S^:m)
- 1 3 .0 9 7 m ( 2 FS)
12 1 . 7 2 6 m i (Checks with E le v a tio n of BM4) .

2. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING. Following is a d i f f e r e n t i a l leveling

operation performed between two bench m arks.
a) A dumpy level is set up at a convenient lo.cation along the ge­
neral route between BM,, which has an elevation <5f 3 4 5 .7 9 m , and. BM2
whose elevation is to be determined.
b) A backsight of I.j2_5~m is taken on BMr . The rodman then goes
forward and chooses T P l .a t some convenient location within the range
of the telescope, still in the same general route. At TP, a foresight of
2 .4 8 m is read.
/ c) The level is moved forward and set up at another location. A
backsight reading of 1 .2 4 m is taken on the rod held at TP, . The rodman
goes forward to establish TP 2 and a foresight reading of 3 .1 8 m is t a ­
ken on it.
d) From a new instrum ent location e s ta b lish e d f a r t h e r fo rw a rd , *
a backsight on T P 2 r e a d s 1 .1 4 m , while a fo re sig h t reading of 2.77m
is taken on TP 3 . *
e} The instrumentman again sets up the level at another fo rw ard
location and takes a backsight reading of 1.96m on T P 3 and a f o r e ­
sight reading of 2 . 5 9 m on T P 4 . t
f) At the last set up of the instrument,, a backsight reading of 0.55
meter is taken on the rod held at TP 4 . F in a l ly a foresight r.eading of
1.62m is taken on the terminal point, BM2.
For the whole operation it v'as seen to it that each foresight distance was
approximately equal to its corresponding backsight d ista n c e. Tabulate the
observed fiefd data in a standard form for d iffe re n tia l level notes. Com­
plete the levti notes and show the custom ary arithmetic ' check.

It Vf /ING
MlTNOOt 18 9 ,
 S o lu tio n :
Computation of Hi's and Elevation of Stations • ■. . )•■■■.
•;
345.79 m ' (Elev BM,)> 343.76 (HI,)
+ 1 .25 (BS on BM,) -2 .7 7 (FS on TP )
347.04 (HI,) 340.99 (Elev TP3)
- 2.48 (FS on TP,) + 1 .96 (BS on TP,)
344.56 (Elev TP, ) 34 2 .95 (Hl4)
+ 1.24 • (BS on TP, ) - 2.59 (FS on TP4)
345.80 (Hl2 ) 340.36 (Elev TP4) ,
- 3. >8 (FS on TP2) + 0.55 (BS on TP4)
342.62 (Elev TP2) 340.91 (Hi5)
+. 1. 14 (BS on TP2) - 1 .62 (FS on BMg)
343.76 (Hl3 ) 339.29 m (Elev BM2)
b) Tabulated Solution:

STA 68 HI F$ ELEV
BM, 1.25, 347.04 345.79m
TPI 1.24 345.80 2.48 344.56
TP2 1.14 343.76 3. 18 342.62
TP3 1.96 342.95 2.77 340.99
TP4 0.55 340.91 2.59 340.36
bm2 1.62 339.29
+ 6. 14 -12.64
(2 BS) (2 FS)
c) A r it h m e t ic Check:

34 5 . 7 9 m , (Elevation of BM,)
* 6. 14 (2BS)
35 I .93
-12.64 (SFS)
339.29 m (Checks with Elevation of BM2)
3. D I F F E R E N T I A L L E V E L IN G . Prepare and complete the differential
level notes for the information shown in the accompanying illustration
(Fig. 17-5). Include the customary arithmetic check.

<an /
.f ^ S L /NO
M t: t h o d s
 Solution:
a) Computation of Hi's and El evat i on of S ta t i o n s :

125.45 m (Elev ,BMa) 1 1 9.84 (Elev TP2)

+ 0 .6 8 (BS on BM„) + 3.73 (BS on TP2)
126. 1 3 (HI,) 123.57 (Hl3)
- 3. 75 (FS on TP,) - 1.64 (FS ,on TP3)
12 2 . 3 8 (Elev TP,) 12 1.93 (Elev TF>)
+ 0.98 (BS on TP) + 3.90 (BS on Pig)
123.36 (Hl2) 125.83 (Hl4 )
- 3. 5 2 (FS on TP2) - 0.35 (FS on BMb)
119 .84 (Elev TP2) 125.48m (Elev BMJ
Tabulated Solution: i

STA BS HI FS ELEV

BMa 0 .6 8 126. 13 12 5 . 4 5 m
0 .9 8 1 2 3 .3 6 3.75 1 2 2 .3 8
TPI
TP 2 3 .7 3 1 2 3 .5 7 3.52 1 1 9 .8 4
TP3 3 .9 0 1 2 5 .8 3 1 .6 4 1 2 1 .9 3
BM. 0.35 1 2 5 .4 8
P
+9 .2 9 -9 .2 6
(2 B S) (S F S )

c) Arithmetic Check:
125.45m (Elevation of BM0)
+ 3.29 (2 BS)
134.74
-9,26 (2FS)
125.48m (Checks with Elevation of BMb)
* e

. D I F F E R E N T I A L L E V E L IN G . The accompanying schematic arrange

ent of lines (Fig. 17-6) portray a differential level route. The values
indicated represent backsight and foresight readings taken at different
points as labeled. Prepare and complete differential level notes for the
information shown and show the customary arithmetic check.
Fig. 17-6. Schematic (vuangemnt Luvu, atong the te v e t Aoute.

H!

/
2.04_ i_^
— T ip s )
/
/
,y8M,
(Elev 3 5 6 .6 5 m )

L F V fU N O
M i JN O O S I9(,
Solution:
a) Computation of Hi's and Elevation of Stations:

3 5 6 .6 5 m ( E i e v BM,) 3 5 8 .1 3 <h i 3 )
+ 2 .3 5 (B S on BM,) 6 - 3 .6 ! ( F S on TP3>
3 5 9 .0 0 (H I,) 3 5 4 .5 2 ( E l e v TP3)
-P3;.S® ( F S on T P ,) + f . 54 ( B S on TP 3)
3 5 5 .7 2 ( E l e v T P ,) 3 5 6 .0 6 (H l4 )
+ 1 .3 7 ( B S on T P ,) - 3 .6 9 ( F S on TP4)
3 5 7 .0 9 (H y 3 5 2 .3 7 ( E l e v TP4)
- 2 .0 4 ( F S on TP2) + 0 .8 5 ( BS on TP4)
3 5 5 .0 5 ( E l e v T P 2) 3 5 3 .2 2 (Hlg)
+ 3 .0 8 ( B S on TP 2) - 3 .0 7 ( F S on BMg)
3 5 8 .1 3 (H l3) 3 5 0 .1 5 m ( E l e v BMjJ

Tabulated* Solution:

STA BS HI FS ELEV
BM, 2.35 359.00 3 5 6 .6 5 m
1.37 357.09 3.28 3 5 5.72
TPI
tp2 3.0 8 358.13 2.04 3 5 5 .0 5
1.54 356.06 3.61 3 5 4 .5 2
TP3
0.85 353.22 3.69 3 5 2 .3 7
TP4
bm2 3.07 350.15
+ 9.19 -1*5.69
<ZBS) (ZFS)

c) Arithmetic Check:

3 5 6 .6 5 m (Eleva tio n of BM,)

t . 9 . 19 (2 B S )
3 6 5 .8 4
- 1 5 ,6 9 (2 F S )
3 5 0 .1 5 m (Checks with Elevation of BM2)

,19?.,
LEVELING
METHODS
18-1. VOUBLE-ROWEV LEVELING
18-2. THREE-fDUE LEVELING
18-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. VoubZe-Rodded Leveling
2. Vouble-Rodded Le.veXi.ng
3. Tkiee-WiAe Leveling

Lesson IS
18-1. DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING.

Double-rodded differential leveling is a method of determi­

ning differences in elevation between points.by employing
two level routes simultaneously. This method differs from
conventional differential leveling in that two turning
points are'established such that at each setup of the le­
veling instrument, two sets of independent backsights and
foresights are taken.
This method has an advantage of providing a continuous
check on the process of- determining ground elevations while
the work is in progress. It is extremely useful when there
is an urgent need to undertake differential leveling in a
short period of time where no established bench marks are
available for checking results. Double-rodded leveling is
also useful when running a long line of levels which do not
close back on the initial bench mark.
Fig. 18-1. NoiZ-i lo\ doubtz-A.odd.zd tzvztin g .

turning points are listed as H or L (high line or low lipe)

to identify the backsight and foresight readings on the two
level lines. Although this method of leveling can be run
with a single rod and only one rodman, it is preferable to
employ two rods and two rodmen to speed up the process of
leveling. When using this method, it is advisable to use
sets of turning points which are near each other and having

194,
elevation differences of at least one-half meter or more.
This technique eliminates the possibility:of. making the
same mistake in reading the meter -marks'on both rods. It is
also advisable to swap rods on alternate, setups of the ins­
trument to minimize systematic errors.
Upon d’ompletion of the. leveling- operation, it will be
observed that the two computed elevations of the terminal
bench mark will vary slightly from each ■other .-. The discre­
pancy is due usually to errors pf observation,.and the cor­
rect elevation is determined by taking the .average value..
However^ when the discrepancy between two final elevations
is sufficiently large, it is advisable to repeat the level­
ing process. It should also be expected>.that the . discre­
pancy will increase as the length of the line increases*.
Just as in conventional differential leveling, there is
a need •to perT-orm the customary arithmetic check before
leaving the survey site... This arithmetic .check- is made b>
adding separately all the backsight Readings- and all the
foresight readings. It should be noted that backsight read­
ings are considered as positive values.and .foresight-read­
ings as negative values. Since there are two sets of level
lines, the algebraic sum of the backsight, and foresight
readings is divided by two. The quotient thus obtained is
then added algebraically to the elevation of the - initial
bench mark. If the resulting sum iS -equal to •the elevatior
of the terminal bench mark, it can be safely assumed that
the process of adding and subtracting has been -done *cor­
rectly. Again, it is stressed that the arithmetic check
does not provide any measure of verifying--mistakes in ob­
serving and .recording of data. It does not also tell us if-
the field observations and techniques employed were under­
taken satisfactorily. , '.

18-2. THREE-WIRE LEVELING.

A more precise method of differential leveling can be

attained by the three-wire method of leveling. It is c
method of determining differences in elevation whereir
three horizontal hairs (or threads) are-read a n d • recorded
rather than from a single horizontal hair. The leveling
instrument used should be equipped with stadia --hairs ir
addition to the regular vertical and horizontal hairs (see
Fig. 13-6 and 13-7). For each backsight and foresight, all
_hree horizontal hairs are read to the nearest, millimeter
and the average of the three readings is taken as the
correct value.
Since three-wire leveling is employed for high preci­
sion work, only precise leveling rods shou-ld be jused. It i;
preferable to employ rods which use graduated strips o
invar or nilvar. To attain fast and accurate plumbing, the
rod should have an attached rod level. It is also important
to calibrate the rod before using them in the field. The
backsight; and corresponding foresight distances shoulc

195
always be maintained at equal lengths.
Figure 18-2 illustrates a typical setup for three-wire
leveling. The level is set up at station L and the rod is
held vertically at! station P. The horizontal distance bet­
ween the instrument and the rod is shown as HD, and the
vertical distance between the line of sight and station P
is taken as the mean of the three hair readings.
Fig. 1$-t» Typical 4ttup ion iJmce-wine. leveling.

Where:
a = Upper stadia hair reading
b =. Lower stadia hair reading
c = Horizontal cr o ss - ha i r reading or rod reading on P
s = Stadia intercept or the difference between the upper sta­
dia hair reading and the lower stadia hair reading
m.= Mean of t hr e e - h a i r readings
HD = Horizontal distance from the level to the rod held at P
K = Stadia interval factor
C = Instrument constant
HI = Height of the line of sight above datum or mean sea level
Elev of P = Unknown elevation of station P
The following equations are used in three-wire level­
ing:
s = a - b ••;......................... Eq.'!)
m = (a + b + c ) / 3 ................... •................................Eq. (2)
HD = Ks + C .................................................................... Ed- (3)
Elev of P = HI - m ...........••••■•............................................... Eq. (4)

The stadia intercept ,s, provides an indirect measure of

the distance from the center of the leveling instrument to
the rod sighted. In determining the horizontal distance,
the stadia interval factor, K, and the 'nstrument constant,
C, must first be known or given. For.most leveling instru­
ments, K is usually equal to 100 and C is zero.
 13-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

D O U & L E - R Q D Q E D L E V E L I N G . Complete the following differen­

/.
tial level notes for a double - rodded line from BM, to BM2.Show the
customary arithmetic check.

STA as - HI FS ELEV
1 .9 6 4 s'\V 2 0 5 .5 4 9 m
BiVi |
f. 964 -

TPj H 2. i 87 ail 1 . 10 4 i" 11

TP, L 2 .6 2 9 * fy- 1 .5 4 9 4 '' / ' -
TP?H 1 .3 9 3 'L&»- i ^ r 1 .7 9 4 'i O u . to 7
tp2l 1 .7 8 0 q ■'%. 2/202
T P ,H 0. 3 17 h t *■' 2 .9 9 1 / “1 . v c-r
tp 3l 0. 74 l •-# • }■.*,* 3 .4 1 5 ‘ & C K (.

2 .6 3 4 Z 01 • ir-r
bm 2
2. 634 q n'l ' $ W
S o lu tio n : v < r. - • \': a y *2* \ . • i ?1

a) Route. 1 (High Points) Route 2 (Low Points)

205.549 m (Elev BM,) 205.549 m (Elev BM,)
+ 1.964 (BS on BM,) + 1.964 (BS on BM,)
207.513 (HI, H) 207.5 13 (HI, L )
~ 1 . 104 (FS on TP, H) - 1.549 (FS on TP, L)•
206.409 (Elev TP, H ) 2 05 .9 64 (Elev TP, L)
+ 2 .1 8 7 ( BS on TP, H) + 2.629 (BS on TP, L)
203.536 (Hi2 H) 208.593 (HI2L )
- 1.794 (FS on TP2H) - 2 .2 0 2 (FS on TP2 L)
206.802 (Elev TP2 H) 2 06 . 3 9 1 (Elev TPj L)
1 .393 (BS on TP2H) + 1.780 (BS on TP2L)
208 (95 (HIj H) 208. 17 1 (HlgL )
2 991 (FS on TP3H) - 3.4 15 (FS on TPg L)
2 05.204 (Elev TP3 H) 204.756 (Elev TP3 L)
+ 0.317 (BS on TP3H) + 0.741 (BS on TP, L)
205.521 (HI4 H) 205.497 (Hf4L)
- 2.634 (FS on BM^ - 2.634 (FS on BMg)
202.887 m (Elev BM2)„ 202.863 (Elev BM2)

b) Mean Elevation of BM2 = 1 /2 ( 20 2. 88 7 +2 02 .8 63 ) = 2 02 .8 75 m

c) Determining Backsight and Foresight Sums:

SBS = 1.964 + 1.964 + 2 . 187 + 2.629 + 1.393 + 1.780 + 0.3 I 7 + 0 741

= 12.975 m , 'Y

:-r-S “ -(1.104 + 1.549 + 1.794 + 2.202 + 2.991 +3.415 + 2.634 + 2.63*

“ I 8.32 3 m

— — I'*/,
 d) Tabulated S o lu tio n :

STA BS HI FS ELEV
1 .9 6 4 207.51 3 2 0 5 .5 4 9 tn
BM,
1 . 964 207.513
TP, H. 2. 187 208.59 6 1.1 04 206. 409
TP,L 2 .6 2 9 2 0 8 .5 9 3 1. 5 4 9 205. 964
tp2h I . 393 2 0 8 .1 9 5 1.794 2 0 6 .8 0 2
tp| l 1. 780 20&. 17 1 2.2 02 206. 391
tp3h 0 .3 1 7 205.521 2.991 205. 204
TP3L 0 .7 4 1 2 0 5 .4 97 3.4 1 5 2 0 4 .7 5 6

* 2 .6 3 4 202. 887
8M2 2 .6 3 4 202. 863
+ 1 2 :9 7 5 -18.3 2 3
(2 BS) C2FS)

e) Arithmetic Check:
I) 1st Method. , ' ' .
Mean Elev BM2 = (2 02 .8 87 + 2 0 2 . 8 6 3 ) / 2
3 202.875 m
DE, = (SFS + 5BS)/2 * [l8.323 + (-12.975)] / 2
3 2.674 m
•
DEo = .Elev BM. - Mean Elev BM, = 2 0 5. 549 - 202.875
■ 2.674 m
S'nce DE, is equal to DE2,it can be assumed that the< arith­
metical computations (additions and subtractions) performed
are correct.
*
2) 2nd Method.
Mean Elev BM. = (202.887 + 2 0 2 . 8 6 3 J / 2
3 202.875 m
+ 12.975m 2BS
- 18 . 3 2 3 m 2FS
- 5.348m SUM = SBS + S FS
- 2.674m AVE = SUM/2
+ 205.549m Elev BM,
202.875m (Elev BM, + AVE): Since
the Mean Elevation of
ed that the arithmetica
ed are correct.

2. D O U B L E “ RO D D ED L E V E L I N G .
Figure 18-3 shows a schematic
arrangement of a differential level route employing
two rods. The values
indicated represent backsight and foresight readings taken on two sets
of turning points. Prepare and co’mplefe differential level notes tor the
information shown and perform the customary ar'thmetic checki

198 i rv n
TMOQS in o
F-cg. 1S-3. Schematic aAAangement o{ ZisuzA the doubbt-eodded Zive£ \ o n .'f ,

y£Z?
tesT
3 .7 3 2 ..
HI.
y TP] L (BS) F\ *>l
/ >\o

to Icy)
S-/N
/•A
/-Xcf
■
$ii
x.l ■

x>—
3iv!a
TP2L i .a
\*r / '
x
r p2 H
TP H
os) >rni4
"*/

“d>\c ©/o' (-7-^ 'hu'y

(Elav 1 4 6 .8 3 0 m ) dps
\ /*■/'* o ^\3»
V
3 .0 0 0
HI (rS ) _ TP^ L

S o lu tio n :
a) Computing Hi's and Elevation of Stations.

R O U It 1 (HIGH P O IN TS) ROUTE 2 (LOW P O I N T S )

146.890m (Elev BMa) 14 6 . 8 9 0 m (Elev BMC)

+ 2.768 (BS on BM0) + 2.7 68 (BS on BM,'
149.658 (HI,) 14 9.65 C (HI.}
- 0.488 (FS on TP, H) - 1.13 7 i FS on TP,L)
149. 170 (Elev TP,H) 14 8 . 5 2 1 (Elev TP.L)
+ 3.079 (BS on TP( H) + 3 .7 3 2 (BS cn Tpt;..j
152.249 (H y 152 .25 3 (HI,'
- 0. 329 (FS on TP2H) - 0.674 (FS cn Tf.’J '
151. 92 0 (Elev TPpH) 15 1 .579 IE lev fB,! 1
+ 3.024 (BS on TP H) + 3.366 (BS on Tp.L)
154.944 (Hy 154 .945 (H^)
- 2. 628 (FS on TP3H) - 3.000 (FS on TP3L)
152.316 (Elev TP,H) 15 1 .945 (Elev TP,L)
+ 0. 2 6 7 (BS on TF>H) + 0.834 (BS on TPL)
152'. 583 (Hl4) 152.779 (Hl4)
- 3 .4 34 (FS on BMb) -3.436 (FS on BMy
149. 149m (Elev BMb) 14 9 ,343m (Elev BMb)

b) Determining Backsight and Foresight Sums.

S B S = * 2 .7 6 8 +2.768 + 3 . 0 7 9 + 3 .7 3 2 + 3 . 0 2 4 + 3 . 3 6 6 + 0 . 2 6 7 + 0 . 8 3 4
= + 1 9 .8 3 8 m (Summation of backsights or plus sig hts)

2 F S = - ( 0 .4 8 8 + 1.137 + 0 . 3 2 9 + 0 .6 7 4 + 2 . 6 2 9 + 3 .0 0 0 + 3 . 4 3 4 + 3 . 4 3 6 )
“ 15.126m (S ummation of foresig h ts or minus s ig h ts )

<*»•#/w#
»t IH l»ll* 159.
c) Tabulated Solution.

STA BS FS ELEV
(+.S) FHI (-S)
2.768 149.65 8
BMa 146 .890 m
2.768 149.65 8
TP, H 3.079 152 .249 0 .4 8 8 149.170
TP, L 3.732 152 .253 1 .1 37 148.521
TP 8 3.024 15 4 .9 4 4 0 .3 2 9 151.920
TF2L 3.366 15 4 .9 4 5 0 .6 7 4 l£l .5 7 9
tp 3h 0.267 15 2 .5 8 3 2 .6 2 8 152. 3 16
0.834 15 2 .7 7 9 3 .000 15 1 . 945
TP3L
3 .4 3 4 149. 149
BM.D
3 .4 3 6 1 4 9 .3 4 3
t l 9 . 838 -15 . 126
(2EBS) (5EFS)-

d) Arithmetic Check.
Mean Elev BM = (149.149 + l 4 9 . 3 4 3 ) / 2
* 14 9 . 2 4 6 m
+ 19.838m SBS
- 15.1 26 m SFS
•f 4.7 14 m SUM - -5BS + 2FS
+ 2.356 m •AVE = SUM / 2
4 146. 890m Elev BMa
149.2 46m Elev BMa + AVE: Since this value is equal to
the Mean Elevation of BMb , it can be assumed that the arith­
metical computations performed are correct.

3. T H R E E - W IR E L E V E L IN G .
Complete the differential level notes
fchown below and perform the customary arithmetic check.

BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT
9TA HAIR MEAN 8 HI HAIR MEAN s ELEV
RDGS ROG RDGS RDG
1.102
8M| 0.930 444.242m
0.718 C
2.784 1. li 7
TP| 2.420 0.899 •"«• ■r?..A. ’- f
2.057 0.682
1.713 11900
tp2 1.440 1.537
1.166 1.172 .
2.391 ' 1.450
TP3 2.094 ‘: A'J ' 1.177 ■"- .<,r: 7f <<
1.039 0.904
0.913 2.210
tP4 0.730 /■vVv 1.714 t ~ f/S
0.547 1.218 l* \
1.593
8M2 1.410 r c\\
_ 1.227
Datum (M»9P 3*8 l m i l
 e) Set-up Between TF^ and BM2 .

a) Calculating Mean Hair Readings (m).

Backs fghts:
m, ss (1.15 2 .+ 0 . 9 3 5 + 0.71 8 } / 3 = 0 . 9 3 5
m 2 *■, ( 2 .7 8 4 + 2.420 + 2 .0 5 7 )/3 = 2.420
m3 ( 1.713 + 1.440 + 1 . 16 6 ) / 3 3
1.440
m 4 = ( 2.59 1 + 2.094 + 1 .5 9 9 ) / 3 s 2 . 0 9 5
m5 (0.913 + 0. 730 + 0 . 5 4 7 ) / 3 = 0 . 7 30
SB$m =+7.620
Foresights:

m6 S (1.117 + 0.899 + 0.6 8 2 )/3 3

0. 8 9 9
= ( 1.900 + ! .537 + 1 . 172) / 3 1.536
m7 3

m 8 = ( 1.450 + 1.177 + 0.904) / 3 s: 1. 177

m9 (2.210 + 1.714 + 1. 21 8 ) / 3 = L 74 4
mio = ( 1.593 + 1.410 + 1.227) / 3 * 1.410
2 FSm s - 6 .7 36
b) Calculating Stadia Intercept (s).
Backsights:

s i = (1.1 52 - 0.718) = 0.434

s2 = (2.784 - 2.057) = 0.727
s3 = (1.713 - 1 . 166 ) = 0 . 5 4 7
s4 = (2.591 - 1.599) = 0 . 9 9 2
S5 = (0.913 - 0.547) = 0.366
Foresights:

s6 = ( 1 . 1 1 7 - 0.682) (5.435

, 20; If ViT<IHQ
atftiovi
 Sj - (I . 9 0 0 - I . 172) = 0.728
s8 -(1.450 - 0.904) - 0.546
s =( 2 . 2 1 0 - 1.218) = 0.992
sjo - ( I . 5<03 - 1.227) * 0.366
c) Calculating Hi's and Elevations.
444.242 ( Elev BM,) 446.602 (Hl3)
+ 0.935 ( m,) - 1 .177 (m 8)
4 4 5 . 17? (HI,) 445.425 ( Elev TFV
- 0.899 ( m6) + 2.095 <m4 >
444.278 ( Elev TP, ) 447.520 (HU)
+ 2.420 ( m2) - 1 .714 (m9)
446.698 (Hl2) 445.806 (Elev TP4)
- 1.5 36 ( m7) + 0.730 (m5 )
4 4 5 . 162 (Elev TP2) 446.536 (Hl5)
+ 1.440 (m3) ' - 1.410 (m,0)
4 46.602 (Hl3) 4 4 5 . 1 26 ( Elev BM2}
d) Tabulated Solution:
BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN HI HAIR MEAN ELEV
S ROGS ROG S
RDGS RDG
1 . 152
BM, 0 .9 3 5 0.935 0 .4 3 4 44 5. 177 4 4 4 .2 4 2 m
0 .7 1 8
2 .7 8 4 1.177
2 .4 2 0 2.420 0 .7 2 7 446 698 0 .89 9 0 .899 0 .4 3 5 4 4 4 . 2 7 8
TP, 2 ,05 7 0.6 82
/
1.713 1.900
tp2 1 .440 1.440 0 .5 4 7 44 6 .6 0 2 1.537 1.536 0 .7 2 8 4 4 5 . 162
1.166 l. 172
2.591 1.450
2 .0 9 4 2.095 0 .9 9 2 447.52 0 1. 177 1. 177 0.5 46 4 4 5 . 425
TP3 1 .599 0. 904
0 .913 2.21 0
0 .7 3 0 0.730 0 .3 6 6 44 6.53 6 1.714 1.71 4 0.9 92 4 4 5 .8 0 6
TP4 > 0 .5 4 7 1.218
1.593
bm 2 1.410 1.41 0 0.3 66 4 45.1 26
• 1.227

e) Arithmetic Check:
1st Method.
SBSm = + 7 . 6 2 0 m
2FSm = - 6 . 7 3 6 m ,
DE, = 5BSm + 5FSm = 7 . 6 2 0 + ( - 6 . 7 3 6 ) = 0.884 m
de 2 - Elev BM2 - Elev BM, = 4 45 .1 26 - 4 4 4 . 2 4 2
a 0.884 m
mitfvnhw*
ihoo 203
 Since DE{ is equal to DE Z , it can be assumed that the arithme­
tic computations involving additions and subtractions are correct.
2) 2nd Method.
444.242 m (Elevation of BM,)
+ 7:620m CSBS)
45 1.862 rri (Sum) '
- 6.736 m (2FS)
445.1 26 m (Checks with Elevation of BM2) ,

204, m m
LEVELING
METHODS
»•

19-1. PROFILE LEVELING

19-2. DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. PAo&ile
2. Stationing
3. Intermediate Foresights
4. Fall StationA
5. Pint Stations
6. Vertical Exaggeration
1. Proiile Paper
19-3. PROCEDURE OF PROFILE LEVELING
19-4. STATIONING
19- 5. PROFILE LEVEL NOTES
19-6. PLOTTING PROFILES
19-7. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Locating Stations
2. Profile Leveling
3. Profile Leveling

Lessen 19
 19-1. PROFILE LEVELING.

The process of determining differences in elevation along a

fixed line at designated short measured intervals is refer­
red to as profile leveling. It is executed to provide data
from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be
plotted. A profile is necessary for the design and cons­
truction of roads, railroads, canals, culverts, bridges,
sewer lines, and etc.' The fieldwork involved is identical
to differential leveling since it also requires the estab­
lishment of turning points on which, foresight and backsight
readings are taken before the terminal point is reached.
The main difference between these two methods of leveling
lies in the number of foresights taken from each setup of
the instrument. In differential leveling only one foresight
is necessary whereas in profile leveling any number of
foresights can be taken. In profile leveling, a series of
bench marks intended for use at a later date are also set
up.
Profile level routes may be run as a single straight
line or as a series of straight lines connected by curves.
Intermediate foresights are taken where necessary to por­
tray accurately the existing ground surface along the route
surveyed. For most engineering projects, the profile is
usually taken along the center line with the level set up a
convenient distance away from it so that sights of more
uniform lengths can be obtained. Upon completion of profile
leveling work, it is important to Check (while still in the
field) the data gathered before any plotting is made. A
check may be made by tying into a previously established
bench mark or by running a line of differential levels back
to the starting point.

19-2. DEFINITION OF TERMS.

To enable the student to better understand profile leveling

work the following terms are defined.

1. Profile. The profile is a curved line which graphi­

cally portrays the intersection of a vertical plane with
the surface of the earth. It depicts ground elevations of
selected critical points along a surveyed line and the
horizontal distances between these points.
2. Stationing. A numerical designation given in terms
of horizontal distance any point along a profile line is
away from the starting point. Each stake used is marked
with its station and plus.
3. Intermediate Foresights. These sights, which are al­
so known as ground rod readings, are taken along the cen­
terline of the proposed project to provide an accurate
representation of the ground surface. Intermediate fore­
sights are observed at regular intervals and at points
where sudden changes in elevation occur.

,20
 4. Pull Stations. Are points which are established
along the profile level route at uniformly measured distan­
ces . These points are usually made in multiples of 100, 50,
30, 20, or 10 meters. <
5. Plus Stations. Any other intermediate point estab­
lished along a profile level route which is not designated
as a full station is called^a plus station. These points
are takeif*at breaks in the ground surface slope and at cri­
tical points such as the intended location of culverts,
bridges, and other structures.
6. Vertical Exaggeration. Is a process’ of drawing the
vertical scale for a profile much larger than the horizon­
tal scale in order to accentuate the differences in eleva­
tion.
7. Profile Paper; A special heavy grade graphing paper
used for plotting profiles. The paper has horizontal and
vertical lines drawn in green, blue, or orange which are
spaced accordingly to represent certain distances to the
horizontal and vertical scales.

19-3. PROCEDURE OF PROFILE LEVELING.

Before profile levels are run, the line joining the initial
and terminal points must first be established. A transit
and tape survey is undertaken starting at the beginning of
the line which is designated as station 0+00. The length of
the level route is measured and stakes are "set at each full
station to define the path to be followed.
The instrument is set up at a “
convenient location and a
backsight is taken on a reference bench mark near the
initial point to determine the height of the instrument. It
is preferable to set up the level about 20 meters away from
the level route when readings must be taken on a series of
intermediate points. A suitable setup should be selected
such that the- rod is visible through the telescope and rod
readings could be made more easily. A series of interme­
diate foresights are next taken along'the center line to
determine elevations of ground points. This is done without
transferring the instrument. By the time it is no longer
possible "to continue with the foresight readings on inter­
mediate points from the instrument position, a turning
point is established. This permits the instrument to be
moved to a new location which will allow additional fore­
sights to be taken forward of the line or just to continue
the line of levels.
Intermediate foresight readings should be taken at
regular intervals of 10 to 30 meters along the centerline,
and at points where there are abrupt changes in. elevation.
The points foresighted should provide data which will por­
tray accurately the configuration, of the terrain along the
level route.
Bench marks may be established ahead during the execu­
tion of a transit and tape survey or at the same time
 profile leveling is undertaken. Usually, bench marks are
spaced much farther apart when the differences in eleva­
tion along the level route are not so large. The spacing
should be made closer where the differences in elevation is
quite considerable; It is important that bench marks be so
located that they will not be disturbed or obliterated du­
ring any construction that may be undertaken later. Also,
since bench marks are intended to be used as reference
points for determining-differences in elevation, it is im­
portant that their elevations are accurately determined and
subsequently verified as well.

19-4, STATIONING.

Before levels are taken, the line along which the profile
is required must be properly marked by stakes on the
ground. The choice of intervals between stakes will depend
largely on the desired accuracy and type of terrain to be
traversed. Usually, stakes which mark full stations are
spaced at 100-m intervals. Spacing between plus stations
could not be regularly fixed as they depend on breaks in
' the slope of the ground surface and on the location of cri­
tical points where structures are to be positioned along, or*
transverse to the level route. ’
Stationings are used to indicate the distance of any
ground stake from the beginning point of the level route.
It is carried continuously along the route. In the case of
a highway or a railroad, the stationing is also carried
around the curves. A station and a plus is adapted to mark
each stake. For example, full stations which are 100, 25o,
400, and 1300 meters from the beginning point (Sta 0+ 00) of
the profile route are designated as stations 1+00, 2+00,
4+00, and 13+00, respectively. Other- intermediate points
are designated , as plus stations. Thus, a stake that is
1,650 meters from the point of beginning is marked as
16+50, and one set 228.35 m from the same starting point is
marked as 2+28.35.
If the distance from the point of beginning of any full
or plus station is known, its stationing can be readily
calculated. For example, a point that is 172.45 m beyond
station 5+50 is 550+172*45 = 722.45 m from station 0+00,
and the point is marked as 7+22.45 m. The horizontal dis­
tance between any two stations may also be determined.
Thus, if the given stationing of two points are 18+15.65
and 24+04.73, the distance between the two stations is
2404.73-1815.65 = 589.08 m.

19-5. PROFILF LEVEL NOTES.

•
•The level notes kept for profile leveling are similar to
those for differential leveling except for the addition of
a separate column for intermediate foresights (IFS) which
is used for recording side shots or ground sights. Although

POft __ LEV EU N O
^J &3z**s>Basgmd M E T H O D S
a single column could be used to record foresight and
intermediate foresigKt readings, many surveyors prefer to
record intermediate foresights separately. This is done to
allow' easier reading and interpreting of the notes. A
typical set of#profile level notes is shown in Figure 1S-1.
Fig. 19-1. VJioiUU tiv z l not&4.

indicated include the following: Station, Backsight, Fore­

sight, Intermediate Foresight, and Elevation. These column
headings are usually arranged in the sequence as c :ven.
Accepted abbreviations are normally used to identify each
column. Remarks or concise descriptions for each bench
/nark, station, and other relevant information are indicated
on the right-hand page. Simple sketches which will better
explain the leveling work performed may also be shown with
the remarks.
The process of computing heights of instrument and ele­
vation of points and stations along a profile level route
is exactly the same as in differential leveling. Such com­
putations should be made on the level notebook as the sur­
vey progresses. From a recorded set of profile level notes,
differences in elevation between points and stations along
the level route can be determined. For instance, the dif­
ference between the sum of all backsights and the sum of
all ioresights is equal to the error of closure, or equal
to the difference in elevation between the initial berjjch
mark and the final point. Also, the intermediate foresight
reading subtracted from the height of instrument gives the
ground elevation of a plus station. And at one setup of the
instrument, the difference between the elevation of any two
points is 'equal to the difference between the foresights
taken on these points. .
It is customary to always show an arithmetic check for
each set of profile level notes. As done in differential
leveling, the sum of all backsight readings is added to the
elevation of the initial or reference bench mark. From the
stun of these two quantities, the sum of all foresight read­
ings is the'n subtracted. If the resulting difference is
equal to the elevation of the final bench mark or the last
station Indicated in the level notes, the additions and
subtractions performed are assumed to have been done cor­
rectly. These computations are shown at the lower portion
of the level notes. )
In most instances, backsight and foresight readings on
established bench marks are recorded to the nearest hun­
dredth of a meter (cm). The intermediate foresights are re­
corded to tenths of a meter (dm) since they are used only
for plotting the profile and have no relation to the deter­
mination of bench mark elevations.
•
Fig. 19-2. Plotted pKolilz (So* a toad.

19-6. PLOTTING PROFILES.

The plotted profile should give an accurate and useful re­

presentation of, the existing ground configurations. It is
plotted on a linear scale which shows the correct length of
the surveyed line. The profile is plotted as a curve in
which the distance of each station from the point of begin­
ning is shown on the abscissa and the elevation of each
station is plotted on the ordinate. Figure 19-2 shows a ty-

.210.
plcai profile of the center line of a road.
There are many purposes for which profiles are plotted.
They may be used to determine depths of cut and fill such
as on proposed roads and railroads. Profiles are also used
when designing the most economical gxade location and plan­
ning ‘out grade crossings. They are also referred to when
locating and positioning tunnels, pipelines, irrigation
canals, and sewer lines.
Profiles are plotted on a special graph paper called a
profile sheet. It has horizontal and vertical lines printed
in blue, green, or orange to represent distances both hori­
zontally anff vertically. The profile is plotted by using
the lines of the profile sheet as scale. It is first drawn
in pencil and inked later to a finished copy. ,Heavy grade
paper is used if only a single copy of the profile is need­
ed. However, if additional copies of the profile are re­
quired either tracing paper or tracing cloth is used to
allow reproduction by blue or white prints.
The elevations of ground points on the profile are
usually plotted and connected freehand with a smooth heavy
line. The resulting profile is expected to be a better and
more accurate representation of actual ground irregulari­
ties than by using straight lines to connect ground points.
It should include all other pertinent information which are
likely to be required during the actual phase of construc­
tion. The following information should be indicated:

a) Plotting Scales. The horizontal and vertical scales

used in plotting the profile should be properly identified.
b) Stationing. The full stations along the level route
should be indicated to portray the overall linear length of
the line.
c) Reference Points. Important reference points and
other ground points which need to be emphasized or pointed
out should be easily seen.
d) Marginal Information. Any other valuable information
which should explain the profile better or in detail should
be indicated. Such information may include the following: a
title to identify the leveling operation, location of the
profile taken, what the profile represents, the date it was
surveyed, names of the survey party members, and the name
of the draftsman who plotted the profile.
•
To portray the ground profile, a certain balance bet­
ween the horizontal and vertical scale is necessary. The
vertical scale is always made much larger than the'horizon­
tal scale to accentuate or make more pronounced the diffe­
rences in elevation. This is referred to as vertical exag­
geration. Usually a ratio of 10:1 is used. The ratio of
exaggeration depends upon:

a) Use of the Profile. If a highly accurate represen--

tut ion of vertical dimensions is required the vertical
i € v t i tN<i
fc*rHOOS 2 ,!
^t-ale should be increased. „ *
b) Character of the Terrain. In order to portray, the
irregularities of flat or fairly level ground, a greater
amount of vertical exaggerations should be used. Corres­
pondingly, a small ratio is used for rugged terrain where
differences in elevation between*ground points are signifi­
cantly large.
c) Horizontal Scale. The. horizontal scale' is often cho­
sen to fit the plotted profile into a convenient, size of
paper. If the selected horizontal scale-is drawn large, a
smaller vertical scale is used. Consequently, a smaller
horizontal scale would require a greater amount of vertical
exaggeration. •
19-7. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. LO C A TIN G S T A T IO N S . Work out tha following problems regard­
ing points and stations along a profile level route. »
a) A turning point along a profile 'level route measures 126.44 m
beyond station 8+ 24.50. Determine the stationing of this turning point.
»
So lu tio n .
rr 126.44m ( D i s t a n c e of tu rn in g poiat beyond s t a t i o n 8 + 2 4 . 5 0 )

dsta = 8 + 24.50 or
824.50m (D ista n ce of the reference s t a t io n from sta'tion OtOO)

D = dsta + dtp = 824.50 + 126.44 .

= 95 0 .9 4 m ( D i s t a n c e of the tu rn in g point fro m s t a t i o n 0 + 00)

Therefore, Stationing of Turning Point = 9 + 50.94

b) For the illustrated problem given above, determine the stationing
of the turning point if it is instead located 83:45m before the given
reference station.
S o lu tio n .

d .p ■ 83,45 m (D ista n ce of t u r n in g point be fo re stg f ion 8 + 2 4 . 5 0 )

^sta “ 8 + 24.50 or
824.50m ( D i s t a n c e of the r e f e r e n c e s t a t io n fro m s t a t io n 0 +0 0 )
D = ^ s f a “ ^ tp 824 .50 - 83.45 ,
= 7 4 ! .05m (D istan ce of the tu rn in g point fro m s t a t i o n 0 + 0 0 )

Therefo re, Stationing of T u rn in g Point = 7 + 41.05

c) Determine the distance between station 33 + 4 5 . 0 2 and station
26 + 6 2 . 7 5 .
S o lu t io n :
d, = 33 + 4 5 . 0 2 or
3,345.02m ( D i s t a n c e of one of th e s t a t i o n s f ro m b e g in n in g
point of th e s u r v e y )

cL
2
= 26 + 62.75 or

212 L £ v e t is o
A/ernoos
 2, 662 .75 m (Distance of the other station from beginning
point of the survey)
d = d, - d2 - 334 5.0 2 - 2662.75
= 682.27m (Distance between the two stations)
» * \

2. P R O F I L E LEVELING . Complete the following set of profile level

notes and show the customary arithmetic check.

STA, BS HI FS 1F S ELEV

nma 0 .9 5 12 5 . 5 0 m
0 + 00 t- i ■*v. 3 .0
+ 10 > 2 .3
3 .1 3 {tk -M 0 .6 4
TP.
0+22 2 .7
+ 3 0 .5 2 .8
+ 3 4 .2 3. 1
+ 3 9 .3 0 .5
+ 4 2 .5 0. 8
tp2 2 .1 6 \\&it 1.28
+ 45 ’ 0 .9
+ 4 8 .6 1 .2
+ 50 1. 7
+ 5 3 .7 # 2 .8
t p3 0 . 82 2 .3 7
tp4 . i .3 5 3 .5 0
+ 75 3 .0
BMb ' 1 .9 9

Solution. "" •'> ? y, .

a) Computation of Hi's and Elevation of Stations.
125.50 + 0 . 9 5 = 126.45 (HI,)
126 .45 - 3.0 = 123.5 ( Eiev Sta 0 + 00)
126.45 - 2.3 = 124.2 (Elev Sta 0+10)
126.45 - 0. 64 = 125.81 . (Elev TP,)
125.81 + 3.13 = 128.94- <»y
128 .94 - 2.7 = 126.2 (Elev Sta 0+ 22)
128.94 - 2.8 = 126. 1 ( Elev Sta 0+ 30.5)
128.94 - 3. 1 =1 25.8 (Elev Sta 0+34.2)
128.94 - 0.5 = 128.4 (Elev Sta 0+ 39.3)
128.94*- 0.8 = 128.1 (Elev Sta 0+ 42.5)
128.94 - 1 .28 = 127 .66 (Elev tp 2)

127.66 + 2.16 = 129.82 ( hi 3>

129.82 - 0.9 = 128.9 (Elev Sta 0* 45)
129.82 - 1 . 2 = 128.6 (Elev Sta 0 + 48.6)
129.82 - 1.7 = 128. 1 (Elev Sta 0+50)
129.82 - 2.8 = 127.0 (Elev Sta 0 + 53.7)
129.82 - 2.37 = 127.45 (Elev TP3>
127.45 + 0.82 ■ 128.2. f ( hi 4)
 128 27 - 3.50 = 1 24 . 7 7 ( E-lev. TR)
124.77 + I -35 = 126 .12 CHls ).
1 2 6 . 1 2 - 3.0 = 123.1 (Elev Sta 0 i 75),
126.12 - 1-99 s 124.13 (Elev ,.
b} Determ ining Foresight and' Backsight Sums.
SBS = 0 . 9 5 + 3.13 + 2.16 + 0.82 + 1.35 = + 8.41 m
SFS ’=-(0 .64 + I .28 + 2.37 + 3.50 + 1.99 < - 9.78 m
1 ^
c) Tabulated Solution.
STA BS HI FS IFS ELEV

BMa 0 .9 5 12 6 .4 5 1 2 5 .5 0 m
0 + 00 3 .0 12 3 . 5
+ 10 2 .3 1 2 4 .2
TP, 3 .1 3 1 2 8 .9 4 0 .6 4 12 5.8 1
0+22 2 .7 12 6 .2
+ 3 0 .5 2 .8 126.1
+ 3 4 .2 3. 1 1 2 5 .8
+ 3 9 .3 \ 0 .5 12 8.4
+ 4 2 .5 0 .8 128. 1 *
tp2 2 .1 6 12 9.82 1 .28 1 2 7 .6 6
+ 45 0 .9 12 8 .9
+ 4 8 .6 1 .2 12 8 . 6
+ 50 1.7 128- 1
+5 3 .7 2 .8 12 7 .0
0 .8 2 12 8 .2 7 2 .3 7 * 12 7 .4 5
TP3
tp4 1 .3 5 1 2 6 . 12 3 .5 0 12 4 . 7 7
+ 75 3 .0 1 2 3 .1
1.99 1 2 4 .1 3
BMb
+8 . 4 1m -9.78m
(SBS) (SFS) ‘

d) Arithmetic Check.
125.50 m (Elevation of BMa)
+ 8.41 m (SBS)
133.91 m (Sum)
- 9.78m (2 FS)
! 24. 13m (Checks with Elevation of BMb)
3. P R O F IL E L E V E L IN G . Figure 19-3 shows a schematic arrapge-
ment of a profile level route from BM33 to BM34 . The values indica­
ted represent backsight, foresight, and intermediate foresight read­
ings taken on stations along.the route. Prepare and complete pro­
file level notes for the portrayed information. Show the customary
arithmetic check and plot the profile.
S o lu tio n .
a) Computing Hi's and Elevation of Stations.

3 2 8 . 7 0 + 2.32 = 3 3 1 . 0 2 m (HI,)
33 1.02 - 1.7 = 3 29. 3 (Elev Sta 0+00)

214
 33 i . 0 2 - 2 .2 * 3 2 8 . 8 (E le v Sta I + Op)
33 I . O i - 1.2 * 3 2 9 . 8 (E le v Sta 2 + 00)
3 3 1 . 0 2 - 0 .9 » 3:30. I (E le v Sta 3 + 00)
3 3 1 .0 2 -3 . 4 3 - 3 2 7 . 5 9 m ( E le v TPl]
3 2 7 .5 9 +2 .7 7 = 3 3 0 . 3 6 m (H!2)
330M36 - 2 .2 = 3 2 8 . 2 ( E le v Sta 4 + 4 0 )
3 3 0 .3 6 - 3 .7 = 3 2 6 .7 ( Elev Sta 5 + 00)
3 3 0 . 3 6 - 1.6 = 3 2 8 . 8 (E le v Sta 6 + 00)
3 3 0 .3 6 -3 . 0 6 =3 2 7 . 3 0 m (E le v TP2)
3 2 7 .3 0 +2 .2 2 = 3 2 9 . 5 2 m (H l3)
3 2 9 . 5 2 - 2 .8 = 3 2 6 , 7 (E le v Sta 8 + 00)
3 2 9 . 5 2 - 3.6 - 3 2 5 . 9 (E le v S ta 9 + 00)
3 2 9 . 5 2 - 2 .0 = 3 2 7 . 5 (E le v S ta 10 + 00)
3 2 9 .5 2 - .1 = 3 2 8 . 4 (E le v Sta I I + 00)
3 2 9 .5 2 - 2 .4 5 = 3 2 7 .0 7 m ( E le v BM^

Fig. 19-3. Schematic aKKangem&nt o{ line* {ok the pKo{itt Koute.

i*oo
\

8+00

fir's)

S
9+00
II
10 + 0 0

b) Determining Foresight and Backsight Sums

5BS = 2 ,3 2 + 2 .7 7 + 2 . 2 2 = + 7 . 3 1 m
5 FS = -(3 .4 3 + 3 . 0 6 2 .4 5 ) = - 8 . 9 4 m

c) A rith m etic Check.

3 2 8 .7 0 m (Elevation of BM33)
+ 7,31 m (2EBS)
3 3 6 .0 1 m (Sum )
- 8 . 9 4m ' (S F S )
327.07m (Checks with I luvation of BM^)
i*
L/ti1n
1«»
i
<t*
*•
d) Tabulated Solution.

STA BS HI FS 1FS ELEV

bm 33 2.32 33 1.02 328.70m

0 + 00 1.7 3 29.3
1 +00 - 2.2 32 8,8
2 +00 1.2 329.8
3+00 0 .9 330.1
TF> 2.77 3 3 0 .3 6 3.43 327.59
4 +40 2.2 328.2
5 +00 3.7 326.7
6+00 1.6 3 2 8 .8
2.22 3 2 9 .6 2 3.06 32 7.30
’TP2
8 + 00 2.8 326.7
9 +0Q 3.6 325.9
10 + 00 2 .0 327.5
II +00 1. 1 3 2 8 .4
BM34 2.45 327.07
+7.' 3 1m - 8.94 m
(2EBS) (SFS5

e) Plot of the P rofile.

Fig. .19-4.

.216,
 /

LEVELING
METHODS
20-1: RISE AM? FAU METHOD OF LEVELING
1. Principle, oh the Method
2. Foxmat oh Level Note* U*ed
3. Atlthmetical Check*
20-2. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
7. R-cie and Fa£E Method
2. Rite arid Fall Method

Lesson ZO
it V! I 1*0
tutrnoos
 20-1. RISE AND FALL METHOD OF LEVELING.

Another, method of carrying out a leveling operation is by

the rise and fall method which is popularly adapted by the
British. It is a.v6 ry simple method and.may serve as an
alternate method for profile or differential leveling or it
may also be used to check a completed set of level notes.

1. Principle of the Method. The rise and fall method is

based on the principle that two consecutive readings from
the same instrument position gives the difference in eleva­
tion ^of the two points sighted. In this method the actual
height of instrument has no real significance other than
being the line to which vertical distances are conveniently
measured from various points on the ground. The method
relies upon the difference in elevation between successive
points such that each point is considered in relation to
the point immediately preceding it and whose computed ele­
vation (or reduced level, RL) is either known or has just
been calculated.
To illustrate the principle, assume that the known ele-‘
vation of BM1 (Fig. 20-1) is 346.750 m above mean sea level
and that the rod readings taken from one setup of the ins­
trument to stations A, B, C, D, and BM2 are 5.895, 1.742,
1.683, 2.729, and 2.057 meters, respectively. Also assume
that the backsight on BM1 is recorded as 3.755 meters. It
is required to determine the reduced levels (RL's) of the
five points sighted.
fig . 20-1. RL it and ia tt me.th.od oi ls.veJ.ing

Since the reduced level of BM1 is known (346.750 m above

datum), the required RL's can thus be calculated fly the
rise and fall method.
The student must first understand that the difference
in elevation between any two points is referred to as
either a rise or a fall relative to one of the points. In
Figure 20-1, since BM1 is nearer to the datum than point A,
therefore the ground is rising from BM1 up to point A. From
the observed readings it is obvious that point A is at a
greater height above datum than BM1. The difference in

,218 u y/ri
Mi m o o t
elevation is obtained by subtracting the rod reading on
A from the rod reading on BM1. To determine the RL of point
A, the difference in elevation between the two points must
therefore be added to the RL of BM1.
It is important to remember that if the result of the
calculation for difference in elevation is positive then
the difference is a rise; if it is negative then the diffe­
rence is a fall. Since the difference in elevation is
always added algebraically to the preceding RL to determine
the next*RL, the mathematical sign will always give the
correct result provided the arithmetic is done correctly.
In this problem, the correct sequence .of calculation
should then be

a) Determining Difference in Elevation.

DEI = BS on ;BM1 - IFS on A = 3.755 - 2.895

= +0,860 (Rise)

DE2 — IFS on A - IFS on B = 2.895 - 1.742

= +1:153 (Rise)

DE3 = IFS orr B - IFS on C = 1.742 - 1.683

i
= +0.059 (Rise)

DE4 IFS on c - IFS on D = 1.683 - 2.729

= -1.046 - (Fall)

DE5 S IFS on D - FS on BM2 = 2.7 29 - 2.057

=' +0.672 (Rise)

b) Computing RL of Each Station.

RL of A = RL of BM1+DE1 = 346.750 + 0.860

= 347.610‘m

RL of B - RL of A + DE2 = 347.610 + 1.153

= 348.763 m

RL of C — RL of B + DE3 = 348.763 + 0.059

•
— 348.822 m

RL of D = RL of C +. DE4 = 348.822 - 1.046

= 347.776 m
RL of BM2 — RL of D + DE5 = 347.776 + 0.672
= •348.448 m 1

From the above example, the student should take particular

note on how the mathematical s'ign has worked out in the
calculation of the RL's. It should always be expected that
when a negative difference is added to the preceding RL, it
has the effect of reducing the next R L . Computing the RL of

210,
 point D in the illustrated problem is one such example.
f i g . 20-2. Levelin g note* ioA JtiM . and ia t i method.

dingly in Figure 2 0 - 2 . . In the field notebook the left-hand

page is divided into columns for observed and computed data
and the right-hand page is reserved for sketches, remarks,
and all other information relevant to the leveling opera­
tion. Six of the columns on the left-hand page are labeled
as follows: B a c k s ig h t ( B S ) , In t e r m e d ia t e F o r e s i g h t ( I P S ) ,
F o r e s i g h t ( F S ) , R ise ( R ) , F a ll (F ), and Reduced L e v e l ( R L ) .
The first three columns are used for recording the rod
readings as they are observed in the field. Values corres­
ponding to the rises and the falls are recorded in the next
two columns as they are calculated from the observations of
the rod. In the last column, the values for reduced level
(RL) are recorded. The known starting RL and all other RL's
calculated from the observations are written here. Distan­
ces entered in the first column of the right-hand page are
information needed if the leveling is for a longitudinal
section; they are cumulative distances along the level
route from the first point, A, to the last station/ BM2.
These distances do not refer to any instrument^ position.
The two remaining columns of the right-hand page are used
for identifying the rod stations and for indicating remarks

, 220 . M l f 1/00.1
to describe the stations.
Rod readings are recorded on successive lines of the
field notebook as they are taken. It should be remembered
that all entries which refer to the same point on the
ground such as a turning point (or change point) should be
recorded on the same line of the notes. For an extra long
level route where observations may take up several pages of
the field notebook, the last reading indicated should al­
ways be a foresight. This will allow a check to be made
before proceeding to the next page where the first data
entered should be a backsight.
3. A r i t h m e t i c a l Checks. As done in other methods of le­
veling, the customary arithmetic check should always be
made either at the end of the leveling work or at the end
of each page when entries are carried forward over succeed­
ing pages. One method of checking is to determine if the
algebraic sum of the summation of backsights and the sum­
mation of foresights is equal to the difference between the
sum of the rises and the sum of the falls. Both differences
should also be equal to the difference in elevation between
the first reduced level and the last reduced level. This
provides some kind of a triple check on the notes. For the
example problem, the arithmetic check is calculated as fol­
lows
*
DEI = Sum of BS + Sum of FS = 3.755+(-2.057) = 1.698
DE2 = Sum of Rises+Sum of Falls= 2.f44+(-1.046) = 1.698
DE3 = RL of BM2 - RL of BM1 = 348.448-346.750= 1.698
Since DEI is equal to DE2 and also equal to DE3,it can be
assumed that the arithmetical computations performed were
done correctly.
Another method of checking is to add the sum of the
rises to the elevation of the first reduced level. From the
Resulting sum, the sum of, the falls is then subtracted. The
difference should check with the ‘elevation of the last
reduced level if the arithmetic was done correctly.. This
method of checking is shown at the foot of the level notes
in Figure 20-2. It is important to thoroughly examine the
field notes and be sure that the number of backsight en­
tries are equal to the number of foresight entries before
the arithmetic check is carried out.
The student should always remember that the arithmetic
check only signifies that the process of adding and sub­
tracting has been done correctly. It does not provide a
check against mistakes in observing and recording data, nor
does it tell us that the leveling work was performed
satisfactorily. Any arithmetical mistake should.first be
located when the checks made are not satisfied. Nothing
else should be worked out any further until the mistake is
found and accordingly rectified. The only suitable way to
check the observational accuracy is to finish the leveling
operation by leveling back to the starting point, or by
tying to a nearoy bench mark which has been previously
( r v / t in a
hnrh o p *
e s ta b lis h e d . if le v e lin g is to be r e tu r n e d oacK to the
p o i n t of b e g in n in g , i t is p r e f e r a b l e t o do i t from t o t a l l y
d iffe re n t in s tru m e n t s t a t i o n s and p r e f e r a b l y unde rtake n by
a n o th e r instrum entm an.
20-2. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
!. Rt$E A N D FALL M E T H O D . Given the profile, level notes in Figure
19 - I (page 209). Convert the given data to suit the standard format of
level note^s used in the rise and f ai r method. Determine the RL of each
station and show the customary arithmetic check.
a) Equivalent Tabulation by Rise and Fall Method.

ROD READINGS DIFFERENCE IN ELEV REDUCED

BS STA
«FS FS RISE , FALL LEVEL
1.24 525.28 BM 100
2.35 0 + 00
s 1.76 + 30
2.50 +50
2.73 ♦ 90
3.00 1+00
2.72 ’♦ 10
1.93 + 60 9
1.05 + 95
0.86 2+00
2.06 2.78 TP -1
0.68 2+50
0.98 ♦ 70
1.29 3+00
2.45 + 30
2.67 + 65
2.36 BM 101

b) Computing Differences in Elevation.

DE, = (BS on BM 100 - IFS on Sta 0* 0 0 )
= (1.24 - 2.35)
' = - I . IIm (Fall)

DE2 = (IFS on Sta 0 +00 - IFS on Sta 0+30)

- (2.35 - 1.76)
= + 0.59m (Ri*«)
DE = (IFS on Sta 0+30 - IFS on Sta 0+50)
= (1.76 - 2.50)
- - 0.74m (Foil)
v,
DE4 - (IFS on Sta 0+50 - IFS on Sta 0+90)
= (2.50 - 2.73)
= - 0.23m (Foil)

DE = (IFS on Sta 0+90 - IFS on Sta I +00)'

= (2.73 - 3.00)
= - 0.27m (Fall)
 DE = (IFS on Sta i +00 - IFS on Sta I + 10)
= (3.00 - 2.72)
= + 0.28m (Rise)
DE7 = (IFS on Sta I + 10 - IFS on Sta I + 60)
= (2.72 - 1.93)
= +. 0.79m (Rise)
DE = (IFS on Sta I + 60 -. IFS on Sta I + 95)
8 = ( I .93 - 1.05)
= + 0.88m (Rise)
DE9'= {IFS on Sta 1+ 95 - IFS on Sta 2 + 00)
= ( I .05 - 0.86)
= + 0.19m (Rise)

DE « {IFS on- Sta 2 + 0 0 - FS onTP,)

= (0.86 - 2 .7 8 )
= - I .92m (Fall)

DE,, = (BS on TP, - IFS on Sta 2 + 50)

= (2.06 - 0.68)
= + I .38m (Rise)'
DE = (IFS on Sta 2+50 - IFS on Sta 2 + 70)
= (0.68 - 0.98)
= - 0 .30m (Fall)

DE|3 = (I FS on S ta 2 + 70 - I FS on' Sta 3+0 0)

= (0.98 - I .29)
= -0.31m (Fall)

DE = (IFS on Sta 3+ 00 - IFS on Sta 3 +30)

= ( I .29 -2 .4 5 )
= - I .16m (Fall)

DE|5= (IFS on Sta 3+ 30 - IFS on Sta 3 +65)

= (2.45 - 2.67)
= - 0 ,22m (Fall)

DE = (IFS on Sta 3+65 - FS on BM 101)

l6= (2.67 - 2.36)
= + 0.31 m (Rise)

c) Determining Reduced Levels.

525..28 (RL of BM 100) 525.47 (RL- of Sta 1 + 95)
- 1, 1 1 (DE. ) + 0.19 (d e 9 )
524. 17 (RL of Sta 0 + 00) 525.66 (RL of Sta 2 ■+ 00)
•+ 0. 59 (DE?) - 1.92 (DE|0)
524. .76 (RL of Stj 0 + 30) 523.74 (RL of TP,)
- 0. 74 (DE3) + 1 .38 (DE,,)
5 2 4 . 0? (RL of Sta 0 + 50) 525.12 (RL of Sta 2 + 50)

>223*
 524.02 (RL of Sta 0 + 50) 525.12 ('RL of Sta 2 $ 50)
- 0.23 ( d e4 ) - 0 .30 <DE.V
523.79 (RL of Sta 0 +• 90) 524.82 (RL of .Sta 2 + 70)
0. 27 (DEg) - 0.31 <DEt3)
523.52 (RL of Sta I +00) . 524.5 1 (RL of Sta 3 + 00)
+• 0.28 <d e 6 ) - 1.16 (DE.4) .V-- ■
523.80 (RL of Sta 1 + 10) 523.35 (RL of Sta 3 + 30)
+ 0.79 (DE ) - 0.22 (DE,.)
52 4 .5 9 (RL of Sta 1 + 60) 523.I3 (RLISof Sta 3 + 65)
+ 0.88 (DE8) •V + 0.3 I (DE|6)
52 5 .4 7 (RL of Sta 1 + 95) 523.44 (RL of BM 101)
d) Tabulated Solution:

ROD READINGS DIFFERENCE IN ELEV REDUCED

BS o IA
IFS FS R IS E FALL L EV EL
! .24 525.28m BM 100
(' 2.35 r. 11 524. 17 0 +00
1.76 ■ 0.5 9 . 524.76 +30
2.50 0.7 4 . 524.02 +50
2.73 0.23 523.79 +90
3.00 0.27 523.52 1+00
2.72 0.28 523.80 • + 10
1.93 0.79 524.59 +60
1.05 0.88 525.47 +95
0.86 ,0. 19 525.66 2 +00
2.06 2.78 t.92 523.74 TP- i
0.68 1.38 525. 12 2+50
0.98 ' 0.3 0 524.82 + 70
1.29 0.31 524.5 l 3+00
2.45 1.16 523.35 +30
2.67 0.22 523. 13 +65
2.36. 0.3 1 523.44 BM 10!

e) Arithmetic Check.
1st Method:
2BS = + (1.24 + 2.06) = +3.30
SFS =. - (2.78 + 2.36) = - 5. 14
SRise = + (0.59 + 0.28 + 0.79 + 0.88 + 0.19 + 1.38 + 0.31)
= +4.42
SFall = - ( ! . I I + 0.74 + 0.23 + 0.27 + I .92 + 0.30 + 0.31
+ 1.16 + 0.22)
= -6.26
DE, = SB3 + SFS = 3.30 + ( - 5 . 14) = - 1.8 4
DE2 = SRise + SFal! * 4.42 + (-6.26) = -1.84
DE3 = RL of BM 101 - RL of BM 100
= 523.44 - 5 2 5 . 2 8 = - 1.84.-
. Since DEj = DE2 = DE3 , it can be assumed that thf arithmeti-
L tv e U N O
UCTH O O S
 cal computations performed are correct.
2nd Method:
525.28trt (RL of BM 100)
+ 4.42m ( 2Rise)
529.70m (Sum) %
- 6,26m (sFall )
523.44m J (Checks with RL of BM 101)
2 . R I S E AND F A L L M E T H O D . Figure 2 0 - 3 shows a schematic arrange^-
ment of lines in a level route. The reduced level of the beginning bench
mark (BM# 215) is 2 0 3 . 113 m and all values indicated represents either a
backsight, intermediate foresight, or a foresight reading taken on stations
along the route. Prepare and complete an appropriate format of level
notes for the portrayed information using the rise and fall method of le­
veling.Also show the ''ustomary arithmetic check.
Fig. 20-3. Schematic aAAangement oi Line* tfat the. le v e l \o a te .

a) Determining Reduced Levels.

RL of A ‘ RL of BM# 2 1 5 + (BS on B M # 2 I 5 - IFS on A)
203. I I 3 + ( 2.8 06 - 0.839) = 203.113 + I .967
205.080 m
RL of B = RL of A + (IFS on A - IFS on B)
= 20 5 .0 8 0 + (0.839 - 0.992) = 205.080 - 0.153
• = 2 0 4 .9 27 m
Rl of CP, = RL of B + (IFS on B - FS on CP,)
i'.
= 204.927 + (0.992 - 0.779) - 204.927 + 0.213
= 205.140 m
RL of C = RL of CP, + (BS on CP, - IFS on C)
= 205.140 + ( I .738 - 1.414) = 205.140 + 0.3 2 4
= 2 0 5 .4 64 m
RL of CP2 = RL of C + (IFS on C - FS on r.P \
« 20 5. 4 64 t ( 1.4 14 - 1.625) =
a 2 05.253 m
 RL of D * RL of CP2 + (BS on CP2 - IFS on 0)
* 205.253 + (1.095 - 1.005) * 205.253 + 0 .0 90
. = 205.343 m
RL of CP3= RL of D + (IFS on D - FS on CP3)
- 205.343 + (1.005 - 2.234) = 205 .34 3 - 1.229
= 204. I 14 m
RL 6t E = RL of CP3 + (BS on CP3 - IFS on E)
= 204.114 + (2.4 91 - 3.368) = 204.1 14 - 0 . 8 77
= 203.237 m . .
RL of BM*-2I6 = RL of E + (IFS on E - FS on BMt^ 2 I 6 )
= 203,237 + (3.368 - 3.750) = 2 03 .2 37 - 0.382
= 202.855 m
b) Tabulated Solution.
ROD READINGS DIFFERENCE IN ELEV REDUCED
STA
BS IFS FS RISE FALL L EV EL

2.806 203.1 13 m BM*2I5

0.839 1 .967 205.080 A
0.992 . 0.1 53 204.927 B
1.738 0.779 0 , 2 13 205. 140 _CPi____
1.414 0 .3 2 4 ■
o' 205.464 c
1.085 1.625 0.21 1 205.253
1.005 0 .0 9 0 205.343 D
2.491 2.234 - 1.229 204. 114 ..............
3.368 0.877 203.237 ' €
3.750 0, 382 202.855 BM#2I6
14.130 -8.388 + 2 .5 9 4 -2.852
(3EBS) (£FS) {S Rise) CSFail)

c) Arithmetic Check.
203. I I 3m (RL of BM •# 2 i 5)
+ 2.594 m (SRise)
205.707 m (Sum)
— 2.852 m ( IS Fall )
202.855 m (Checks with RL of BM 216)

226, m HfTHOw<s>
i r^ n
Df
L E V E L IN G
M ETH O D S
::: ■ n s B o m n a e i

21-1. RECIPROCAL LEVELING.

1. Procedure
2. Obtaining More Accurate. Measurements
21-2. TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING
21-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Rec.ipA.ocaZ Leveling
2. Reciprocal Leveling
3. Trigonometric Leveling
4. Trigonometric Leveling
5. Trigonometric Leveling

21
21-1. RECIPROCAL LEVELING.
V. • ^ •
Reciprocal leveling is.employed to determine the difference
in elevation between-two points, when it is difficult or
impossible* to keep backsights and foresights short and
equal. Such a condition usually exists when running a line
of levels across wide rivers, lakes, or in rugged terrain
where deep canyons and ravines are encountered. In this
method of leveling, two sets of rod readings are observed.
One sa»U is taken with the instrument set up close to one
point and another with the instrument set up close to the
other point.
The procedure followed is known a3 the method of
reversion, just as employed in the two-peg test. By employ­
ing reciprocal leveling, errors due to refraction by the
atmosphere, curvature of the earth, and faulty adjustment
of the instrument are significantly reduced if not totally
eliminated. When carefully executed, reciprocal leveling^
could be as precise as differential leveling.

1. Procedure. The procedure of reciprocal leveling

across a body of water is illustrated in Figure 21-1. The
level isfirst set up very close to A at L, , and a back­
sight reading, ,; a, is taken on a leveling rod held at A
after which a foresight reading, b, is taken on the rod
held at, B. From these readings the difference in elevation
between the two points is
DE, = (a - b)
r
fig . 21-1. Reciprocal leveling.

set up at L2 near B. From this second position, readings

are again taken on both points and recorded as a* and b* . A
second difference in elevation is again obtained as follows

DE 2 = (a 1 - b')

The two differences in elevation between A and B, as deter-

mined with "the instrument set up at L, and L 2 , . normally
will not agree because of instrumental errors and the ef­
fects of curvature and refraction. It would be sufficiently
precise to assume that the average of the two quantities
determined is the true difference ih elevation between the
two points. Thus,

(PE, + DE2) _ j_a b) + (a* - b')

TDE
2 2

If the value of TDE is negative, it only tells us that

point A is higher than point B. Correspondingly, point B is
higher than point,A if the value is positive.
2. Obtaining More Accurate Measurements. The effects of
•changing atmospheric refraction is a significant factor
when leveling across or near bodies of water especially if
the distance between the two points is quite long. Accurate
observations ca$ only be obtained if refraction remains
constant during the leveling process. It is therefore im­
portant that atmospheric conditions be almost identical for
both positions of the level otherwise a serious error will
be introduced. If the refraction is expected to change con­
siderably between the two setups, the time interval between
observations should then be made as short as possible. Good
results are usually obtained on cloudy.days or in the mid­
dle of a sunny afternoon when the temperature does not rise
rapidly.
The technique of using two sets of leveling instruments
will provide more accurate results, facilitate the work,
and significantly reduce the error caused by variations in
a-tmospheric conditions. With two levels and two rods, si­
multaneous readings could be obtained such that no appre­
ciable time elapses between each set of observation. It is
preferable to interchange levels when a second set of
observations is to be made as this eliminates errors due to
faulty adjustment of the instruments used. When two levels
are .employed it is desirable that each has about the same
magnifying power and their level vials are equally sensi­
tive in order that the best results are.obtained.
More precise results may also be obtained if a series
of rod readings are taken on both the distant, a'nd near
rods. This is done by turning the leveling screws to
purposely throw the instrument out of level. It is .then
releveled and readings are again taken. The process shcfuld
be repeated about three or more times. If more readings are
desired from each setup of the level, the instrumentmah
should, however, be observant of any changes in atmospheric
refraction.
The difference in elevatioh is then computed by using
the mean of the backsights and the mean of the foresights,
rather than to depend on a single observation. The computed
average of the results should give quite accurately the
difference in elevation of the two points.i

ir»nyu
Mt 11
w\ 22$
 Illustrated In Figure 21-2 is an example of field ncftes
prepared for determining the difference in elevation
between two points by reciprocal leveling.
Fig. 21-1. Field notea Atcipiocal leveling.

Trigonometric leveling or indirect leveling is defined as

the determination of differences in elevation from observed
vertical angles and either horizontal or inclined distan­
ces. Vertical measurements determined by trigonometric
methods ' are only approximate unless the observed vertical
angles and the required distances are precisely measured.
This method of leveling is used extensively when under­
taking topographic surveys over rugged or rolling terrain
since it provides a rapid means of determining vertical
distances and elevation of points.
Figure 21-3 illustrates a typical setup for trigono7
metric leveling where the observed vertical angle is oC and
the known horizontal and inclined distances, measured in
meters, are d and s, respectively. The height of the ins­
trument above point A is denoted as h.i., and the reading
on the rod held at the distant point B is RR. The vertical•
, V, could be determined

V - d Tan cC ..... •Eq. (I)

or V = s Sin cC ..... ; Eq.(2)

230. € vet in a •
*€
l
TH O O S
Fig. 21-3. Typical Mlup $6* tuigonamttAic leveling.
V .

jElev of A

_ Datu.n^_
Mean Sea Level

Correspondingly, the difference in elevation between A and

B may be determined by any of the following equations

DEab 3 d Tan aC + h. i. - RR • • ; ............................... Eq. (3)

or DEab 3 s Sin oC + h. i. - RR ......................................Eq.{4)

If the elevation of A is knc\wn, the elevation of B can then

be determined as follows

, Elev B 3 Elev A + DEab .......................................Eq. (5)

This method of determining difference in elevation
should be limited only to horizontal distances not exceed­
ing 300 meters. When distances are much longer, the com­
bined effects of earth’s curvature and refraction must be
considered and applied in the calculation of vertical dis­
tances. It must also be understood that in trigonometric
leveling the observed vertical angle may either be an angle
of elevation (+ sight) or an angle of depression (- sight).
An upward positive sight is illustrated in Figure 21-3.
Equations 3, 4, and 5 will be slightly different if a down­
ward or negative sight is observed. The correct equations
can easily be determined by simply drawing a sketch of a
particular set up.
When trigonometric leveling is employed in much longer
sights, the slope distance is measured using EDM instru­
ments and precise* optical theodolites are utilized for mea-

.231,
 suring vertical angles. Also, the correctipn for the com­
bined effects of curvature and refraction is added wha|n the
vertical angle is an upward, sight; it is subtracted when a
downward sight is observed. For the illustrated setup in
Figure 21-^3, and assuming that long sights are involved, the
difference in elevation between points A and B would then
be written as ."■»
, DEab = d Tan oC + h. I - RR + 0 . 0 6 7 5 < j o ^ o )2 V '' EqT6)

or DEab = s SinoC + h.;i. - RR + 0.0675 (7 5 ’Eq'.(7)

The .effects of curvature and refraction can be elimi­
nated if vertical angle observations are made simultaneous­
ly at both ends of the line such as at points A and B. This
technique is termed reciprocal vertical-angle observation.
When applied, it is no longer necessary to take into account,
the effects of curvature and refraction, and the correct
difference in elevation between the two points is taken as
the mean of the two values computed both ways. Thus
DEob = (Tan oC + Ta n£ ) • • • • • • • • • • .......... Eq.(8)

or DEdb = - — (Sin cC + Sin £ ) - • • • • • • ■ • • .......... • • Eq.(9)

Where DEab is the required difference in elevatipn between
points A and B, oC is the vertical angle taken from A to B,
is the vertical angle taken from B to A, d and s are the
horizontal and inclined distances between the two points,
respectively. This procedure is usually adapted in precise
leveling work.
21-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. R E C IP R O C A L L E V E L I N G . In leveling across a deep and wide ri­
ver, reciprocal level readings were taken between two points, X and Y,
as follows: . __
a) With instrument set up near X, the rod readings on X are 1.283
and 1.285 meters ; on the distant point Y, the rod readings are 2.618,
2 . 6 1 9 , 2 . 6 2 1 , and 2.622 meters.
Fig. 21-4. LtveZing ocaoa.
&a fiiveA.
 b) With instrument set up near Y, the rod readings on Y are 3.478
and 3.476 meters; on the distant point X, the rod readings are 2.143,
2.140, 2. 146, and 2.144 meters,
Determine the true difference in elevation between the two, points and
the elevation of Y if the known elevation of X is 290.082 meters.
So lu tio n .
a) Determining Difference in Elevation. • \
At 1st Setup:

(1.283 + I .285)
2
2 84 m (Mean rod reading on point X)

(2.618. + 2 . 6 1 9 + 2 .62 1 + 2.6 2 2 )

4 ■
= 2.620 m ' (Mean rod reading on point Y)

DE, = ( a m - bm ) * ; ( ! . 2 8 4 - 2 . 6 2 0 )
= -1.336m (Difference In elevation between X and Y with ins­
trument set up near X)
At 2nd Setup:
, (2.143 + 2.140 + 2.146 + 2.144)
am = 4 7“
= 2.143 m (Mean rod reading on point X)

., (3,478 + 3.476)

= 3.477 m (Mean rod reading on point Y)

DE, = (aL
m - bL
m (2.143 - *3.477) '
= -1.334 m (Differe nce In elevation between X and Y with ins­
trument set up near Y)
b) Calculating True Difference in Elevation and Elevation of Y.
’(DEX
TDE l = [-1.336 + (-!.334)]/2
- - l.335*m (True d i f f e r e n c e In elevation between points X a Y)

Elevof Y = Elev of X i T DE
= 2 9 0 . 0 8 2 + (-1.335)
« 2 8 8.747m

Note: A' negative value for TDE tells us that point Y is lower than point
X hence the TDE is subtracted from the elevation of point X to deter­
mine the elevation of point Y.

2 . R E C IP R O C A L L E V E L I N G . In leveii ng across a wide r ive r ,

reciprocal level readings were taken between two points A and B as
shown in the accompanying tabulation. Determine the following:
a) Difference in elevatldn between the two points.
b) .E levation of B if the elovatlon of A is 95 1.750 m.

,233
 ; Inetrument Set-Up Near A Instrument Set - u p Near B
9TA ' BS FS STA BS FS
.1o 1 .2 8 3 1 .4 7 8
.1 .2 8 4 1.4 80
d V
! .286 1.4 76
I . 283 1.4 78
0 .6 7 5 2.143-
•» 0 .6 7 4 2 .1 4 0
0 .6 7 7 2.1 45
b
. 0 .674 ' 2.1 42
0 .6 7 7 2.14 3
0 .6 7 8 2.1 46
SUM • SUM '
M EA N ; •. M EA N
----------- r
Tig. 21-5. Rec-tptoca/ le.vtling be&ueen A and 8.

a) Determining Mean Rod Readings and Difference in Elevation.

am « (1.283 + 1.284 + 1.286 +’ 1.283)74 = 1.284 m
bm « (0.675 + 0.674 + 0.677 + 0.674 + 0.677 + 0.678)76
- 0.676m
% * ' (2. 143 + 2. 140. + 2. {45 + 2.142 + 2.143 + 2.146)76
« 2. 143 m

fillof
 \

8 ( 1. 478 ♦ 1. 4 8 0 + 1.476 + 1.478)74 * 1.478m

*>m

d e, = = (1 .284 - 0.676) , 7
<< v-
= + 0.608 m (D iffe re n ce In elevation between A and. B with In stru -
ment set up n ear A)

d e2 e = (2. 143 - 1.478) . /

fa'm - O
= + 0.665 m (D iffe re n ce In elevatio n between A and B with In stru -
ment set up near B)
)
TDE s (DE. + DEJ/2 = (0.608 + 0.665)72
3 +. 0.637 m (T ru e d iffe re n c e in elevatio n between the two bench -
m arks)

Tabulated Solution.

instrument SefrUp Near A Instrument S et-U p Near B

3TA BS FS STA BS FS
1.283 1.4 78
1 .284 1.4 80
a b'
1.286 1.4 76
1 .283 l . 478
0. 675 2 .1 4 3
0. 67 4 - 2 .1 4 0
•
0. 67 7 2 .1 4 5
b a'
0. 6 7 4 2 .1 4 2
•
0. 677 2 .1 4 3
0. 678 2 .1 4 6
SUM 5. 136 4. 0 5 5 , SUM 12 .8 5 9 5 .912
MEAN 1.284 0. 676 MEAN 2 .1 4 3 1.4 78

b) Elev of B = Elev of A ± TDE

= 951.750 + 0.63 7
= 952 .387 m
Note: The TDE is added to the elevation o f A sin ce B is higher than
A. In the solution for DE/ and DE2 above, a p o sitiv e value is determined
which shows that B is higher than A . I f the value were negative , B
would have been tower than A.
J . T R I G O N O M E T R I C LEVELING. In Figure 21 - 6 , a vertical angle of
+ I3°45' Is read to a target 1.23m above point B. The measured inclined
distance,s, is 823.29m and the elevation of point A is 123.65m above
datum. If the height of instrument at A Is 1.35m, determine the difference
in elevation between A and B and the elevation of B, considering the
effects of curvature and atmospheric refraction.
Solution:

Sin-0 * £ » ■i Sin <> • 823.29 Sin (I3°45 )

mtm .235
 - 195.68m (Vertical component of the Inclined distance)
d = s cos•©•
h=r - 0 0675 t ^ ) 2
=823.29 cos 13°45‘
/v A/--7C , 799.70,2 = 799.70 m
° - 0 6 7 5 (” ooo"~
= 0 .0 4 m (Combined effects of curvature and refraction)

Fig. tl-S. Txigonomttxic. ok ■uuUAio.t teveZiiig be.twe.eA A dnd 8.

1.35 + 195,68 - 1.23 + 0.04

195.84 m ( D i f f e r e n c e in e le v a tio n betwee n A and B consid erin g
c u r v a t u r e and r e f r a c t i o n )

Elev B Elev A + DEafa 123.65 + 195.84

319.49m (R e q u ire d e l e v a t i o n of point B)

4. T R I G O N O M E T R I C L E V E L I N G . A vertical angle of - I2°25‘ is mea­

sured to the top of a water tank from an instrument set up on a hill 585.00
meters away from it. The telescope of the instrument is 1.45 m above the
ground whose elevation is 462.73m. Making due allowance for the earth!s
curvature and atmospheric refraction, determine the elevation of the base
of the water tank if the tank is 32.0m high.
S o lu tio n : >

Tan <}> s
d •
V = d Tan <j) = 585 Tan ( I2°25‘)
s 128.80 m (V e rt ic a l d istan ce fro m the h o r iz o n t a l ifne ot sight
to top of w a f e r ta n k )

L - 0.0675(t1000
^ ) 2 = 0.0675(il^r)2
v ---- MOOO
= 0.02m (Combined e f f e c t s of c u r v a t u r e and refractio n)

DEpb= Ht + V - h. i. - h(

236** L
Vt
tv/f
HnnS
OPa
 - 32.0 + 128.80 - 1.45 - 0.02
- 159.33m . (Dlffsrancs In cltvatlon batwaah points P and B md-
king du« allowance for curvature and refraction)

Elev B = Elev P - DEpb

* 462.73 - 159.33
* 303.40m (Elevation of the water tank's base)

5. TRIG O N O M ETR IC LEV ELIN G \ Let A be a point of elevation 130.48m above

datum, and let B and C be points of unknown elevation. By means of an instru­
ment set 1.22m above B, vertical angles are observed, that to A being-I4°45'
and that to £ being + 8°32'.lf the*horizontal distance AB is 547.20m and
the horizontal distance BC is 923.95m, determine the elevations of B and C,
making due allowance for earth's curvature and atmospheric refraction.
Fig. 2J-S. VlteAmining eJjtvcutionA oi p o in ti by trigonometric method.i.
Solution:
a) Determining Difference in Efevation Between A and B.

/ab (AB) Tan ex? 3 5 4 7 . 2 0 Tan( I4°45')

144.07 m (Vertical distance from horizontal line to point A)

hcr * 0.0675 ( ^ l 2 = 0.0678 1

s 0,02m (Combined effects of curvature and refraction for the
sight to A)

DEab = vab - M - “ hcr = 1 4 4 .0 7 - 1.22 - 0 . 0 2

142.83m (Difference in elevation between A and 6, making due
allowance for curvature and refraction)

b) Determining Difference in Elevation Between B and C.

Vb0 = (BC)Tan (J) = 923.95 Tan (8“ 32')
3 138.63m (Vertical distance from horizontal line to point C)

hcr = 0.0675 = 0 .0 6 7 5 (-§ ^ -)2

3 0.06m (C om bined e f f e c t s of c u r v a t u r e and r e f r a c t i o n for the
s i g h t to C)

DEbc = h.i. + Vkc + hc,= 1.22 + 138.63 + 0.06

139.91 m (Difference In elevatiob between B and C, making due
allowance for curvature and refcactioiH)

e) Determining Elevations of 8 and C.

ElevB = Elev A + DEab -= 130.48 +; 142.83
= 273.31 m (Elevation of B above datum)

Elev6 = Eiev B ± DEbc = 273.31 + 139.9

- 413.22m (Elevation of C above datum)

, 238,
f( liNO
M t : HO os
LEVELING
METHODS
22-1. BAROMETRIC LEVELING
22-2. BAROMETERS
1. MeAcuKiat BaAometeA
2. An.eXo.id BaA.6me.teA
22-3. SURVEYING ALTIMETERS
22-4. ALTIMETER SURVEYS
1. Single-B aA e Method
2. Tufo-Biue Method
2 2 -5 . INVERSE LEVELING
22-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Attlm etex SvxveyA
2. AttixneteK SuAveyA
3. InveAAe LeveZtng

Lesson ZZ
i f.>'/1t**a
'MOOS ,239.
 22-1. BAROMETRIC LEVELING.

The air surrounding pur earth .is known as the atmosphere.

♦It has weight and it'exerts a certain amount of pressure on
bodies and* is referred to as atmospheric pressure. The
amount of pressure is usually dependent on the distance of
the surface above or below sea level, which is the common
reference surface. At sea level the atmospheric pressure is
greater than at higher ground levels. There is always a
corresponding decrease in atmospheric pressure as the alti­
tude increases.
In barometric leveling, differences in elevation of
points are determined by observations of. the prevailing
atmospheric pressure. It is based on the basic principle
that the pressure caused by the weight of the column of air
above the observer decreases (or increases) as the observer
goes higher (or lower) in elevation. However, the corres­
ponding relationship between pressure and altitude only
exists under certain standard conditions. The relationship
does not remain constant because air is compressible and
there are other factors such as temperature and humidity
which influences the density of air. If a barometric survey
is performed when standard conditions do not prevail, cor­
rections will have to be applied to observed differences in
elevation.
Barometric leveling is ideally suited for determining
large differences in elevation in rough or mountainous
terrain where extensive areas need to be covered. The
method is usually employed on reconnaissance and prelimina­
ry surveys where speed is of primary importance and a high
degree of accuracy is not required. There are. many varying
conditions which affects the accuracy of barometric, level­
ing; among these are temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, the procedure of survey, ability and experience
of the survey party, and the horizontal and vertical dis­
tances between the field stations.
Barometric leveling results are better obtained when
the weather- is stable and climatic conditions remain
constant such that there are no signs of rapid variations
in barometric pressure. Such surveys should be undertaken
when the winds are gentle and there is a cloudy .overcast
sky. Usually, it is best to make observations at about mid­
morning or mid-afternoon. Readings at about noon time,
early in the morning, or late in the afternoon should be
avoided. »
It is not advisable to perform barometric surveys when
alternate patches of brigi.t sunlight and shade is cast over
the survey area since this causes significant variations in
reading barometers. This particular condition usually
occurs during bright windy days when clouds overhead move
rapidly. Although the instrument may be held and .read
either in a horizontal or vertical position, it should not,
however, be read in alternate positions. The observer must

, 240, t. C V C L I M l
: j £ i'rtO O S
decide in which position it should bs read throughout: the
execution of a particular field survey since the reading is
uonally not the same in the two positions* Also, when a
reading is taken, the instrument should have about the same
temperature of the surrounding air.
Barometric readings are likewise affected by pressure
changes that are associated with local atmospheric distur­
bances. They are adversely affected during storms, ty­
phoons, and when there are strong gusty winds. It should be
understood that the atmosphere is constantly changing and
the use of barometers will not provide’ reliable results
when atmospheric conditions are particularly unstable.

22-2. BAROMETERS.
The barometer is an instrument for measuring variations in
atmospheric pressure. It can also be used to determine the
relative elevations of points on the earth's surface since
atmospheric pressure varies with the altitude above or
below sea. level. The first barometer was devised by the
Italian mathematician Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. It
used mercury and a glass tube to measure atmospheric pres­
sure. Barometers are of two types, mercurial and aneroid.

F ig . 22-1. H ueuniat bw tanztu.

Vacuum

height of
ra rc u ry
l.OOm

1. Mercurial Barometer. This type' of barometer measures

atmospheric pressure by the height of a column of mercury
supported by the atmosphere in an evacuated glass ' tube. A
simple mercurial barometer (Fig. 22-1) c isists of a glass
tube about one meter long with o v: end c.osed. It is filled
with mercury and then inverted into another container of
mercury without allowing air to enter the tube. The weight
of . the atmosphere pressing down on the open surface of the
mercury in the container balances the weight or the mercury
column in the tube. The column of mercury moves up or down
as the surrounding pressure changes. If the air pressure
increases, the level of the mercury in the container will
drop slightly while the level in the tube will rise appre­
ciably. Under standard conditions, the mercury column is
about 76 cm high at sea level and, a centimeter in the
height of the mercury column corresponds to a difference o&
about 108 meters in altitude. The expression of atmospheric
pressure in centimeters or millimeters of mercury is in
common use . 1 However, the millibar, which is a true unit of
pressure, is; employed in scientific work. Standard atmos­
pheric pressure at sea level is taken as 1,013.2 millibars.
The barometer is also equipped with a. calibrated vertical
scale to facilitate accurate reading.
Although mercurial barometers provide accurate read­
ings, they are of little use in surveying not being por­
table and practical for field use. This type of barometer
is cumbersome, and suitable only for observations at a fixed
station or in a laboratory.
2. Aneroid Barometer. The aneroid barometer was inven­
ted by Lucien Vidie of France in 1843. The instrument
functions by using an airtight metal box which responds to
changes in air pressure. Its basic element is a partially
evacuated box with a flexible diaphragm which contracts and
expands. A typical diaphragm consists of two cupped discs
of flexible metal which are joined face to face to -form a
thin chamber from which air is removed. As the atmosphere
presses on the exterior of the diaphragm, the thickness of
the diaphragm changes with variations in atmospheric pres­
sure. A system of springs, levers, and chains transfers the
deflection of the diaphragm to a shaft and then to a point­
er which moves across a dial.
F-cg. 22-2. Schem atic. diagAath o& an an eA oid baA.ome.teAi

Aneroid barometers are well suited for ordinary

leveling purposes where only approximate elevations are
required . They are, however, not desirable when pressures
in the area are changing rapidly. This type of barometer is
convenient for use in the field since they are portable and
lightweight. They vary in size from about 5 to 20 cm in

£ 4 2 , L E V C L INO
H E TH O D S
 diameter. There are simple
units designed for amateurs
and highly precise models
for more professional work.
Most aneroid barometers
have two scales. Ohe scale
is used to determine diffe­
rences in elevation and
another for reading atmos­
pheric pressure. Graduations
on the dials may be in me­
ters, (or feet} of elevation
and in millimeters (or in­
ches) of mercdry. Smaller
barometers can be read by
estimation to about 5 meters
while larger models can be
read to about 1 meter. Ane­
roid barometers may be used
to determine readings above
or below sea level and some can measure up to about 6000
meters above sea level.
It is important to handle carefully an aneroid baro­
meter to avoid disturbing its delicate mechanism. The
instrument should be protected from moisture, heat, direct
rays of the sun, and from shocks and jars. Before a reading
is made, it should be allowed to stand for a few minutes in
open air to allow it to adjust itself to the surrounding
pressure. To insure an accurate reading it is customary to
tap the barometer lightly with a pencil or pen before
reading to be sure that no mechanism is stuck.
♦
22-3. SURVEYING ALTIMETERS.

Precise aneroid barometers which are designed specifically

for surveying applications are called altimeters. They are
well,adapted for field use and can be efficiently employed
for determining elevations which require degrees of preci­
sion commonly acceptable for most engineering construct­
ions. This instrument allows leveling work to be performed
over a large area in just a short period of time since they
are lightweight and very portable. Although the instrument
is simple in construction and operation, it is extremely
sensitive to changes in atmospheric pressure.
Altimeters are usually employed in exploratory and
reconnaissance surveys, in establishing vertical control
for photogrammetric surveys, and in topographic surveys for
the production of small-scale maps. The instrument has a
graduated dial which allows direct readings of altitude
either in meters or in* feet. It is provided with a knob
which can be used to s*-t the indicator to a specific eleva­
tion when the instrument is held on a point whose elevation
•is known.

.2 4 3 ,
 The newer models do not require tapping with a pencil
to insure an accurate reading nor is there any need to wait
for the instrument to adjust itself to the surrounding air
pressure. Altimeters are usually "compensated/V which means
that any change in temperature within the instrument does
not affect its performance.

22-4. ALTIMETER SURVEYS.

The two principal methods by which altimeter surveys may be

conducted are: the single-base method and the two-base
method.

1. Single-Base Method. In this method, two altimeters

and two thermometers are employed. One altimeter remains at
a reference base whose elevation is known while the other
altimeter, which is referred to as the roving altimeter, is
taken to other points or field stations whose elevations
are to be determined. It is necessary to record the read­
ings of the altimeters and thermometers at regular inter­
vals of time. The difference in readings corrected for
temperature and pressure changes will give the desired
elevations. In this method it is assumed that,the rate of
variation in.condition is uniform between observations.
On account of the time spent between observations,
large errors are likely to be introduced in this method.
However, if the observations are repeated such that
readings are again taken on the different field stations in
a reversed order and the average of two readings for each
stations is taken, more accurate results could be obtained.

Two-txuz method
Upper B a s e
(2nd A lt im e t e r Rdg)
_ heyeJ.J-jn?__
T h r u Upper Ba s e

_ _ L e v e J _ U n e _____
T h r u Low er B a s e
Lower Base^
(1st Altim eter Rdg)

2. Two-Base Method. The two-base method was designed to

eliminate the need to apply correctness for the effects of
temperature and relative humidity. The method also i m p r o v e s
the accuracy in determining differences in elevation bet­
ween field stations and reference bases. At a suitable low
point “ ith'in the area being surveyed, one base is estab­
lished while a second base is positioned.at a much higher
elevation (Pig. 22-4). These.are used as instrument sta­
tions and called the lower base and the upper (or higher)
base, respectively. Their elevations have to be determined
by differential leveling. One altimeter is employed at each
base and simultaneous readings are taken and recorded at
predefined time intervals. A third altimeter, the roving
altimeter, carried and read also at predefined intervals
at the various field stations over the area.
In this method it is expected that conditions of the
atmosphere will change at a given time. Also, it is assumed
that the change will be in a linear motion between the two
bases. The computation performed is based on the assumption
that the ratio between the known difference in elevation
between the base stations and the difference of their
altimeter readings is equal (at a given time) to that bet­
ween the unknown difference in elevation between a base and
field station and the difference of their altimeter read­
ings. The calculation should yield the difference in eleva­
tion between a base station and any of the field stations.
Since the elevation of the lower (or higher) base is known,
the elevation of any field station could then be determined
by adding (or subtracting) the computed difference in ele­
vation.
i Fig. 22-5. The iimiltvi txicjwhu, loomed.

To illustrate the principle, assume that the elevations

of the upper (high) base and the lower base are 350 and 150
m, respectively. Also, assume that the altimeter readings
at the high base, the low base, and the field station are
496, 360, and 412, respectively. The triangle shown in
Figure 22-5 is constructed to represent the given values.
The known difference in elevation between the high base
and the low base is 350-150 = 200 m. This value is repre­
sented by the length of the vertical line H L ' in Figure 22-
5. The difference between the altimeter readings at the two
bases is 496-360 = 136. This value is represented by the
length of the sloping lira* HL. Also, the difference between
the readings at the I ield station and the low base is 412-

i
JUn
#-n %
thod 249,
360 = 52, which is represented by another sloping distance
SL. Since similar triangles are formed, the difference in
elevation between the low base and the field station (line
S'L') can be determined by proportion as follows

SV HL1
and S' L 1 (SL)
SL HL

s 'l ' = 200 (52) 76.47 say 76m

136

Therefore,, the elevation of the field station, S, is equal

to the sum o'f the elevation of the low base and the diffe­
rence in elevation between the low base and the field
station, or

ELEVg = FLEVl + S V = 150 + 76

« 226 m
As a check, the difference in elevation between the high
base and the field station (HS') should also be determined.
The computed value when subtracted from the elevation of
the high base should also give the elevation of station S.

22-5. INVERSE LEVELING. •

In' the conventional method of differential leveling we nor­

mally see to it that the line of sight of the instrument is
always higher than any point on which the leveling rod is
held. However, 'this is not always the,case. It is sometimes
necessary to determine the elevation of a point located
higher than the telescope of the instrument. For example,
it may be necessary to determine the elevation of a point
under, a bridge or to check the underside of a tunnel roof.
In such a situation, the rod is held upside down and its
base is placed up at the desired point. The rod is then
read and the distance to the line of sight is recorded in
the normal way. A reading, whether backsight or foresight,
can thus be obtained. Notekeeping is standard except that a
backsight is prefixed by a negative sign and a foresight
with a positive sign. The calculations are still carried
out in the usual manner and it is important to write an
explanatory note on the right-hand page of the field note­
book to clarify the reversal of signs. t
When an obstruction such as a concrete wall is encoun­
tered along a level route, the usual procedure is to get
around it. This may be a way to go about it, however, it
could be time consuming or may not be possible at all. In
such a situation, inverse leveling should solve the prob­
lem. The illustrated example given on page 250 should
explain the simple principle of inverse leveling.
22-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. |
/. A L T IM E T E R S U R V E Y S . Given the following data gathered from ah
altim eter su rve y: Elevatio n of the high base, 5 1 8 m ; elevation of the low
base, 122m { a ltim e te r reading at the high b a se , 5 9 6 4 j and a ltim e te r
reading at the. low b ase, 2 7 0 8 . I f the a ltim e te r, reading J t a fie ld station
is 4 1 5 0 , determ ine the elevation of the sta tio n .
fig. 11-6. KUimetex Aeading-i a t di{iexent elevation*.
High Base (HQ)
** „RPG _£ __ -i— .
• •

;a. RQG_=_4J50^

Low Base(LJE

RDG =.2708*

Moan Sea Level

S o l u t i o n • ./

a) Determining D iffe ren ces in Elevatio n and A ltim ete r Readings.

DEh|/ s ELEVhb uLC Vj^ * ,JIO \G.C.

396 (Difference in elevation between the high b- ~ *he
• low base)*
t
DIFFhl s RPGhb - UV3|^ —■ ~ C,(VU
=■ 3 2 4 6 (Difference in altimeter readings at the high and low bases)

DIFFfI = RDGf, - L/vJ|k — *TIJv C.IUO

= 1442 (Difference in altimeter readings at the field station and
the low base)
- i
PIFFjjf s RDGhb “
=. 1804 (Difference in altimeter readings at the high base and the
field station) ' „

fig. 11-7. The. \enUXant &i»i£aA tAiangte*.

247,
 By S im ila r it y o f T r ia n g le ? :

DEXL DE
JxL
D E h, :•
d e ;
DIFFfl DIFFhi ^ r ,D,FF-'»

396 (1442)
DE ft 3246
176 m {Difference In elevation between the field station
and the low base)

b) Determining Elevation of Field Statioa

ELEVf6 ELEV,b + DEf, = 122 + 176
298 m (Elevation of the field .station above mean sea
level)

c) Solution Check:
DEhf DEhi DEhi
DIFFhf DIFFhl DEhf DIFF,hi (D IFFhf)

396
DEhf 3246 (1804)
220 m (Difference in elevation between the high base and
the field station)

ELEV fB ELEVhb DEhf = 5 1 8 - 220

298 m (Checks with above computed elevation of the field
station)

2. A L T IM E T E R S U T V E Y S . At a bench mark whose elevation is 102m

above mean sea level, the index reading of altimeters A, B, and C were re ­
corded as 390,388, and 394, respectively. Altimeter A is kept at the
bench mark (the low base), altimeter B is taken to a bench mark at an ele­
vation of 525m (the high base), and altimeter'C is employed as a roving
altimeter. Five sets of readings were obtained by using each altimeter
at intervals of 15 min starting at I0!00 AM and were recorded as follows:
Altimeter A: 393, 394, 393, 394, and 393
Altimeter B: 816, 8 1 7 , 8 1 9 , 820, and 818 .
Altimeter C: 485, 5 5 8 , 5 5 6 , 444, and 479
The readings by the roving altimeter were taken on five different field sta­
tion^. Determine the elevation above mean sea level of these stations and
tabulate values accordingly.
So lu tio n :
a) Determining Index Correction.
ICa = 390 - 390 = 0 (No index c o rre c tio n fo r a l t i m e t e r A)<
ICb = 388 - 3 9 0 = -2 (Index co rre c t io n fo r a l t i m e t e r B)

• ICc = 3 9 4 - 390 =+4 (Index correction for altimeter C)

b) Adjusting the Observed Readings.

248.
 For Readings by A ltim ete r A : No adjustm ents
For Readings by A ltim ete r B :

816-2 *814 820 - 2 = 818

817 - 2 = 815 818 - 2 = 816
819 - 2 = 817
For Readings^by A ltim eter C-:

485 + 4 = 489 444 + 4 = 448

558 + 4 = 562 479 + 4 = 483
556 + 4 = 560
c) Tabulated Solution.

LOW BASE (LB) HIGH BASE (HB) ROVING

OBSERVATIONS OBSERVATIONS OBSERVATIONS
OBS INDEX ADJ ELEV OBS INDEX ADJ ELEV FLD OBS INDEX ADJ
RDG CORR RDG RDG CORR- RDG STA RDG CORR RDG
io:oo AM 393 0 393 8 16 -2 814 J 485 +4 489
10.15 394 0 394 817 -2 815 K 558 +•4 562
10:30 393 0 393 102 81 9 -2 817 525 L 556 +4 560
I0!45 394 0 394 820 -2 818 M 444 +4 448
1 1 :oo 393 0 393 81 6 -2 816 P 479 +4 483

d) Calculating Elevations of Field. Stations.

(ELEVhb - ELEV,b)
ELEVsta = (RDGhb- RDGlb) (RDG,ta RDG,b) + t^£V,b

ELEVj 3 (525 - 102) (489 - 393) + 102

(814 - 393) = 96 + 102
= 198m (Elevation above mean sea ievel of field statIon J)

(525 - 102) (562 - 394) + 102 =169 + 102

ELEVk = (815 - 394)
= 271m (Elevation above mean sea level of field station K)

(525 - 102) (560 - 393) + 102

ELEVl = =167 + 102
(817 - 393)
= ■ 269m (Elevation above mean sea level of field station L)

(525 - 102) (448 - 394) + 102 = 5 4 + 1 0 2

elevm =
(818 - 394)
= 156m (Elevation above mean sea level of field station M)

(525 - 102) (483 - 393) + 102

ELEVp v = =90+102
(816 - 393)
3 192m (Elevation above mean sea level of field station P)

e) Solution Check.
(CL.EVhb ELEV,b)
fa.EV9,0 = ELEVhb (RDGhb - RDGsfa)
RDGhb RDGlb

Lt
vCVi
tM
iOONiU •19
 ( 5 2 5 - 102)
ELEVj = 525 - (814 - 4 8 9 ) * 52*5 - 3 2 7
(8 1 4 - 393)
198m (Checks with previously computed elevation of field
station J) 1

<Note: The elevations o f the other fo u r fie ld statio ns may be checked by

applying in a sim ila r m anner the above equation,
$. IN V E R S E LEVELING. A tall concrete well is an obstruction along
a level, route between points A and B. To proceed with the leveling
Work, an inverse method of leveling Is executed at the vicinity of the
obstruction where rod readings were taken with the rod held upside
down as shown in Figure 2 2 - 8. From the observed data portrayed in
the figure, determine the elevation of point B.
Fig. 11-2. Le.veJUng ovsa an ob-6tXuction.

- 5 3 0 ,3 0 m (Height of Instrument of 1st setup)

Elevw = HI, -(-FS) * 5 3 0 .3 0 - (-2 .6 0 )

= 5 3 2 .9 0 1 ^ (Elevation of fop of concroto wall)

Hl2 = Elevw + (-BS) = 5 3 2 .9 0 + (-3 .9 2 )

= 5 2 8 .9 8 m (Height of Instrument at 2nd setup)

Elevb = Hl2 - FS = 5 2 8 .9 8 - 2 .6 8 •
= 5 2 6 .3 0 m (E le v a t io n of B)

b) Arithmetic Check.
SBS = 2 . 0 5 + (-3.92) = - 1.87
2FS = -2.60 + 2.68 = +0. 08
528.25 m (Elevation of A)
- I .87 m (5BS)
526.38 m (Sum)
-0.08 m (2FS)
526.30 m (Checks with computed elevation of B)

,2 5 0 ,
LEVELING
METHODS
t3-U CROSS-SECTION LEVELING
1. Roadway Cxo**-Seetlon*
2 . BOAXOW-Plt Oi0&6-S<LC.ti0YU
23-2„. ADJUSTMENT OF LEVEL CIRCUITS
?. Level* <?ve* One Route
2. Level* Ovex Videxent Ronton
2 3 - 3 . ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Levels Ovix One. Route
2. Levels Ovex Videxent Route*
3. Level* Ovex Vd&exent Route*
4. Level* Ovex Vldexent Route*

lesson 23
 2 3 -1 . CROSS-SECTION LEVELING.

Cross-sections are short profiles barken perpendicular to

the centerline of projects such-as a highway, railroad,
irrigation canal, or sewfer line. They may also be taken for
borrow-pits and excavations required for buildings, struc­
tures, • and quarries. Cross-sections provide the necessary
data needed for estimating quantities of earthwork and for
other related purposes.

1 . Roadway C r o s s - S e c t i o n s . This type of cross-section

is ypquired for most route projects such as roads and
railroads. The sections are taken at regular intervals,
usually at full and some plus stations, and where there are
abrupt changes in the profile of a centerline. To portray
correctly the ground surface within the project area, it is
important that cross-sections extend a sufficient distance
on each side of the centerline. Normally, cross-sections
should be prolonged to the allowed limits for right-of-way,
or up to a point where possible earthwork will be under­
taken. Elevations of ground points along the section are
taken at regular intervals as say 5, 10, 15, and 20 meters
on either side. Where significant changes occur in ground
features, ground elevations are also taken. The required
elevations are determined with a regular leveling instru­
ment, a hand level, or with a <combination of both.
Cross-sections are obtained in a manner similar to that
of profile leveling. At any suitable position, the instru-
mentman first takes a backsight on a bench mark or any
point of known elevation to determine the height of instru­
ment. To accurately determine the shape of the ground
surface, rod readings are then taken at a sufficient number
of points along a cross-section. A steel tape is used to
'determine the distance of a ground point from the center-
line station. The elevations of ground points are deter­
mined only to the nearest decimeter, however, when bench
marks or turning points are observed, rod readings are
^usually taken to the nearest centimeter.
A typical form of cross-section notes for a route
iproject is shown in Figure 23-1. It will be noted that rea­
dings on bench marks and turning points, and the computed
‘values of heights of instrument and elevations of stations
are recoiled in the usual form for profile level notes. All
these d$ta are portrayed on the left-hand.page of the field
notebook. The right-hand page is used for recording all
cross-section data. The line drawn down ttye middle of the
page is used to represent the centerline of- the route
project. Rod readings taken to the left of the centerline
are recorded on the left of this dividing line; readings
.taken to the right of the centerline are correspondingly
!recorded on the right side.
In the field notes, the recorded values (shqwn as
fractions) are nothing but the two recorded quantities

,252, i r v n /*#
Hf THOOi
 F<g- 23-}. Leveling mo&4 {oa a Aoaducuf CAOAi-*e.ction.

separated by a horizontal line. The value indicated §bove

the line is the rod reading on the ground point and the
value below the line is the measured distance from the
centerline to the point on which the rod reading is taken.
Some surveyor's record their observations in a reversed
manner. The computed ground elevations are recorded and
enclosed in parentheses below each indicated distance.
Although elevations may be computed in the office after
completion of the survey, it is good practice to compute
these values as the work progresses, . since , inconsistent
va.lues computed may reveal mistakes which can 'be readily
corrected while still in the survey site.
The elevations determined by cross-secti,on leveling are
then plotted on sheets of graph paper using identical hori­
zontal and vertical scales. A planimeter is often used in
determining the cross-sectional areas. The areas are in
turn used in computing the volume of earthwork for a given
project.
2. Borrow-Pit Cross-Sections. Cross-sections are also
employed in the construction of structures and buildings,*
and in the excavation of borrow pits. A borrow pit is an
open area which is usually adjacent to a construction
project where suitable fill material is excavated. For
example, before excavation is started for a structure or a
borrow pit, ground cross-sections are first taken. When it
is desired to determine the amount of excavated
the same system of c r o s s - s e c t i o n s i s a g a in taken to d e t e r ­
mine the new e l e v a t i o n s of the c o r n e r s ta k e s . The two s ets
of c r o s s - s e c t i o n s s h o u ld p r o v id e the n e ce ss a ry d ata fo r
com puting the volume o f e a r t h excavated a t the p ro je c t
s ite .

The shape of the original.ground may be obtained by

dividing the area into regular geometric figures such as
squares or rectangles and taking elevations at the corners
of each figure to represent the ground surface. The usual
procedure adapted is to come up with a simple system of
rectangular coordinates where one set of parallel grid
lines are marked by letters and the other set by numbers
(Fig. 23-2). For example, the corners of the grid may be
designated as A-l, A-2, B-2, B-3, C-l, and etc. Intersect­
ing grid lines are laid out and spaced closely enough so
that ground slopes from one corner to another will be
approximately uniform. A transit and tape is employed in
the lay out and temporary stakes are driven at each estab­
lished grid corner.
The base line from which the grid lines are referred
should be established outside the immediate project area*so
that’reference stakes and other markers will not be oblite­
rated cr disturbed during the process of excavation. Simi­
larly, any reference bench mark should also be located
outside the work area.
Shown in Figure 23-3 is a typical form of field notes
for borrow-pit leveling.

,254, L t yt’L INO

H CTH O O $
 fig . 23-3. fie ld note^i, ‘oa boAAow-pit leveling.

A level circuit (or loop) is a line of levels which begins

and ends at the same point or is run between points o*
precisely known elevations. In running a closed loop, it
will always be expected that the observed elevations (as
computed from the level notes) will not agree with the
known elevations of previously established points withir
the loop. The difference between the observed and known
elevations of the initial point, or bench mark, is referred
to as the error of closure.
Although there are many factors which affects the pre­
cision of a leveling operation, it depends largely upon the
care and skill of the level party and also upon the degree
of refinement with which the work is undertaken. Precision
in leveling may be determined by tying the level line to
previously established control points or by repeating the
measurement. In most precise leveling operations, the ele­
vation of a point such as a bench mark may be established
by leveling over two or more different routes, or by em­
ploying a level circuit which returns to the point of
beginning. Because conditions are so variable there are no
definite rules which could be laid down to exactly define
how to obtain or maintain a desired degree of precision.

1. Levels Over One Route. When a line of levels closes

mm — ^55,
 \

back on the bench mark at the beginning of the survey, the

observed elevation of the initial bench mark will not be
equal to its known (or accepted) elevation. Apparently,
there will always be an error of closure. Similarly, the
elevations of all other intermediate points established
during the process of leveling will also be in error.# The
probable error in elevation of these points, however, can
be determined and adjusted accordingly.
An elevation correction for any particular point in a
level circuit is usually applied in direct proportion to
the distance of the point from the initial bench mark. If
the distances are not known, corrections may instead be
made directly proportional to the number of setups of the
instrument. The error of closure is determined by subtract­
ing from the observed elevation of the initial bench mark
the known elevation of that point. In the form of a mathe­
matical equation

Ec = ±<Elevobs - E'evkwr^ • •Eq.U )

where Ec is the error of closure, Elevobs and Elevkwn are

the observed and . known elevations of the initial bench
mark, respectively. The computed error of closure may be a
positive or a negative value and its sign should be consi­
dered when determining the elevation correction.
The elevation correction is then determined by dividing
the error of closure by the length (or perimeter) of the
level circuit and multiplying by the distance from the
initial bench mark of the point considered. Thus

Corr = - ( ~ ~ - ) d .......................... Eq.(2) '

Where: Corr = elevation correction for any point within a

level circuit.
Ec =. error of closure
D = length or perimeter of the level circuit
d = horizontal distance of the point from the
initial bench mark

‘If the error of closure is a negative value,- all computed

elevation corrections are to be added to the corresponding
observed elevations; if positive, corrections are subtract­
ed. A negative sign is affixed in Eq.(2) to simplify the
process of calculation and in applying the correction. The
principles outlined for the adjustment of elevations of
points within a level circuit may also be applied on a line
of levels rin between two different points with a predeter­
mined difference in elevation. An assumption is usually
made that the difference in elevation is correct or 'has
been determined by more precise methods.
2. Levels Over Different Routes. When the elevation of
a bench mark is to be established by running several lines

256.
of levels over different routes from a common point pt
origin, it will always be certain that different results
will be obtained. In this manner, of leveling there will fc>e
as many observed elevations as there are lines terminating
at the bench mark to be established.
In ordinary leveling work, weights are assigned to the
different routes and the adjustment is made by proportion­
ing the discrepancy according to the lengths of the routes.
Thus, the weight given to .each route equals the reciprocal
of its length, and when the different lines of the levels
to the same poirfl? are compared, the shorter the route, the
greater the weight of its results. The most probable value
of the bench mark's elevation will then be the weighted
mean of.the observed values. Should there be other points
established along a particular level route,, the elevations
of these points :n turn would require adjustment after the
most, probable value of the elevation of the terminal bench
mark has been determined.
23-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. LEVELS OVER ONE ROUTE. The known elevation of BM is 728.730
meters. A 3 0 .5 0 0 km long level c irc u it is ru n , closing back on BM, with
an elevatio n, as determ ined from the notes, of 7 2 8 .4 8 6 m . The observed
elevations of other bench m arks which were estab lish ed d u rin g the run^
and their d ista n ce s from the in itial bench m ark are given as fo llo w s:

STA DISTANCE OBSERVED DISTANCE OBSERVED

FROM BM, ELEVATION STA FROM BM, ELEVATION

BM, 0.000 km 728.730m bm5 21.964 km 739.708

bm 9 5,245 783.2 l'3 BMC 25.247 702.956
BM^ 11.271 891.764 BMf 30.500 728.486
BM4 17.718 843. 1 95

Fig. 23-4. Sketch ol the Level eiA.eu.it.

Determine the following:

a) The error of closure
b) Correction to be applied to each observed elevation
c) Adjusted elevations of the bench marks along the leve1 route
s o lu tio n :
a) Determining E rro r of C lpsure.
E lev obs 728.486m ( E l e v a t i o n of BM ' as d e t e r m in e d f ro m the
level notes)

Elev kwn 728. 730m (K n o w n or a c c e p t e d e l e v a t i o n of B M .)

Ec = *e v obs “ ^-^e v kwn^

= (728.486 - 728.730)
= -0.244m (E rro r of c l o s u r e ) |

b) Determining Elevation Corrections.

i
D ■ dt .+ d2 + d$ + d4 + d5 + d6
= 5.24 5 + 6.026 + 6.447 + 4 . 2 4 6 + 3.283 ♦ 5.253
a 30.500 km ( L e n g t h of the l e v e l c i r c u i t )

' F- _ n 9AA
C o rr » - (*"*0 —) * - ( g 5- | g § ) d * + 0 .0 0 8 d

Corr2 - + 0.008(5.245) - + 0,042 ( E l e v a t i o n C o rr e c tio n fo r BMg)

Corr3 = + 0.008(11.271) =+ 0.090 (E le vatio n C o r r e c t i o n fo r BMg)
Corr4 = •+ 0. 008 (17. 718) = + 0.1 42 (E le v a tio n C o r r e c t i o n f o r BM^J
Corr5 = + 0,008(21.964) =+ 0 .1 7 6 (E le v a tio n C o r r e c t i o n f o r BM g)
Corrg = + 0.008(25.247) =+ 0 .2 02 (Elevatio n C o rrectio n for BMg)
Corr, = + 0.008(30.500) =+ 0.2 44 (E le va tio n C o rr e c tio n for BM, )

c) Adjusting the Observed Elevations.

Adj Eiev = Obs Elev + Corr
Adj. E lev bm 2 3 783 .21 3 + 0.042 = 783.255 m
Adj. Ellev BM3 * 891.764 + 0.090 = 891 .8 5 4
Adj. Elev BM4 ' = 843. 195 + 0. 142 s 843.337
Adj. Ellev bm 5 = 739. 708 + 0. 176 = 739.884
Adj Ellev bm 6 3 7 02 .9 56 + 0.202 = 703,158
Adj Ellev BM, 3 728.486 + 0.244 = 728.730 ( C h e c k s with known
eleva tio n of BM,)
2. L E V E L S O V ER D IF F E R E N T R O U TES. Sieve; ines of levels are
run over different routes from BMt in order to e r ;:;i jh the elevation
of BM2. The lengths of these routes and the value tf fne elevations de­
termined are shown in the accompanying tabulation. Determine the most
probable elevation of BM2 .

OBSERVED
ROUTE LENGTH
E LE V A TIO N
1 2 . 7 5 km 8 8 .7 4 2 m
2 3. 50 8 8 .8 2 5
3 6.42 8 8 .8 6 3
4 10.38 8 8 .7 0 8

258.
Fig. 13-5. The. (out ttvtZ toatt* tmktn.

/''Elev, 88.742 m
Elev2 88.825 m
Elev3 88. 863 m
^Elev~ 88.708 m

W = W, ♦ W . t W , + W4 = l/ L
+ + i/ l 3 t l/ L y

+ -rr-i
— -■ + I . I
2.75 3.50 ' 6.42 ' 10.38
* 0.3636 + 0 .2 8 57 + 0.1558 + 0 .0 96 3
= 0. 90! 4
SWtd Elev = Elev,(W,) + Elev2(W2) + Elev3(W3) +Elev4 (W4 )
= 88.742(0.3636) + 88.825(0.2857) + 88.863(0.1558) +
88.708(0.0963)
= 32.2666 + 25.3773 + 13.8449 + 8.5426 = 80.0314
SWtd Elev 80.0314
Elev BM2 = 88.786m
2 W 0.9014
3
. LEVELS OVER DIFFERENT ROUTES. By route X (3.0 kms long)
point B is 111.200 m higher than point A. By route Y (4.0 Kms long) Bis
M0.970 m above A, and by route. Z (6.0_kms long) B, is 111.260 m above
A. Determine the following :
a) The weighted mean difference
b) The most probable value of the difference in elevation between A and B.
c) The elevation of point B if the elevation of A is 2,3^ 5.680 m above
mean sea.level.
Fig. 23-6. Level* o v tt t i i t t t d i((tx e jtt tou ted .

I 1 1 .2 0 0 m
Q
LxJ
11
X

dey = 11 0 . 9 7 0 rn
,DEZ = H 1 . 2 6 0 m

a) 2 W = Wv + Wv + W, l/L* + l/Ly + l/Lz

.259
 « 1/3.0 + 1/4.0 ♦ 1/6.0 * 0 .7 5

SWtd Diff = DEx (Wx ) + DEy (W„) + DEZ (WZ )

1 1 1 . 2 0 0 ( 1 / 3 . 0 ) + ! 1*0.970 ( 1 / 4 . 0 ) + i . 2 6 0 ( 1/ 6 . 0 )
= 8 3 .353 m (Weighted mean d i f f e r e n c e )

b) mpv of CE = SWtd D i f f / 2 W = 83.353/0.75

= IH .I40 m (Most probable value of the difference In elevation)

c) EievB * ElevA + mpv of DE

= 2 , 3 4 5 . 6 8 0 + ! 1I . t 4 0
3 2,456.820 m (E le v a tio n of point 8)

4 . L E V E L S O V ER D IF F E R E N T R O U T E S . Lines of levels to establish

the elevation of point X are run over four different routes. The observed
elevations of the point with probable errors are given below. Determine
the most probable value of the elevations of the point.
LIN E OBSERVED ELEVATION PROBABLE ERROR
1 2 1 9 ,8 3 2 m + 0.0 06 m
2 2 1 9 .9 3 0 ± 0.01 2
3 219.70 1 ±0,018
2 2 0 .0 2 1 ± 0 .0 2 4
L...4
S o lu tio n .
a) Determining Weights. The weights are Inversely proportional to the
square of the corresponding probable errors, or

W ,E , % 4 W3 ES W E
W4 c 4

W, (0.006)2 = WZ(0.0I2)2 W3 (0.0I8) W4 ( 0 . 0 2 4 ) (Let W, 3 I)

W, = 4 W0 = 9W 16 W4 » I = 4W2 9W3 = 6 W„
W Wo 1/4 w3 = 1/9 W'4 1/16
SW a W. + W„ + w.3 + W, r + i/ 4 + 1/9 + 1/16

= I or 2 0 5
144 144
b) Determining Weighted Observations.
Wtd Obs a Qbs E /e v x Weight
Wtd Obs j ~ 2 19 . 8 3 2 X 1 3
2 l 9.832 m
Wtd Obs 2 » 219.930 X 1/4 = 5*.983
Wtd ° b s 3 = 219.701 X 1/9 , S 24.411
Wtd Obs 4 = 220.021 X 1/ 16 = 13.751
Wtd Obs a 312.977 m
SW td Obs 3 1 2.977 m
Weighted Mean
SW 20 5 /1 4 4
2 (9 . 8 4 T m (T h e most probable value of the elevation of
point X Is the weighted mean)

260.

_
 MEASUREMENT
OF ANGLES AND
DIRECTIONS
P a rt V: L esson Nos. 24 Thru 28
MEASUREMENT
OF ANGLES AND
DIRECTIONS
r r ^ w m i iiniTniiiifrmiOTMnnf^ i nin iuii i i m iHflmimiiiimi

24-1. MERIDIANS
1. TAue Menidian 3. G*id Menidian
2. Magnetic Menidian 4. Attuned Menidian
24-2. EXPEDIENT METHODS OF ESTABLISHING MERIDIANS
1. Ettablithing Magnetic Menidian By Compaq
2. De.teAmin.ing TAue Nonth By Aid oi Sun anc a Plumb Line.
3. DeteAmining TAue NoAth By the Rising and Setting o{ the
Sun
4. DeteAmining TAue NoAth By Polanit
5 . DeteAmining TAue South By the Southern Cnctt
!
6. DeteAmining DiAection TAue NoAth [ oa South) By a
lilnitt likUch
24-3. UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENT
1. The Degnee 3. The Mil
2. The Gnad 4. The Radian
24-4. DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS
1. TAue Nonth 3. Gnid Nonth
2. Magnetic Nonth 4. Attuned Month
24-5. ILLUSTRATIVE- PROBLEMS
1. Convention o& An Angle to Decimal Degneet
2. Convention o& An Angle to Degneet, Hinutet, and Secondt
3. Convention Fnom Degneet to Gnadt, Milt, and Radiant
4. Convention Fnom Gnadt to Degneet, Milt, and Radiant
5. Convention Fnom Milt to Gnadt, Degneet, and Radiant
6. Convention Fnom Radiant to Degneet, Gnadt, and Milt .

Lesson 24
Of AN
f i l l ANO m N U T tO N t J26.3..
 24-1- MERIDIANS.

The direction of a line is usually defined by the horizon­

tal angle it makes with a fixed reference line or direc­
tion. In surveying, this is done with reference to a
meridian which »lies in a vertical plane passing through a
fixed point of reference and through the observer's posi­
tion. There are four types of meridians: true, magnetic,
grid, and assumed.

1. True Meridian. The true meridian is sometimes known

as the astronomic or geographic meridian. It is the gene­
rally ad&ptetUxefe-rence line in surveying practice. This
line passes through the geographic north and south poles of
the earth and the observer's position. Since all true
meridians converge at the poles, they are not parallel to
each other. The direction of true meridian at a survey
station is invariable and any record of true directions
taken remains permanent and unchanged regardless of time.
Lines in most extensive surveys are usually referred to the
true meridian. This meridian is also used for marking the
boundaries of land.
2. Magnetic Meridian. A magnetic meridian is a fixed
line of reference which lies parallel with the magnetic
lines of force of the earth. Its direction is defined by a
freely suspended magnetic needle of a compass held at the
observer's position. Magnetic meridians are not parallel to
the true meridians since they converge at a magnetic pole
which is located some distance away from the true geogra­
phic poles. Since the location of the magnetic poles chan­
ges constantly, the direction of the- magnetic meridian is
not fixed. As a line of reference, the magnetic meridian is
employed only on rough surveys where a magnetic compass is
used in determining directions.
3. Grid Meridian. A grid meridian is a fixed line of
reference parallel to the central meridian of a system of
plane rectangular coordinates. One central meridian, which
coincides with a true meridian, is usually selected and all
other meridians are made parallel to this meridian. In this
process, the need to calculate the convergence of meridians
when determining positions of points in the system is eli­
minated. The use of grid meridians is applicable only to
plane surveys of limited extent. In such types of survey it
is assumed that all measurements are all projected to a
horizontal plane and that all meridians are parallel
straight lines.
4. Assumed Meridian. An assumed meridian is an arbitra­
rily chosen fixed line of reference which is taken for
convenience. This meridian is usually the direction from a
survey station to an. adjoining station or some well-defined
and permanent point. It is used only on plane surveys of.
limited extent since they are difficult or may be impossi­
ble to re-establish if the original reference points are
0 ^ /1 M E A SU R EM EN T OR AN-
G L E S AND D IR E C T IO N S
lost or obliterated.
' . . ; * •K» ;V.'
2 4 -2 . EXPEDIENT METHODS OF ESTABLISHING MERIDIANS.

The following are some expedient methods of determining or

establishing meridians.

1. Establishing Magnetic Meridian Ey Compass. The mag­

netic meridian can be established by setting up the compass
over any convenient point and then sighting a distant
object that marks another point on the meridian. For an
accurate determination of the desired meridian, several
sights should be taken during the setup and the compass
must be rotated about its vertical axis and then positioned
until the needle reads zero. The mean of the points thus
established is taken as the magnetic meridian. The observa­
tions should, however,- be made when the magnetic declina­
tion is approximately at its mean value.
2. Determining True North By Aid of Sun and a Plumb
Line. In a level piece of ground, lean a pole approximately
toward the north and rest it in a crotch made by two sticks
(Fig. 24-1). Suspend a weight from the end of the pole so
Fig. 24-1. V&teAmination o & ncAth by thadouu.

D i r e c t i o n of
T r u e North

that it nearly touches the ground. About an hour before

noon, attach a string driven directly under the weight and,
with a sharpened stick attached to the other end of the
string, describe an arc with a radius equal to the distance
from the peg to the shadow of the tip of the pole. Drive a
peg on the arc where the shadow of the tip of the pole
rests. At about an hour after noon, watch the shadow of the
tip as it approaches the eastern side of the arc and drive
another peg where it. crosses. By means of a string, find
 th e m id dle p o i n t of the s t r a i g h t l i n e j o i n i n g the two pegs.
A s t r a i g h t l i n e j o i n i n g t h e m i d - p o i n t and the peg under the
w e ight w i l l , f o r a i l p r a c t i c a l pu rp o s e s, be p o i n t i n g t o ­
wards the d i r e c t i o n of t r u e n o r t h .
Fig. U- t . VtXtAmining iunth by Aiding and A/ttting o{ a i m .

North Pol*

/'h|»\'N
Setting Rising
Sun ' Sun
3. Determining T t u e North By the Rising and Setting o t
the Sun. From a c o n v e n ie n t p o s i t i o n or s t a t i o n , observe the
r i s i n g and s e t t i n g o f th e sun on the same day or a t s e t t i n g
on one day and r i s i n g the next ( F i g . 24-2). A lo n g each
d i r e c t i o n e s t a b l i s h a peg or m arker. Measure the h o r i z o n ­
ta l a n g le between the two markers th e n , e s t a b l i s h another,
marker to d e f in e h a l f of the measured a n g l e . The lint?
jo in in g the o b s e r v a t io n s t a t i o n and the l a s t marker e s ta b ­
l i s h e d s ho uld p o i n t towards the d i r e c t i o n of t r u e n o r t h .
Fig. 24-3. VtteAmining ninth by VolaJliA.

V
North Pole

OfiC
VVmmmmmmm4
if
ICASUtltMCofm
ai ts
fTrcr
orAH*-
ioh
 4. Determining True North By Polaris. The big dipper is
a useful reference constellation of the northern hemis-
phere. As a star group, it is the most familiar and easiest
to recognize. It has been so named because.of the distinct­
ive dipper-like pattern formed by seven bright stars (Fig.
24-3). The two stars, Merak and Dubhe, forming the side of
the dipper Which is farthest from the handle are known as
the pointer stars. They point towards Polaris which is also
known as the north star, pole star, or cynosure. Polaris
lies almost directly above the earth^s north pole. When a
person faces Polaris, he is actually facing towards the
direction of true north. Polaris is visible the whole year
but only in the northern hemisphere. /
tAside as a reference for determining directions, this
star can tell a person in the northern hemisphere what'
latitude he 'is in. The observed vertical angle from the
horizon to Polaris is approximately the same degree of
latitude that the observer is from the equator. At the
equator the vertical angle to Polaris is zero since the
star is on the horizon. At the north pole, the angle is
about 90 degrees since Polaris is found directly overhead.,

Fig. 14-4. ViteAmitUng tooth by the mux .

5. Determining True South By the Southern Cross. The
southern cross (or crux) is, a constellation of the southern
hemisphere which serves as a reference group of star§ for
determining, the location of the earth's south pole. It Is
composed of four stars formed in the figure of a cross. An
imaginary liQ£ joining the two stars forming the longer
side of the cross is used to locate a point directly above
the south pole. This reference point is located along the
extension of this imaginary line. Its distance frbm , the
lower star (Fig.- 24-4) of the cross is about 4.5 times the
distance between the two stars*along the same line.
6. Determining Direction of True North (or South) by a
** A B tm e m * *T o r a n O
•n rt a n o o m r r r tc m x mrnmtmrnmm+m :67,
Fig. 24-5. VcttAm ining tooth in th e month F ig . 14-4. V etum ining month in th e tooth
tu y e x a te zone by m it t m atch. tempenate zone by m i t t match.

Wrist Watch. An ordinary wrist watch can be used to deter­

mine the approximate direction of true north or south. In
the north temperate zone only the hour hand is pointed
toward the ,sun. A south line can be found midway between
the hour hand and 12 o'clock (Fig. 24-5).
The wrist watch may also be used to determine direct­
ions in the south temperate zone. It is done, however, in a
different manner. Twelve o'clock is pointed toward the sun,
and half-way between 12 o'clock and the hour hand will be
the direction towards true north (Fig. 24-6).
Fig. 24-7. The. tempenate zone* oi the eanth.

70*
66*30‘N

The two methods stated above applies primarily to

standard time. On daylight saving time, the method
applicable at the north temperate zone yields a north-south
line which is midway between the hour hand and one o'clock.
At the south temperate zone, the north line lies midway
between the hour hand and one o'clock. In both cases, it.is
important to remember that the sun is in the eastern part
of the sky before noon and in the western direction in the

O C A M C A S U R C M S N r o r A ft -
uCW M M H M B f fU T S AMO O f f * C T tO ftS
afternoon. Also, the method explained are applicable basi­
cally in the temperate zones. These ztmes extend from
latitude 23.5 degrees to 66..5' degrees in both hemispheres
(Figure 24-7).

24-3. UNITS OF ANGULAR MRASURSMBNT.

The magnitude of an angle can be expressed in different

units, all of which are basically derived from the divi­
sion of the circumference of a circle (Fig, 24-8). A purely
arbitrary unit is used to define the value of an angle. The
principal system of units used are:

1. The Degree. The sexagesimal system is used in which

the circumference of a circle is divided into 350 parts or
degrees. The angle of one degree is defined as the angle
which requires 1/360 of the rotation needed to obtain one
complete revolution. The .basic unit is the degree, which is
further subdivided into 60 minutes, and the minute is sub­
divided into 60 seconds. The * , ' and " are used to denote
degrees, minutes, and seconds, respectively. Thus an angle
26 degrees, 32 minutes, and 15 seconds may be written as
26* 32'15". If decimal parts of degrees is desired the
above value may be written as 26.5375 degrees. This system
is used extensively in surveying practice.
2. The Grad. The grad is the unit of measure in the
centesimal system. In this system the circumference of a
circle is divided into 400 parts called grads. Tlje grad is
subdivided into 100 centesimal minutes and a centesimal
minute is further subdivided into 100 centesimal seconds.
The symbols g, c and cc are used to denote grads, centesi­
mal minutes, and centesimal seconds, respectively. It will
be noted that 200 grads is equal to 180 degrees. This
system is' a decimal one which is of some advantage when
mathematical calculations are required. It is a standard
unit used in Europe. An angle^may be expressed as 235.2618°
where • the first pair of digits to the right of the decimal
point represents centigrads and the last pair of digits
farther to the right of the decimal'point represents the
decimilligrads. The preceding value may also'be written as
235° 26c 18cc .
3. The Mil. The circumference is divided into 6400
parts called mils, or 1600 mils is equal to 90 degrees. The
mil will subtend very nearly one linear unit in a distance
of 1000 such units. It is commonly used in military opera­
tions as in fire direction of artillery units.
4. The Radian.7 The radian is another measure of angles
used frequently for a host of calculations. One radian, is
defined as the angle subtended at the center of a circle by
an arc length exactly-equal to the radius of the circle.
One radian equals 180/TT or approximately 57.2958 degrees
and, one degree equals TT /180 or approximately 0.0174533
radians. T h e radian Is sometimes referred to as the natural

t(tnsrw,Mi — .n— ?69,

 u n it of a n g le because t h e r e i s no a r b i t r a r y number i n its
d e fin itio n . I t is used in Com putations such as d e t e r m in in g
the le n g t h of c i r c u l a r a r c s and where h ig h speed e l e c t r o n i c
d i g i t a l computers are used.

F ig . 2 4 - 8 . U n its o f a n g u ta A wejjMUiesnejit.

2 4 - 4 . DESIGNATION OF NORTH POINTS.

There is always a starting or reference point to define

directions. Map users are primarily concerned with the
north point for the determination of directions and the
following are the commonly used reference points.

1. True North - is the north point of the true meri­

dian. In maps and sketches, it is portrayed in the direc­
tion of the actual location of the earth's north geographic
pole and is always shown along a vertical line. It is

‘ £70. tU 4
nr a ■itrte Mr n t or
i iunt r rtn*\
an

,
symbolized by a star, an asterisk, or the letters TN (Qlg*
24-9a) .
2. Magnetic North - a north point that is established
by means of a magnetized compass needle, when there are no
local attractions affecting it. At any point on the earth’s
surface its direction is indicated by the direction of the
magnetic lines of force passing through the point at a
particular time. Magnetic north may be located either east
or west of true north. The point is usually symbolized by a
half arrowhead or the letters MN (Fig. 24-9b).
3. Grid North - a north point which is established by
lines on a map which are parallel to a selected central
meridian.. ’It may coincide with lines directed toward true
north. Grid north may be symbolized by a full arrowhead or
the letters GN or Y (Fig. 24-9c).
4* Assumed North - is used to portray the location of
any arbitrarily chosen north point. It may be symbolized by
a small blackened circle or the letters AN (Fig. 24~9d).
Fig. 24-9. SyvtboLt tued ioA noKth pointi.

TN MN AN
* $

(c) „)
Grid North Assumed North

24-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

/. CONVERSION OF AN ANGLE TO DECIMAL DECREES. C o n v e rt
the-angle 2 3 8 ° 2 5 ' 5 0 ' into its eq uivalent in decim al d e g re e s.

Angie = 2 3 8 ° 2 5 ' 5 0 ’' (Where: Deg = 2 3 8 ° , Min = 2 5 ' , and Sec =50")

Decimal Equivaien = Deg + Min/60 + S e c / 3 6 0 0

= ?386 + 25' /6 0 + 50n/ 3 6 0 0
= 238° + 0.4167°+ 0.0139° - 2 3 8 . 4 3 0 6 °
2. CONVERSION OF AN ANG LE TO DEGREES, M INUTES , AND
SECONDS . Convert to degrees , m inutes, and seconds the decim al angle
3 2 5 .7 5 4 1 6 6 7 degrees.
a) Deg = 325 .7 5 4 1 6 6 7 ° ( d e c i ma l d egrees )
D 3 325° (Integral port ion of the angle In degrees)
9

b) Min = (Deg - D) ( 60' /de g)

= ( 3 2 5 .7 5 4 1 6 6 7 ° - 3 2 5 ° ) (6 0 '/ d e g )
3 4 5 .2 5 0 0 0 2 ' ( d e c i ma l mi nut es )

Iff/ UA
K t H t N T or AN
NDDiNMCriONt 27)
 M 45 (Integra! portion of t h i angle In m inutes)

c) Sec (Min - M) ( 6 0 /min)

( 4 5 . 2 5 0 0 0 2 '- 4 5 ' ) ( 6 0 " / min)
15.00012" (decimal seconds)
S * 15" (integral portion of the angle In seconds )
d) Therefore, 3 2 5 .7 5 4 1 6 6 7 * D + M + S * 3 2 5 °4 5 'l5 "

5. CONVERSION FROM DEGREES TO OR A D S , M IL S , AND RADIANS

Convert 270° into its equivalent value in g r ad s , mils, and radians.
a) Angle fn Grads = 270°( 4 0 0 ° / 3 6 0 ° ) = 300°
b) Angle in Mils = 270°( 6 4 0 0 mi Is / 360°) = 4 6 0 0 mils
c) Angle in Radians= 270°(2TT rad / 360°) = 4 . 7 12 4 radians
4. CONVERSION FROM GRADS TO D EG REES, M IL S , AND RADIANS.
The value of an observed interior angle (A) in a closed traverse is 350grads
Convert the angle into its equivalent value in degrees, mils, and radians.

a) = 350s
400’
= 315 (equivalent value of Angle A In degrees)

, CAu , 360° x , 6 4 0 0 mils t

b) A" = 350 (— —-—) ( n——)
400° 360'
= 5 6 0 0 m ils (equivalent value of Angle A In mils)

c) 35os «.§S21.m -2TT Rad

4000 360°
5.4978 radians (equivalent value of Angle A In radians)

3 . CONVERSION FROM M ILS TO GRADS, DEGREES, AND RADIANS.

Convert 1600 mils into its equivalent value in grads, degrees, and radians.

o) Angle in Grads = 160 0 mils (— ( | | ^) - 100s

b) Angle In Degrees = 1600 mils (~6 4 qq m||s") = 90°

c) Angle in'Radians = 1600 mils ( — ) = 1.5708 radians

6. CONVERSION FROM RADIANS TO DEGREES, GRADS, AND MILS.

If the value of’ an angle of elevation (O-) is computed to be TT/4 radians,de­
termine the equivalent value in degrees , grads , and mils.
= (X )(J60l
a) O-. 1 4 M 2tr 1 45 (equivalent value of qngle •©■ in degrees)

, TT w 360° , , 400°,
b) "O -2 - (-^—J (~2Tr'"' 3 6 ~0 °r = 50 (equivalent value of angle-0- In grads)

, TT , , 360 •, , 6400 mils x

0 - ( 4. ') ( 27T
OTP ) ( 360 ° ' “ 800 mils (equivalent value of angle &
fn m)|g) ■

27; M f A S V R e U f N T O f AN-
ein an d omrertom
M EASU REM EN T
OF A N C L E S A N D
D IR E C T IO N S

25-1. DIRECTION OF LINES

25-2. INTERIOR ANGLES
25-3. DEFLECTION ANGLES
25-4. ANGLES TO THE RIGHT
25-5. 'BEARINGS
25-6. FORWARD AND BACK BEARINGS
25-7. AZIMUTHS
25-8. FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS
25-9. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. De.teAmin.ing Angles FAcm Bering*
2. DeteAmining Angles FAom Azimuth,&
3. ConveAting BeaAings To Azimuths
4. ConveAting Azimuth* To BaaAing*

Lesson
25-1. DIRECTION OF LIMB8.
The direction of a line ;s defined as the horizontal angle
the lipe makes with an established line of reference. There
are ' various Jcinds of angles which can be used to describe
the direction of lines. In surveying practice, directions
may be defined by means of: interior angles, deflection
angles, angles to the right, bearings, and azimuths.
Angles are measured or laid off directly in the field
by using devices such as a compass, transit, theodolite,
sextant> 6% by plane table and alidade. The steel tape may
also be used to lay off or measure angles. These angular
quantities are said to be observed when obtained directly
in the field with a measuring instrument and calculated
when obtained indirectly by computations. Angles are
computed by means of their relationship to known quantities
in a triangle or othe(r geometric figures. The conversion
from one method of expressing angles and directions tc
another is a simple matter. There are no hard and „fast
rules for making such conversions. The best approach is
always to draw a good sketch showing the related quantities
and then visualizing the required computations.

F ig . 25-1. IntxxioK angles. f i g . 25-2. ExWiioA angle*.

25-2. INTERIOR ANGLES.

The angles between adjacent lines in a closed polygon are

called interior angles. In Figure 2 d -1, the interior angles
are <J>Q , <J>b , (j)c , <J)d , and <{)# . These angles may be measured
clockwise or counterclockwise. When the value of an
interior angle is greater than 180 degrees it is referred
to as a re-entrant angle. One such example is the interior
angle at station E or <J>e . It should be remembered that for
any closed polygon the sum of the interior angles is equal
to'(n-2)180 degrees, where n is the number of sides. For
the polygon shown in Figure 25-1, the sum of the interior
angles is (5-2)180 degrees or 540 degrees.

0 7 / M E A S U R E M E N T O f AN-
hi I * 1 W — III O L E S AND D IR E C T IO N S
 Exterior angles are located Outside a closed polygon
and are referred to as explements u t interior angles. ^ A n
explement is the difference between 360 degrees and any one
angle. These angles are often measured in surveying- work
and used as a check, since the sum of the interior and
exterior angles at any station or point must equal to 360
degrees. In Figure 25-2, the exterior angles are oCQ ,cCt,cCc,
cC^t and oC9.
F ig . 25t3. Ve&lec.tion angles.

25-3. DEFLECTION ANGLES.

»
The angle between a line and the prolongation of the pre­
ceding ^ITne is called a deflection angle. It may be turned
to the right (clockwise) or to the left (counterclockwise)
and it is always necessary to append the letters R or L to
the numerical value to define the direction in which the
angle has been turned. Right deflections are considered to
have signs opposite to left deflections. Usually* a
positive sign is used to define a deflection angle to the
right and a negative sign for deflection angles to the
left. .
In Figure 25-3, the deflection angles at stations B, C,
and D are ^^^(R), nrc (L), and ixrd(R), respectively. These
angles may have values between 0 and 180 degrees, but often
they are not used for angles greater than 90 degrees. In
any closed polygon the algebraic sum of the deflection
angles should always equal to 360 degrees.
Fig. 25-4. Angled to the. tig h t. E

Angles to the right are measured clgckwise from the oreced-

tfMUttHfKTorAN-
iit ano omgc noN% ■a i m u iy yj
 ing line to the succeeding line. In figure 25-4, the angles
to the right at stations B, C, and D are , and A* -
respectively. These angles are also referred to as azimuths
from back line.
25-5. BEARINGS.

The direction of a line may tyA described by giving its

bearing. The bearing of a line is the acute horizontal
angle between the reference meridian and the line. A
quadrantal system (Fig. 25-5) is used to specify bearings
such that a line may fall under one of the following
quadrants: NE, SE, NW, and SW. Each quadrant is numbered
from 0 to 90 degrees from either the north or south end of
the meridian to the east or west end of the reference
parallel (or the E-W Line). The fact that bearing angles
never exceed 90 degrees is an advantage when extracting
values of their trigonometric functions for use in computa­
tions.
<f. tt-S. ibuutxaiUjU (*Um (m dkiuuiig taoUagd.

H
0*
----R«f«r«nc« Meridian
CN-S L in e )
N O R T H -W E S T N O RTH - E A S T
(NW) (N E )
QUADRANT QUADRANT

W 9 0 * ----------------— - — 90* E

C Rtferenca Parallel
iE~ W Line)
SOUTH-WEST SOUTH - EAST
CSW) .■ (SE)
QUADRANT QUADRANT
0*
s
Either the letters N or S precedes the bearing angle
=md the letters E. or V follows the indicated value of the
angle. It is never done the other way around. Therefore^ to
locate a line it is always necessary to know the directio­
nal quadrant in which it lies as well as the angle it makes
with the reference meridian. The line could lie in any of
the four quadrants if only the bearing angle of the line is
known.
Bearings may also be designated in a different manner
*hen the direction of a line lies in the same direction as
:he reference meridian*or reference parallel. If the line
lies parallel to the meridian and south, it is written aa
due south; if perpendicular to the meridian and east, it is

iCT*— ....rararaBaag-
written as due east. In Pigure 25-6, the bearings of si
lines oriqinatinq from point p are given.

F3f. 15-*. tttumituMg bouting*.

f N

BEARING OF LINES I
Lin* pa « N 4 4 # 3 0 ‘E
L in t pb « S 90* I 3 ' E
L in t pc * Out South
L int pd « S 60* i e 'W
L in t pt e Out W t tt
Lint pf > N 20* 4 0 'W

When bearings are employed to de£ine the direction oi

lines it is important to identify the meridian used as
reference. Depending, therefore, on the reference meridian
being used* bearings may be true, magnetic, grid, or
assumed.
True bearings are measured from the local astronomic or
true meridian. When directions are measured from the local
magnetit meridian they are called magnetic bearings. Such
bearings can be obtained in the field by observing a magne­
tic needle in a compass box. Most of our early land survey *
were made in terms of magnetic bearings. They are used only
for surveys which need to be accomplished in a short period
of time and when only a low order of precision is required.
In addition, magnetic bearings may be used for rerunning
old property lines whose directions were originally deter­
mined *bv compass, or for checking more precise surveys.
Grid bearings are measured from the appropriate grid meri­
dian whereas assumed bearings are measured from an arbitra­
rily chosen meridian.

2 S - * . FQB1KIRD ABDJMICX B K M IK G 8.

Ueifig the quadrantal system, any linejfrn the surface of th«

ear£h may be defined by two directions which differ froi
each other by exactly 180 degrees.^. The direction wilJ
depend on which end the line is observed. When the bearing
of a line is observed in the direction in which the feurvej
progresses/ it is referred to as a forward bearing, if thi
bearing of the same line is observed in an opposite direc-

/
 fig. tS-7. fokyocud and back beating*.
N
B

L IN E FORW ARD B E A R IN G B A C K B E A R IN G
AB N44’ 3 8 , E S 4 4 °3 8 ' W
BC S 4 2 °3 0 'E N42°30'W
CD N5 6 ° 5 0 1 E S56°50' W
DE S 18 ° 12 ' E N 18 ° I 2 'W

tion it -is called the back bearing. In Figure 25-7, assume

a compass is set up successively at stations A, B, C, D,
and E, and bearings read on lines AB, BA, BC, CB, CD, DC,
DE, and ED. The observed bearings of lines AB, BC, CD, and
DE are called forward bearings; those of BA, CB, DC, and ED
are back bearings. From the illustrated directions given in
Figure 25-7,' it can be readily seen that back bearings can
be obtained from the forward bearings by simply changing
the letter N to S and also changing E to W, and vice versa.

25-7. AZIMUTHS.

Another common method used in designating the direction of

a line is by the use of azimuths. The azimuth of a line is
its direction as given by the angle between the meridian
and the line measured in a clockwise direction from either
the north or south branch of the meridian. Azimuths are
usually preferred over bearings by most surveyors because
they are more convenient to work with such as in computing
traverse data by electronic digital computers.
The azimuth of a line may range from 0 to 360 degrees
and letters are not required to identify quadrants. For any
particular survey the direction of zero azimuth is either
always north or always south. Some surveyors reckon azi­
muths from the south and some front the north branch of
whatever meridian is selected as a reference^ Usually a
particular agency or organization will consistently use one
or the other. Since both the north and south branches of
the meridian are used, it is important to always specify
and record which branch is used whenever azimuths are
recorded.0
7

0 7 0 M EA SU REM EN T O f AN-
4 U M M M I ( J L t S AND D IR E C T IO N S
 In practice, azimuths are generally measured yfrom the
north branch of the reference meridian for ordinary . plane
surveys. For large scale geodetic surveys and in astronomi­
cal observations azimuths are measured frr i the south
branch of the meridian. Figure 25-"8 shows different lines
whose azimuths are measured from the north branch of the
reference meridian. Azimuths measured from the south branch
of the meridian are ahown in Figure 25-9. *
Fig. 25-t. Azimth* no*th. Fig. 25-9. Azimuth* <*cm 4 o u ik .

! . N

L Ine pa = 56° I 81
Line pa 3 45° I O’ Line pd a i 55°44'
Line pb * I45°05' Line pc = 225°29'
Line pc = 230° 5 2 1 Line pd = 2 70°00‘
Line ~pd * 3 4 2 ° 48' Line pe * 3 2 5 ° OS'
Azimuths may be called true, magnetic, assumed, or
grid, depending on the reference meridian from which they
have been measured. They are referred to as true azimuths
When measured from the true or astronomic meridian, magne­
tic azimuths when measured from the magnetic meridian, grid
azimuths when referred to the central meridian in a grid
system, and assumed azimuths when referred to an arbitrari­
ly selected line. To avoid confusion in the interpretation
and use of observed directions, it is important to always
clearly specify in the field notes the type of reference
meridian used. ' .
25-8. FORWARD AND BACK AZIMUTHS.

Any line established on the earth's surface has two azi­

muths .i forward azimuth and a bark azimuth. Depending on
 which end of the line is considered, these directions dif­
fer by 180 degrees from each othet since the back azimuth
is the exact reverse of the forward azimuth. To determine
the back azimuth when the forward azimuth is known, the
following rules are used:

RULE 1: If the forward azimuth of the line is greater

than 180 deg., subtract 180 deg. to obtain the back azi­
muth .
RULE 2: When the forward azimuth of the line is less
than 180 deg., add 180 deg. to determine the back azimuth.

Shown in Figure 25-10 are four successive lines whose

azimuths have been observed. Tabulated immediately below
the figure are the observed forward and back azimuths (rec­
koned from south) of lines AB, BC, CD, and D E . The tabula­
tion also shows the calculated forward and back azimuths of
each line as reckoned from the north branch of the refe­
rence meridian. By applying Rules 1 and 2, the student
should be able to determine how the tabulated back azimuths
have been determined.
Fig. 25-10. FoAuxud and back a zim itfu .

OBS AZIM FROM SOUTH CAL AZIM FROM .NORTH

LINE
FORWARD BACK FORWARD BACK ■
AB 230° 00‘ S o * 00 ' 50*00' 230*00*
BC 3 14° 00’ 134*00' 134*00' 314*00'
CD 255*00' 75*00’ 75*00' 255*00'
DE 165*00' 345*00' 345*00' 165*00'

It should, however, be understood that although the

above stated rules are useful, there are actually no hard
and fast rules to observe in determining back azimuths or

uO Q A ___________ sirs and ot*trcrto«t

M C A S U K U H E N T o r AN-
when converting azimuths from one branch of the meridian to
the other. To visualize the needed computations, the most
important thing to do is just to make a good sketch, which
will show the related quantities. The rest will require
only simplified analysis.
25-9. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. DETERMINING ANG LES FROM BEARINGS. Compute the angles
AOB , COD, EOF, and GOH from the following set of lines whose magnetic
bearings are given:
a) OA , N 39°25'E and OB , N 75°50'E
b) OC , N 34° 14* E and OD , N 53°22'W
c) OE , S I 5°04' E and OF , S 36°OO1W
d) OG , N 70° I5'W and OH , S 52° 0 5 1W

Solution.
a) Determining Angle AOB.
Let •0-j = Bearing angle of OA or 39°25‘
0 2 = Bearing angle of OB or 75°50‘
cC ~ Angle AOB
cC = 0 2 - 0 | = 7 5 ° 5 0 '- 39°25‘
.= 36°25‘
b) Determining Angle COD.
Let -9-| = Bearing angle ofOCor 34°I4'
■02 = Bearing angle.of OD or 53°22t
oC = Angle COD
cC - 0 , + 0 2 = 34‘ 4* + 53° 221
= 87°36' Fig. 25-13.
<
c) Determining Angle EOF.
w
0
Let 0j = Bearing angle of OE or I5°04!
0 2 = Bearing angle of OF or 36°OO1 \ r
oC = Angie EOF e\
/. cC = 0, + -0 2 = I5 ° 0 4 '+ 3 6 ° 0 0 ' F cC~
• = 5 l° 0 4 '
d) Determining Angle GOH.
Let 0, = Bearing angle of OG or 70° I 51
O?. = Bearing angle of OH or 52°05r
oC = Angle GOH
oC = 180° - (0, + 0 2)
180° - ( 70° 15' + 52°05')
57°40'

N
HI £01,
2
] DETERMINING ANGLESFROM Compute the an g le s APB,
C P D j and E P F from the following set of lines,W ho se a zim u th s are given :

a) AZIM fl of L in e PA = f 3 9 * 4 8 ' j A Z IM n of L in e PB = I I 5 ° 2 9 ‘
b) AZIMS of L in e PC * 3 2 0 ° 2 2 ' 5 AZIMt o f^ L in e PD/ *■ 6 2 ° 1 6 1
C) AZIMn of L in e PE * 2 1 9 * 0 2 * i AZIM, of L in e PF =* ‘154° 16!

Solution. *

a) L e t A, = A zim u th from north of lin e PA or

i 7 - / 39°48'
i. A ,/ A2 = Azimuth from north of line PB or
“ • • < 11 5 ° 2 9 ‘
P A , ? < ■©• = Angle APB
frit
-0- 3 A2 ~ A | = 115° 291 r 39°48‘
= 75° 4 11
e
b) Let A, = Azimuth from south of line PC or
320°22‘ ' •
A2 = Azimuth from south of line PD or
62° I6 *
■6- - Angle CPD
' -0- = A 2 -K ( 3 6 0 ° - A,)
= 6 2 ° 16* + ( 3 6 0 ° - 3 2 0 ° 2 2 ')
' * I 01° 5 4 '

c) Let A| = Azimuth from north of line PE or

2 I9°02'
\ ]
A2 = Azimuth from south of line PF or
1 5 4 ° 16
./• A •
\ = Angle EPF
P ) -
\ / //At1 •©• = A 2 - ( A', - 1 8 0 ° )
■ = !54°I6' - ( 2 1 9 °0 2 l - 180°)
3 I I 5 CI 4 ‘

5. CONVERTING BEARINGS TO AZIM UTHS. Convert the following

bearings to equivalent azimuths. *
a) • AB, N 25V2^'W c) CD, S 5 0 °I0 'E e) EF, N66°30'W
bj BC, Due East d) DE, S45°50'W
t i
Solution.
a) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line AB.
Let oC = Bearing gngle of AB or 25°25*
A, - Azimuth from south of AB
A2 s Azimuth from north of AB
A, = 180°00‘ + cC = 180°00' + 25°25*
= 205°25'
A2 3 oC = 2 5 °2 5 ‘

irtrism<X'X
 b) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line BC.
Let cC = Bearing angle of BC or 90*00*
A| = Azimuth from south .of BC .
A z = Azimuth from north of BC
= I 80°00-'*+ 'cC = I80°00' + 90#Q&
= 270° 00* •
A z = dC - 90 00*
c) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line CD.
Let cC = Bearing, angle of CD or 50° IO1
A, = Azimuth from southr of CD
A z = Azimuth from north of CD.
A | = 360°00' - & = 360p0 0 ‘ - 50°l 0*
= 309°50'
A z = 180° - .• fV0* 50° IO4
= I 29° 5C
d) Determining Equivalent Azimuths of Line
Let cC = Bearing cftvjeji.' of DE or 4 5 ° 5 0 l
Aj = Azimuth from south of DE
A2 = Azimuth from north of DE
A, = oC = 45° 5 0 1
A2 = I 80°00' + oC = 180°00' + 45°50*
= 225°50'
e) Determining Equivalent -Azimuths of Line EF.
Let oC = Bearing angle of EF or 66° 3 0 1
Aj = Azimuth from south of EF
A2 = Azimuth from north of EF
A, * I 80°004 - cC= I 80°00f - 66°30*
. = 1 1 3°30'
A2 = 360°001 - c C = 360°00‘ - 66° 30*
= 293°30* V
4 . C O N V E R T IN G A Z IM U T H S TO. B E A R IN G S . Convert the follow.lftO azi­
muths to equivalent bearings:
a) AZ IM, of Line AB = 2 3 0 ° 3 0 ' d)AZIMn of Line DE = 2 2 8 ° I 5*
• . . . __ . . _a ._ I . . . __ . — r-O *
b) AZI Mn Of y n e BC = I I 2"46 e) AZ I Me of Line EF = I 35 00
C) AZIMS of Line CD = 2 7 0°00
Solution.
a) Let A = Azimuth from south of AB or 230°30'
cC «* Bearing of AB

t m n s a s s .— -■m
 cC - A - ,180°
= 2 3 0°30‘ - 180°
* 50°30' (or bearing of AB is
N 5 0 ° 3 0 'E )

Fig. 2$-24.

b) Let /\ = Azimuth from north of BC or i I 2°46‘

cC = Bearing of BC

cC = 180° - A = 180° - I 2 2 * 4 6 ‘
= 57°I4 (or Rearing of BC is
S 5 7° 14 1E )
Fig. 25-25.

c) Let A => Azimuth from south of CD or 270°00'

cC ~ Bearing of AB
A oC => A - I 80°0D' = 270°00' - I 8 0 °0 0 ‘
= 90°00' (or bearing of CD is Due
East)
Fig. 25-26. $

d) Let A = Azimuth from north of DE or 228°15

cC "* Bearing of DE •

cC * A - I80°00' 3 228° 15* - I 80°00'

= 48° 15* (or bearing of DE is
S 4 8 ° 1 5 ‘ W)

Fig. 25-27.

aC =» Bearing of EF
cC » i 80°00‘ - A 3 I 80o00* - I35°00‘
= 45°00' (or bearing of EF is
N 4 5°00 W)

O fl/ L u tA iU H tM rr * T o r a n
n i r » a n o i n n n t n*N \
OF ANGLES AND
DIRECTIONS
26-1. THE COMPASS
7. Compaq Box
2. Linz oh Sight
* 3. Magnetic Needle
26-2. TYPES OP COMPASSES
1. Biunton Compa&i
2 . Len&atic Compaq
3. SuAveyoA* A Compaq
4. Plain Pocket Compaq
5. PxiAmatic. Compass
6. FoACAteA’4 CompaM
7. Txaruit Compou4
26-3. MAGNETIC DECLINATION
26-4. ILLUSTskATIVE PROBLEMS
7. Magnetic Declination
2. Magnetic Declinhtion
3. Magnetic Declinhtion

Lesson %
,VfA3UNCMINT Or AN-
0 L ta AND n t N f C T tO N X ,285)

_________
 26-1. THE COMPASS.

The compass Is a hand-held instrument for determining the

horizontal direction of a line with reference to th£ magne­
tic meridian. It is so constructed to allow a magnetized
needle to swing freely on a pivot at the center of a gra­
duated circle and point toward magnetic north. From the
occupied position of the compass'it allows a line of sight
to be directed toward any selected distant point.
For many centuries the compass has been widely used in
navigation. In earlier land surveys and prior to the inven­
tion of the transit, it was the only practical instrument
for measuring directions and horizontal angles. Since very
accurate measurements cannot be expected from the compass,
it is’no longer used on surveys requiring high degrees of
precision. However, because of its portability, it is still
employed for reconnaissance and preliminary surveys, in
timber cruising and exploratory surveys, in retracing old
land surveys, and in obtaining rough checks on angles or
directions measured by more precise methods. It has remain­
ed to be a valuable instrument for engineers, Purveyors,
geologists, and foresters.
The compass box, line of sight, and the magnetic*needle
are the essential features of the magnetic compass.

1. Compass Box. The compass box of the instrument has a

horizontal circle which is graduated from 0 tp 90 degrees
in each quadrant. The index marks are placed at the north
(N) and south (S) markings and the 90-degree marks at the
east (E) and west (W) markings on the circle. Most compass
circles are graduated in degrees or half-degrees, and can
be read by estimation to about 5 or 10 minutes. The compass
box is covered with a glass plate.to protect the needle and
the graduations.
2. Line of Sight. The line of sight usually is fixed
along the index mark on the north graduation of the circle.
If the line of sight is turned clockwise (or counterclock­
wise) from magnetic north, the needle remains aligned with
the magnetic meridian, but the graduated circle rotates in
the same direction of turning through the corresponding
angle. The reading which is given is dependent on the posi­
tion of the graduated circle.
3. Magnetic Needle. The compass needle is of magne­
tized tempered steel balanced at its center on a jeweled
pivot so that it swings freely in a horizontal po.sition. An
arrow is usually marked on the north end of the needle and
its south end often has an adjustable small counterweight
made of fine wire. Magnetic lines of force on the surface
of the earth influences the direction taken by the compass
needle since it is magnetized. Its direction of pointing is
used to define the magnetic meridian at a particular loca­
lity. The needle should not be allowed to jar unnecessarily
on its point of support as this may result in dulling the
OQC MEASV*e#£NT Of AH-
If — lWi— 9L£S ANO OtReCTtOHS
pivot point. A dull pivot causes the needle to become
insensitive and sluggish. A screw is provided to lift the
needle from its pivot when not in use.

26-2. TYPES OP COMPASSES.

Magnetic directions, such as bearings and azimuths, are de­

termined in the field principally by the use of a compass.
There are various types and designs of compasses available.
Some of these instruments are named after .the intended
user, the designer or manufacturer, a particular applica­
tion, or according to its design and main features. Some
of these compasses include the following: *■ .

1. Brunton Compass. The Brunton compass (Fig. 26-1) is

one of the most versatile and widely used. . It combines the
main features of a prismatic compass, sighting compass,
hand level, and clinometer. When used during a surveying
operation, the instrument can be mounted on a tripod or
Jacob staff (Fig. 26-2) or just held in one's hands. This
compass is suitable and sufficiently accurate for prelimi­
nary and exploratory surveys, engineering-type surveys, and
topographic surveys requiring only low degrees of preci­
sion.
Fig. 26-1. &iunton compcut.

Small S ig h t-
Level Vial
Circular Level-
Needle Large Scale

Mirror

Needle Lift Pin

Slot for Tripod Head

The compass consists of a brass case hinged on two

sides. Its cover has a fine mirror and a centerline etched
on the inside face which is hinged at one side of the case;
a sighting vane, which folds outward when used is hinged at
the opposite side. The magnetic direction of a line is
determined from the compass needle reading while the point
sighted is reflected through the sight vane on the mirror.

N ZASU RC H C H T OF AN -
9 t £ S AHO O IF C C .T IO W SSL
 Ug. a-t. A circular level which is set inside the, compass
Jacob1* vteti*
box may be used to check if the instrument is
held horizontally during sighting. To read ver­
tical angles and grade percentages, .th.e Brunton
compass is held vertically. It has a clinometer
arc inside the compass ring which is graduated
to degrees. The vernier which is attached to the v
clinometer arm allows one to read to the nearest
. 5 minutes.. A second arc may be used to read
grade percentages for both elevation and dep­
ress ion. - *
2. Jjensatic Compass. The lensatic compass
(Fig. 26-3) consists of an aluminum case con­
taining a magnetic dial balanced on a pivot, a
hinged cover with a sighting wire, a hinged
eyepiece containing a magnifying lens for read­
ing the dial graduations, and a sighting slot
for. viewing the distant object. Its name is
derived from the magnifying lens which is mount-
' ed in the eyepiece.
The lensatic compass was Resigned for mili­
tary.use such as in reconnoitering, determining
directions, orienting maps, artillery fire di­
rection control, and other uses where magnetic
azimuths are required. The case is about 5 cm long and less
than 2*.5 cm thick when closed. It has a straightedge about
12 cm long which, is permanently attached and parallel to
the line of sight. The straightedge is graduated in 100-
meter units at a scale of 1:25,000. t

fig. 26-3. Lunatic compatn.

The compass .has a round face, with a magnetic needle

whose north point is luminous. Cardinal points (N, E, W,
and S) and other markings on the begel crystal are- also
luminous for reading in darkness. Mils as well as degrees

,288, m ea su rem en t
G LES
o r AN­
AND D IR E C T IO N S
are shown on the dial in 5-degree and 20-mil graduations.
During daylight hours, magnetic azimuths can be read accu­
rately to within 2 degrees. The graduations are read di­
rectly by glancing down at the dial while sighting on a
distant object. When the compass is closed,'the magnet and
dial assembly is automatically lifted off the pivot, thus
protecting the moving parts of the compass from wear when
not in use.
3. Surveyor’s Compass. Shown in Figure 26-4 is a surve­
yor's compass which was popularly used earlier for running
limited plane surveys of reasonable accuracy. It is now
commonly used for forest surveys, in retracing old land
surveys, and in geological explorations. Its main parts
include a compass box containing a graduated circle, two
sight vanes, a magnetic needle, and two clamping screws. A
glass cover prr.ects the needle and the graduated circle.
At the duter rim of the compass box is a circular scale
which is graduated in degrees and half-degrees. Usually,
graduations are numbered in multiples of 10 degrees, clock­
wise and counterclockwise from 0 deg. at the north and
south marks on the dial, to 90 deg. at the east and west
marks. Angles can be read on the circular scale by estima­
tion to the nearest 10 or 15 minutes. It will be noted that
the letters E and W on the compass box are reversed from
their normal positions to give direct readings of magnetic
bearings. As the sight vanes and compass box are turned and
oriented, the needle establishes the bearing of the obser­
ved line.
Metallic sight vanes with vertical slits are fastened
on opposite sides of the compass box to allow accurate
pointings. The instrument is So designed that the line of
sight passes through the two sight vanes positioned along
the north and south marks of the compass circle. The com­
pass box is rigidly connected to a vertical spindle which
revolves freely in a conical socket. Directly below the
spindle is a leveling head consisting of a ball-and-socket
joint which is used to level the compass.
The instrument is provided with two screws. One screw
is used for lifting and clamping the needle, and another is
for clamping the vertical spindle. When used in the field
for determining directions, the leveling head may be mount­
ed on a light tripod or on a Jacob staff.
4. Plain Pocket Compass. This type of compass is si­
milar to the surveyor's compass, except that it has no
sight vanes. It is a small hand instrument used for obtain­
ing roughly the bearing of a line. The line of sight is
established by a combination of a peepsight and a slotted
vane. Pocket compasses are so constructed such that when
the cover is folded or closed, the needle is lifted off its
pivot and held against the glass cover. Various pocket com­
passes are used in reconnaissance and exploratory surveys
such as those shown in Figures 26-5 and 26-6.
5. Prismatic Compass. In a prismatic compass the gra-
Mt A x u m m r N i or
ah pc. »
01»t t>si#u««
 Fig. 26-5. P lain pocket compact

Fig. 26-4. SuA.vetjM'4 ccmpa&i

Fig. 26-6. Silva pocket compact

Fig. 26-7. Fa'ie^tei'* compcu*. Fig, 26-8. Hand-held uiA.veyoA'4 compact.

V

lift AM OIkisnout

L
duations are found on a rotating card instead of being on
the compass box. The card moves with the needle since both
are fastened together. Two short sighting devices are pro­
vided and magnetic bearings are read by means of a prism at
the same instant that the compass is sighted along the
line. Some prismatic compasses are filled with liquid and
hence are referred to as liquid compasses. The contained
liquid is designed to minimize frictional effects by taking
most of the weight off the pivot. It also damps movement
and allows the rotating scale to come to rest very quickly
after it is set on a mark. Liquid prismatic compasses have
been widely used by sailors for navigation at sea.
6. Forester's Compass. The forester's compass, as shown
in Figure 26-7, is another type of a pocket compass which
is usually made of aluminum or some type of metal which
does not affect the free movement and positioning of the
magnetic needle. It may be,hand-held or supported on a
staff or tripod when used in the field. This type of com­
pass is ecuipped with a front and rear sight and a declina­
tion adjustment. Some models have a beveled ring which is
used to turn right angles, or to measure vertical angles by
positioning the edge of the base on a level surface. Such a
type of compass is best suited for forestry surveys as well
as for geological and other similar exploratory surveys.
7. Transit Compass. The engineer's transit has a com­
pass box which is similar in construction to the surveyor's
compass. This box is mounted on the upper plate of the
transit and often used to check horizontal angles and di­
rections measured or laid off during transit surveys.' It is
also used for orienting the transit with the magnetic meri­
dian. Its line of sight is defined by the telescope of the
transit. V7hen the telescope is in the direct position, the
letter N on the compass circle is found directly below the
objective end of the telescope arid the letter S is under
the eyepiece.

26-3. MAGNETIC DECLINATION.

The magnetic poles are not points but oval areas located
about 2,000 km away from the actual location of the geogra­
phic poles of the earth. These areas are not fixed and may
move to a different location everyday, perhaps as far as 50
km. For example, in 1960 the plotted position of magnetic
north was located at 75 deg. north latitude and 101 deg.
west longitude; in 1980, it was located at 76.8 deg. north
latitude and 101.5 deg. west longitude. Since the compass
needle normally points toward the direction of the magnetic
poles, it will be expected that the magnetic meridian and
the true meridian will not be parallel to each other. There
are only a few locations on the surface of the earth where
the two meridians coincide.
The horizontal angle and direction by which the needle
of a compass deflects from the true meridian at any parti-
H t A v u rtr o r ah
# / / « an d o w t t 'T im *
291,
 F ig . 16-9 . HoAth end o( Fig- tb-10. HoAth end oi
needle <4 exut o{' h u e noAth. needle <4 ux.&t orf h u e noAlh.
TN MN MN TN

cular locality is called the magnetic declination. Deflect­

ion of the needle may be eastward or westward of the true
meridian. An east declination occurs if the north end of
the needle is east of true north. It is a west declination
if the north end of the needle is west of true north. Both
conditions are illustrated in Figures 26-9 and 26-10.
The deflection of the needle at one place may be consi­
derably different from that at a place just a few kilo­
meters away. At a. particular location the declination does
not remain constant but also varies with time. The declina­
tion at a given location on any date can be obtained by
establishing a true meridian from astronomical observations
and then reading the compass while sighting along the true
meridian. The difference between the observed compass read­
ing and the established true meridian should give the
declination. The declination may also be estimated with
sufficient precision from an isogonic chart (refer to
lesson no. 27) or by sighting with a compass along a line
whose true bearing has previously been established and
noting the difference from the observed magnetic bearing.
At any location on the earth’s surface magnetic ’ bear­
ings (or azimuths) may easily be converted to true bearings
(or azimuths) and vice-versa, if the declination is known.
No specific formulas or rules are needed for such conver­
sions. All that is important is to draw a sketch which
shows the existing relationship between lines and direct­
ions and making only a simple analysis.
26-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
f. MAGNETIC DECLINATION. The magnetic declination in a locality
is 2 ° 3 0 'E . Determine the true bearing and true azimuths reckoned from
north and south of the following lines whose magnetic bearings are given.
a) AB , N 2 5 ° 4 0 ' E
b) A C .S 50° I 2' E
c) AD, S 62° I 8 1 W
OQ9 MCASVRCMCHT or 4*-
£ §m w ' wcw a r t am o o m rcn o m
S o lu tio n
a) Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Line AB.
Fig. 26-11.

Given':
d = 2 ° 3 0 ‘E (magnetic declination)
<C - 2 5 ° 4 0 ’ (bearing angle of line AB)

f = d +oC r 2 ° 3 0 ‘ + 25° 4 0 1
= 28° IO’ (Therefore , true bearing of line AB i» N 28 10 E)

IT = P - 28°I0' (true azimuth from north of line AB)

= 1 8 0 ° + IT * ! 8 0 ° + 2 8 ° i O 1
= 208°10' (tru e azimuth from so u th of line AB)

b) Determining True Bearing and T.rue Azimuth of Line AC.

Fig. 26-12.
TN

Given:
d * 2#30'E (magnetic declination)
oC » 5 0 ° I2 ‘ (bearing angle of line AC)

p s oC- d = 50*12' - 2° 30'

= 47°42' (Tl.jrefore , true bearing of line AC is

¥ 3S1 8 0 ° - P = 180° - 4 7 ° 4 2 '

= 132° 18' (true azimuth from north of line AC)

A 3 i 80° + IT = 180° + 132°18'

S 31 2° i 8* (true azimuth from south of line AC)

c) D e t e r m in in g Tru e Be a ring and True A z im u t h of L in e AD.

t it* »no t it t e r am *
 Given:
d « 2*30' £ (magnetic declination)
oC = 62* I 8* (bearing angle of line AO)

p = d +<*7= 2°3 0 ' + 62.°18 1

. s 0 4 °4 8 ' { T h e r e f o r e , t r u e b e a rin g
of l ine AD Is S 64° 4 8 ‘ W)

¥ = 1 8 0 ° + /; “ i8 0 ° + 6 4 ° 4 8 '
= 244°48 (true azimuth from north
of line AD)

A * p = 64°48‘ (true azimuth from south

of line AD)

2. MAGNETIC DECLINATION. A field is in the form of a regular pen­

tagon. If the true bearing of side AB is N 30°30 E, determine the true
azimuth from south of the following sides of the field : AB, BC, and CD.
Assume that the corners of the field are labeled in a clockwise direction

Solution.
Determining the Interior Angles.
Sum = ( n - 2)1 8 0 ° = ( 5 - 2 ) 180*'
= 540° (sum of interior angles
1 within the field)

Sum /n = 5 4 0 / 5
108° (since the field is
a regular polygon, the value of
the interior angles &Q , «
, and ■
©■ are all equal)

b) Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Side AB.

f i g . 26-15.
TN

Given:
aC - 3 0 ° 3 0 1 (bearing angle of*slde AB)

A = 1 8 0 ° + oC = 1 8 0 ° + 3 0 ° 3 0 1
= 2 I0 ° 30* (true azimuth from
south of side AB)

06 ^. m ea s u r e m e n t or ah -
M L E S ANO 4U t t e c n o H S
 c) Determining True B e a rin g and T ru e A zim u th of Sid®
fig. u-u.
TN

Given:
cC ~ 3 0 ° 3 0 ' (b earing angle of slde BA )
■9-. = 1 0 8 ° (in te rio r an g le at c o rn e r B )
D

f = -0-b -c C = 108° - 30°30" c ,

= 77° 30* ( T h e r e f o r e , th e tr u e b e a rin g of side BC Is S 7 7 30 E )

A = 360°- p = 3 6 0 ° - 7 7 ° 3 0 '
3 2 8 2 °3 0 ' ( t r u e a z im u t h f ro m s o u th of sid e BC)
t

d) Determining True Bearing and True azimuth of Side CD.

fig. 26-17.
■ •i •
TN

A = 360° - cC - 360° - 5° 301

= 354°30* ,* (azimuth from south of side CD)

j . M A G N E T IC D E C L IN A T IO N . In a compass survey, made fiftyyearr;

ago the observed magnetic bearing of a reference line XY was S50°l8fE
vYhen the magnetic declination was 8 °I5' east. Lately in 1986 , a new sur
vey was made and the declination in the same survey site changed to
12 ° 10 West. Determine the following descriptions of line XY :
. ) '
a) Its true bearing.
The true azimuth from south.
c) Its new magnetic bearing.
<j) The magnetic azimuth from south* in 1986.

iltr ,295,
 fig. T61t.

Given:
d| s 8 ° J5* e a s t , the m agnetic declination 5 0 years ago
d2 = I 2 ° i 0 , wesf, the m agnetic declination In 1986
<C - S S O L I S 'E , the observed magnetic bearing of line XY f i f t y years ago.
S o lu tio n .
a) Determining True Bearing.
A = aC - d,( = 50° 18 1 - 8° 15*
= 4 2 C0 3 ' (Therefore , the tru e bearing of tine XY is S 4 2 ° 0 3 ‘ E. This
• quantity will remain fixed and will not change with r e s ­
pec t to time)
b} Determining True Azimuth.
e = 3 6 0 O° - |A = 360° - 4 2 ° 0 3 '
= 3 1 7 57 (True azimuth from south of line XY. This is also o fixed
q u o n tity )

c) Determining New Magnetic Bearing.

f = A - d2 = 4 2 ° 0 3 ‘ - 12° I O'
= 2 9 53 ( T h e r e f o r e , the magnetic bearing of line XY In 1986
is S 2 9 “ 5 3 ' E )
d) Determining New Magnetic Azimuth.
<P = 360*° - f> = 360° - 29° 53'
= 330 07 (Magnetic azimuth from south of line XY in 1986)
N o t e : It w ill be noted that a ll the above so lu tio n s have been de-,
t e r m ined from the given fig u re by in sp ectio n and sim p le a n a ly sis. An
understanding o f the definition o f m agnetic dec!in ation , m agnetic and true
bearings as well as azim uths, and th e ir rela tio n sh ip is all that is necessa­
r y to solve problem s o f this type.

€L£S AM O B / K K C T tO flG
 M EASU REM EN T
OF A N G L E S AND
DIRECTIONS
n ~ 1. VARIATIONS IN MAGNETIC DECLINATION
1.. Daily Variation
* 2. Annual VaAiation
3. SeculaJt Variation
4. lAAQ.gulaA Variation
27-2. ISdGCNIC CHART
27-3. USE Of THE COMPASS
27-4. LOCAL ATTRACTION
27-5. MAGNETIC DIP
27-6. COMPASS SURVEYS
1. TtaveA.se
2. TAaveAsing
3. Ttauetse Station
4. TtaveA.se Lines
27-7. TYPES OF COMPASS SURVEYS
1. Open Compass Ttavesse
2. Closed Compaq Ttavesse
27-8. ADJUSTMENT OF AN OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE
27-9. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
1. Adjustment o£ An Open Compass Ttavetse

Lesson
01rs AttnaiArcrton*

_
21-1. VARIATIONS IN MAGNETIC DECLINATION.

Thfe changes in direct ion of the magnetic meridian at any

given place is not constant. It is subject to .cyclic fluc­
tuations Which vary over a certain period of time.- These
variations in magnetic declination can be categorized as
daily, annual, secular, and irregular. ,
1. Daily Variation. This variation, also called.diurnal
variation, is an. oscillation of the compass needle through
a cycle from its mean position over a 24lhour period. It is
periodic ih character. The extreme eastern position of the
needle usually occurs early in the morning and the extreme
western pointing occuring.just about after noon time. The
amount of this variation ranges from a fraction of a minute
to about 15 minutes at different places.
Daily variation is greater in higher latitudes than
near the equator, and the direction of swing is opposite in
both hemispheres. The swing of the needle has been observed
to be more in summer than in winter at the same place.
Since'the magnitude of daily variation is small*in compari­
son to the inaccuracies with which the'magnetic compass can
be read, it is usually neglected when observing magnetic
directions. *
,
2. Annua?! Variation. Annual variation is another form
of periodic swing taken by the magnetic meridian with res­
pect to the true meridian. It usually amounts to only less
than 1 minute of lie and thus considered negligible.
3. Secular Variation. Secular variation is a slow,
gradual, but unexplainable shift in the position of the
earth’s magnetic meridian Over a regular cycle. The meri­
dian swings like a pendulum in one direction for about 150
years and gradually comes to a stop and then swings back in
the opposite direction. The rate of change in declination
varies yearly and irregularly at different locations and
can be a very large amount. At the middle of the swing the
velocity of movement is Usually greatest.
Secular variation is important to the surveyor because
of its magnitude. It is considered when checking or retra­
cing old survey lines, whose directions were established
with a magnetic compass. Because secular variation covers a
period of so many years its exact cause and character is
not thoroughly understood. There is no known method, physi­
cal law, or mathematical formula to predict this variation.
Its rjature, behaviour, and magnitude can be described only
by means of tables and charts derived from observations at
various places worldwide*which were made in the past.
4. Irregular Variation. This type of variation is un­
certain in character and eaftnot be predicted as to amount
or occurrence. At high‘altitudes they usually amount .to •
degree or more. Irregular variations are most likely to
occur during magnetic s£ orms and disturbances associated'
with sun spots; and when auroral displays occur.
 27-2. XSOGOHIC CHART,

A chart or a map which shows lines connecting points where

the magnetic declination of the compass needle is the same
at a given time is. called an isogonic chart. The lines
drawn on such a chart are in turn referred to as isogonic
lines. For .some parts of the chart, it will be observed
that magnetic declinations are zero a^nd the lines connect­
ing them are called agonic lines. On an agonic line the
magnetic needle defines true and magnetic north along the
same direction. Correspondingly, in areas west of the ago­
nic line the needle has an easterly declination; those east
of the line, a westerly declination.

f i g . 27-1. PeteAmining magnetic bea/iing-i.

27-3. USB OP THE COMPASS.

To obtalh the magnetic bearing of a line by means of a con-*

mtA»u***M*r or> a m - i ooa

MV* AMO .................... .v*
pass, the observer sets up the instrument at one end of the
line. The compass is held level and the needle screw is re­
leased to allow the needle to swing freely about its pivot
point. A sight is then taken on a point at the other end of
the line. When the needle comes to rest, the magnetic bear­
ing is read by noting where the north end of the? needle
points on the graduated scale of the compass box. It will
be noted tha*t the needle of the compass normally always’
points toward magnetic north as the compass box and sights
are rotated.
The north end of the needle indicates the angular part
of the bearing and, the quadrant in which the bearing lies
is determined by observing the markings on the compass box.
Bearings are usually read to the nearest 10 or 15 minutes
although it is possible to estimate much smaller values.
The south end, which is easily identified by a fine wire
coiled around the needle, is only read if it is desired to
determine the back bearing of a line or to check the read­
ing on the other end of the needle. Bearings read from both
ends of the needle should be exactly opposite each other in
direction. Illustrated in Figure 27-1 are four lines (AB,
BC, CD, and DE) in different quadrants whose magnetic
bearings are obtained by a compass. The given examples are
properly labeled, and should be self-explanatory. If the
student understands the, illustrated examples, there should
be no further difficulty encountered in determining correct
magnetic bearings in the field using a compass.

27-4. LOCAL ATTRACTION.

Local attraction is any deviation of the magnetic needle of.

a compass from its normal pointing towards magnetic north.
In the field, the compass user may not realize that magne­
tic bearings read with the compass have been affected by
local attraction. In some localities, particularly in ci­
ties, and in large excavation sites of iron ore deposits,
its effect is so pronounced that a magnetic compass could
not be reliably employed fo£ determining directions. Local
attraction at a particular point may be constant, or may
vary depending upon surrounding magnetic influences. Also,
it is not likely to be the same at one point as at another,
even though the points are only a short distance apart.
Objects made of steel or iron such as reinforcing bars,
fences, buried pipelines, and even moving vehicles may
considerably «affect the compass needle. Also, taping
arrows, the steel tape, range poles made of steel, a steel
helmet, and power transmission lines dangling overhead may
have a distorting effect on compass readings.
At a particular point, a fixed local attraction draws
the needle away from the magnetic meridian by a certain
amount. It .follows that all readings taken from that point
will have the same amount of error due to the disturbance.
However, angles calculated from bearings taken at the point;
V i n m € A * v *c *c * r o r am -
I Dig,ft— — — O U T S AHO D J R * C r iQ M $
will still be correct. The magnitude of fixed local attrac­
tion can usually be determined, and magnetic directions
observed may be corrected accordingly. In the case, how­
ever, of varying local attraction such as direct, current
fluctuations, there is no way of determining specific ef­
fects . When such a problem is encountered the'best solution
is to avoid it.
In order to detect local attraction, the forward and
back magnetic bearings of each line are read, usually at
its ends. Local attraction is present if the two observed
directions differ by more than the normal observational
errors. For instance, if a line AB has a forward bearing of
N40* 1 5 E .• and its back bearing is S42*15'W, the discrepancy
of 2 degrees is probably due to local attraction which may
be present at either A or B. Had the back bearing been
observed instead as S40*15'W, it could be concluded that no
local attraction probably exists.
Fig. 27-2. Uagnttic. dip.

27-5. MAGNETIC DIP.

The magnetic dip is a characteristic phenomenon of the com­

pass needle to be attracted downward from the horizontal
plane due to the earth's magnetic lines of force. If viewed
in a horizontal projection, the lines of force defines the
magnetic meridian. In elevation, these lines are inclined
downward toward the north in the northern hemisphere and
also downward toward the south in the southern hemisphere
(Fig. 27-2). The lines are only horizontal at points about
halfway between the magnetic poles such as at and near the
equator. From the halfway point toward the poles, magnetic
lines of force become increasingly steep, and at the poles
they are practically vertical.
To counteract the effect of dip so that the needle will
 take a horizontal position a n d be able to move freely about
its pivot, a counterweight should be attached to one end.
In the^northern hemisphere, the south end of the needle is
weighted. The opposite is done in the southern hemisphere..
The counterweight usually consists of a short piece of fine
brass wire which is wound around the needle and held in
place. Sometimes, a small clip of nonmagnetic metal is
fastened to the end of the needle.
If a particular compass is used in the same general
vicinity and loses none of its magnetism, the position of
the counterweight? does not have to be changed. However, if
the compass is used in other more distant latitudes, the
weight may have to be shifted accordingly in order that the
needle will remain horizontal. The position of the coil is
usually adjusted to conform to the latitude in which the
compass is used.

27-6. COMPASS SURVEYS.

The method of compass surveying is one of the most basic

and widely practiced methods of determining the relative
location of points where a high degree of precision is not
required. Such surveys, which employ a magnetic compass,
are performed by traversing.
To enable the student to better understand compass
surveys, the following commonly used terms are defined.

1. Traverse. A traverse is a series of lines connecting

successive points whose lengths and directions have been
dete rmined from field measurements.
2. Traversing; The process of measuring the lengths and
directions of the lines of a traverse for the purpose of
locating the position of certain points.
3. Traverse Station. Any temporary or permanent point
Of reference over which the instrument is set up. It is
usually marked by a peg or a hub driven flush with the
ground and identified by consecutive letters or numbers as
the survey progresses. Traverse stations are sometimes
called angl,e points because an angle is usually measured at
such stations.
4. Traverse Lines. Are lines connecting traverse sta­
tions and whose lengths and directions are determined.

The field work involved in most compass surveys is ge­

nerally divided into two basic operations, the measurement
of angles at traverse stations and the measurement of
lengths of traverse lines. Angular relationships between
traverse lines are usually established by deflection
angles, angles to the right, interior angles, and by bear­
ings or azimuths. The angles measured at traverse stations
provide an expression of the difference in the directions
of the traverse lines. Sometimes it is important to deter-
X r\ n M C A S U R F * tfN T O F M -
c/ys&mut.isBpmn s i r s ,ovr» omecrton.t •
mine and record the magnetic declination at the time and
place of the survey. To clarify the record, a definite
statement should be indicated in the field notes such aS
"All observed bearings are magnetic and read to the nearest
05 minutes. The magnetic declination in August, 1986 was
13°50' East."
Different methods^ are used in determining the length of
traverse lines. The method selected usually depends on the
precision required and on the type of instrument used. If
high precision is desired and long lines are involved,
electronic distance measuring devices are employed. For
ordinary surveying, taping is commonly adapted. Pacing is
acceptable if only approximate results are required such as
in most agricultural, geological, and forestry surveys.
The advantages of a compass survey are: (a) the instru­
ment used is simple, and is more portable and less ex­
pensive than a transit or theodolite, (b) if speed is re­
quired, the bearings of all the lines in a traverse may be
determined by occupying only every other station, (c) the
direction of a line can be observed at any point along the
line, (d) an error in the. observed bearing of one line has
no effect in the observed directions of other lines, (e)
survey work is much quicker because the compass does not
require an elaborate procedure of setting up and leveling
at each station, and ff) obstacles such as trees and shrubs
can be passed readily by offsetting the compass a short
distance from the line to be observed.

27-7. TYPES OF COMPASS SURVEYS.

In compass surveys, there are two basic types of traverses:
open and closed.
1. Open Compass Traverse. An open compass traverse con­
sists of a series of lines of known lengths and magnetic
bearings which are continuous but do hot return to the
starting .point or close upon a point of known position.
Such a traverse is usually run for preliminary or explora­
tory purposes as in route surveys.
An open traverse is generally avoided since they offer
no way of checking the field measurements for errors and
mistakes. Also, there are no arithmetic checks available
since the-, figure formed by the surveyed lines do not close;
the angles cannot be summed up to known geometrical condi­
tions. For these reasons, it is important to exercise extra
care when making the required angular and linear measure­
ments. .To detect local attraction, both forward and back
bearings should-be taken on all lines. The length of each
line should be measured twice and the mean recorded as its
length.* Where possible", the terminal points of an open
traverse should be tied to nearby monuments or bench marks.
2. Closed Compass Traverse. A closed compass traverse
cpnsists of a series of lines of known lengths and magnetic
 bearings which forms a closed loop, or begin and end at
points whose positions have been fixed by other surveys of
higher precision. '
Since a closed traverse provides checks on the measured
angles and distances, they are used extensively in cons­
truction surveys, establishment of control for triangula­
tion work, as well as in property and topographic surveys.
It is customary to begin at some convenient corner when
making a survey enclosing an area, and to take bearings and
measure distances in a particular order (clockwise or coun­
terclockwise )f around the field. An excellent advantage of a
closed .traverse over an open traverse is the available
check on angular measurements. The sum of the interior
angles of a closed traverse is exactly ,equal to (n-2)180°,
where n is the number of sides of the traverse.*

27-8. ADJUSTMENT OP AN OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE.

In a compass traverse there are likely to be discrepancies

between the observed forward and back bearings of lines.
These may be due to errors of observations or local at­
traction. Angular observations made for a particular tra­
verse must be thoroughly examined to determine the best
method of eliminating the discrepancies without having to
make very large adjustments or alterations.
When adjusting an open compass traverse there are two
important steps to perform: the first is to determine which
among the traverse lines is free from local attraction, and
the second step is to perform the adjustment of successive
lines by starting from either end of the selected line. The
unaffected line is referred to as the "best line" and it is
assumed that there is no local attraction anywhere on this
.line. Also, forward and back bearings taken at either end
of the line are accepted as correct.
An important principle to remember is that at any sta­
tion the angle between the forward and back lines can be
computed from the observed 'bearings taken from the station
regardless of whether or not the needle is affected. The
value of the desired angle can easily be determined by
simple analysis or inspection if an isolated sketch is made
of the particular traverse station where the forward and
back lines are correspondingly indicated. No specific for­
mulas or rule§ are required for determining these angles.
If two or more non-adjoining lines appear to be free
from local attraction, only one of these lines is arbitra­
rily chosen as the best line and adjustment of succeeding
lines originate from it. When adjoining.1 ines are similarly
unaffected, adjustment may be started at any line free from
local attraction. However, if hone of the lines in the
traverse appears to be unaffected by local attraction, the
line with the least discrepancy between the forward and
back bearings is chosen and its forward bearing is assumed
to be correct. To explain the process of adjusting an open

VrASUHfMCNT or am -
vV^Ttiwi — iii-mmm otts a n d o m c c n o M t
compass traverse the following example is given.
For a particular open compass traverse the following
are the observations made on each line: AB, Fwd Brg = S40e
E, Back Brg = N41°W; BC, Fwd Brg = N68° E, Back Brg = S68° V;'
CD, Fwd Brg = N35°E, Back Brg = S37°W; and DE, Fwd Brg ■
S43°E, Back Brg = N42° W.
F i g . 27-3. Adjusting an open compaaA VuvjeJi-hl.

Since the forward and back bearings of BC are in agree­

ment, it ' is assumed that stations B and C are both free
from local attraction and BC is considered as the "best
line." Hence the correct forward bearing of CD is N35*E and
the correct back bearing of AB is N41° W. The angle at D,
computed from the observed bearings of lines DC and DE *is
37°+ 43°= 80° ; and this value of the angle is Correct re­
gardless of local attraction. Therefore the adjusted for­
ward bearing of DE is 80° - 35°or S45°E. It will be noted in
this method of adjustment that the whole traverse is refer­
red to the magnetic meridian at the line first chosen (BC)
as free from local attraction.

27-9. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM.

ADJUSTMENT OFANOPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE. G i v e n in th e tabu­
la tio n b e lo w are the o b serve d fo rw a rd and back b e a rin g s of an open com ­
pass tra ve rse . P lo t the tra ve rse and a d ju s t the fo rw a rd and back b e a r­
in g s of each course. T a b u la te an sw e rs and show a c c o m p a n y in g c o m p u ta tio n s

OBSERVED BEARINGS
LINE LENGTH
FORWARD BACK
AB 400.63 m N 25*45' E S 25*40' W
BC 450. 22 S 20*30' E N 20*25' W
CD 500. 89 S 35*30’ W N 35*30' E
DE 640.46 S 75*30' E N 75*25' W
EF 545 41 N 58*50' E S 58* 15' W
FG 700. 05 N 22*05' E S 21*55' W

xtsrwswxrxu — ,.,,,.-305,
Sol
uti
on. (Thesol
uti
ontorth
isproble
misbe
std
ete
rmi
nedb
yis
ola
tin
g
andan
aly
zingeachsta
tio
no fth
et ra
ver
se)
.
I. A d ju stm e n t of lin e D E I

a) Iso latin g statio n D and solving fo r Ojj .

Ug. 21-4:
1
‘ 0 G iv e n :

<J\ ^dc 8

f t . *
N 3 5 * 3 0 'E
S 7 5 ° 30' E
(o bserved bearing of DC)

(observed bearing of DE)

v., D/ V d
« ?
C (oCdc-ih °^de'
180° -
^d 3
S
1 8 0 - ( 3 5 ° 3 ' 0 .4 7 5 ° 3 0 ’ )
^ e \ a . 69°00' ( c o r re c t value of the Included
^E angle at sta tio n D, reg ard less
S of local a tt r a c t io n )
b) Solving for the adjusted bearing of lines DE and ED
Given: "... f4 c
N 35°30' E (correct bearing of < c/
DC, the b e s t line)

% = 69°00' o/ f d
w <— —j ----- E
°^de 3 180° - O d) < .
- 180° - ( 3 5 ° 3 0 + 6 9 0 0 )
s 7 5 ° 3 0 or
3 S 75 30 E (adjusted bearing
of DE) <5
Also} < d 3 N 7 5 ° 3 0 'W ( a d ju s te d bearing 27-5.
of ED which Is opposite the adjus-
ted bearing of D E )
2. A d ju stm e n t of line E F :

a) Isolating station E and solving for 0-d ,

Fig. 27-6.

N 7 5 ° 2 5 'W (observed bearing of ED)

N 5 8 ° 5 0 'E (observed bearing of EF)I

^ed + ^ef
75°25' + 58*50
I 3 4 ° 15* (correct value of the Inoluded
angle at s tatio n E, regardless
of local a t t r a c t io n )

b) Solving for the adjusted bearing of IInes EF and FE

305-, M
HfAstAmt
'W* o l a s
mcMrNfnrrtnah
ns
-
 G iv e n :

flC^d e N 7 5 ° 3 0 'W (adjusted bearing of ED)

* 134°I5* D
oC9 f * -9;, - cC'0(i • 13 4 ° 15 ' - 7 5 ° 3 0 *
3 58°45' or
* N 58°45' E (adjusted boaring of EF)

A ls o } 0Cf9* S 5 8 ° 4 5 ' W (adjusted bearing

of P E , which Is opposite the a d ju s ­
ted bearing of E F ) F ig . 27-7.

3. A d ju s tm e n t of lin e FG!

a) Is o la t in g .s t a t io n F an < | s o lv in g fo r !

Given:
? ffg /

/f —E ° C f9

aC. j + t - iou t a^fg - cc,f9

fe
3 180% 22°05'-58°I5'
* 143 50 (c o rre c t value of the Included
angle at sta tio n F ,re g a rd le s s
Fig. 27-8. of local a t t r a c t io n )

b) Solving for the adjusted bearing of lines FG and GF!

Given: N

oCf'e 3 S 5 8 °4 5 , W (a d ju ste d bearing of F E )

6 -f 3 I4 3 ° 5 0 '

o C \Q ». /oCfe + -0-f - 1 8 0 °
3 5 8 °4 5 ' + I4 3 ° 5 0 '- 180°
= 2 2 °3 5 l or
° N 2 2 °3 5 'E (ad ju sted bearing of FG)
Also; cClf* S22°35'W (a d ju s te d bearing of
G F which Is opposite th e ad ju ste d
bearing of F G ) Fig. 27-9.

4. Adjustment of line BC!

a) Isolating station C and solving for -e-e :

Given:
0Cc(j = S 3 5 * 3 0 'W (observe'*, b earin g of CD)

oCcb - N 2 0 ° 2 5 'W (observed b e a rin g of CB)

80 (oCcb + oC^
l i t ). 27-10.
\
3Q7,
 - 180*-(20*25* + 35*30')
* 124*05* (correct value of. th e Included
angle o f station C ,regardless
o f local a ttr a c tio n )
b) Solving for the adjusted bearing of lines CB and BC
Given:
cC' = S 3 5 *3 0 * W (correct W r in g of CD,
the best line)

e c = 124*05*
<c'cb = ?80*-(^c + c O
= 180*- (124*05* + 35*30*)
= 20*25* or
* N 2 0 *2 5 * W (adjusted bearing of CB)
Also cCL = S20*25*E (adjusted bearing
of BC which Is opposite the od-
lusted bearing ot.CB)
% \
5. Adjustment of line ABI
a) Isolating station B and solving for O. :
N
Given:
oC^ S 25*40*W (observed bearing of BA)
oCb = S20*30* E (ob served bearing of 8 * 0
►b = cCba + oCbe = 2 5 4 0 + 2 0 3 0
3 4 6 * 10* (correct value o f the Included
angle at sta tio n B , reg a rd le ss
of lo ca l a ttra ctio n )

b) Solving for the adjusted bearing of lines BA and AB.

I
Given:
cC ^ = S 2 0 * 2 5 * E (adjusted bearing of BC)
e b = 4 6 *1 0 *

cc'bc * e b - <cU= 469101 ■ 20*25*

= 25*45* or
3 S 2 5 *4 5 * W (adjusted bearing of BA)
Also ; oCbb= N 2 5 * 4 5 * E (adjusted bearing of
AB which is opposite the adjusted
bearing of BA)

6. Tabulation of adjusted traverse data: F ig. 1713.

ADJUSTED BEARINGS
LINE LENGTH
FORWARD BACK
AB 4 0 0 . 6 3 an N 25*45*E S 25*45* W
BC 4 5 0 .2 2 S 2 0*25‘E N 20*25* W
CD 5 0 0 .8 9 S 35*30* W N 35* 30* E
DE 640. 46 S 7 5*30*E N 7^*30* W
EF 5 4 5 .4 1 N58* 45*E S 5 8 *45* W
FG 7 0 0 .0 5 N 22*35* E S 22*35* W

503..
MEASUREMENT
OF ANGLES AND
DIRECTIONS
28-1. ADJUSTMENT Of A CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE
28-2. PRECISION OF COMPASS READINGS
28-3. SOURCES OF ERROR IN COMPASS WORK
1. Bent Needle
2. Bent Pivot
3. Sluggish Needle.
4. Plane o£ Sight Not Vertical.
5. Electrically Changed Coapa&& Box
6. Local Attraction
7. Magnetic Variation*
8. Eum in ReadingTke Needle
28-4. MISTAKES IN COMPASS WORK
28-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROSIEM
1. Adjustment 0£ A Closed C o m p a q Traverse '

Lesson 28
«rarsLT,ac-
 2 8 -1 . ADJUSTMENT QP A CLOSED COMPASS TRA V ERSE.

adjustment of a closed compass traverse is similar to

the adjustment of an open compass traverse except that in a
closed traverse the effects of observational errors are
considered. The following are the three important steps
performed during the adjustment: (a) computing and adjust­
ing the interior angles, (b) selecting the best line or the
line in the traverse which is unaffected by local attractr-
ion, and*(c) adjusting the observed bearings of successive
lines. It will be noted that the last two steps are simi­
larly done in the adjustment of an open compass traverse.
Each interior angle is computed from the observed bear­
ings of the back line and the forward line at each traverse
station. These computed angles, which are taken to be inde­
pendent of local attraction, are determined conveniently by
simply drawing an isolated sketch of each station. The com­
puted interior angles, when summed up, should be equal to
(n-2)180°, in which n is the number of sides or interior
angles in the traverse. However, there will always be some
amount of inconsistency due to errors of observation or the
effects of local attraction. Any discrepancy between these
two quantities is the error of closure. If the error in the
sum of the interior angles is quite large, it is possible
that a mistake in reading the compass was committed, and it
is advisable to recheck the field measurements or possibly
repeat i t . ; . r‘
When adjusting the interior angles, the correction to
be applied to each angle must first be ascertained. The
correction is determined by dividing the total error of
closure by the number of interior angles in the traverse.
Since it is assumed that the error of observing bearings is
accidental, the error of closure is distributed equally and
the interior angles are corrected accordingly. If the sum
of the computed angles is less than (n-2)180<>, the correct­
ion is added to each interior angle to determine the ad­
justed angle at each station. However, if the same sum is
greater than (n-2)180°, the correction is correspondingly
subtracted from each computed interior angle. When the
error cannot be divided equally among the angles, an arbit­
rary method of adjustment should be applied. Usually, this
is dorte 6y apportioning a larger correction to angles for
which the conditions prevailing during the observation were
noted to be least favorable. After the required corrections
are applied, the sum of the adjusted interior‘angles should
then be equal to (n-2)180°; if not, an error has probably
been committed in the computations.
After the interior angles have already been adjusted,
the forward and back bearings of each line in the traverse
are also corrected. Just as in the adjustment of an open
compass traverse, the observed bearings are adjusted by
starting from- the "best line" or a line whose observed
forward and back bearings are assumed to be correct. Since

,3 1 0 .
 both, ends of the best line are assumed to. Be free frpra
local attraction, any other observation made from these
ends are also assumed to be correct. Also, the adjustment
of bearings of successive lines is made around the traverse
starting from either end of the best line. Adjusted forward
and back bearings are computed with reference to adjusted
interior angles. •
To check the adjustments made, the forward bearing ot
the best line is also computed from the corrected bearings
and adjusted interior angles. It will be safe to assume
that a traverse has been adjusted accordingly if the same
forward bearing, is determined.
Fig. 26-1. Sample. {ieXA note* ioK a closed compact, tuaveme..

kept in a form s i m i l a r t o t h a t shown in F i g u r e 2 8 -1 . The

p o r tr a y e d data is s im p ly a re c o rd of the d i f f e r e n t o b se rva ­
t i o n s made. A l l " p e r t i n e n t data are e n tered l i n e by l i n e in
d iffe re n t columns g i v i n g the l i n e d e s c r i p t i o n , le n g t h of
the l i n e , and the observed forward arid back b e a r in g s . It
a ls o in c lu d e s a t a b u l a t i o n of computed i n t e r i o r a n g le s ,
c o rre c tio n s a p p lie d , the a d ju s te d i n t e r i o r a n g le s , and the
a d ju s t e d b e a r in g s .

28-2. PRECISION OP COMPASS READINGS.

It mu:;t tlrst of all be clearly understood that the compass

A N * u m t t tH*N% .311,
 is not; >sr\ /Instrument of precision.. Whence ing a magnetic
co'topass,’ ptretii^e work should not be attemptsd nor expected.
Uhe compass' is not recpnunended fpr laying out directions
..(With the type of precision required in most" modern engi-
^heering constructions. A magnetic compass is designed to be
used bnl> for ordinary surveys requiting tow accuracy and
precision.. In an earlier lesson, it was explained that the
compass is well suited for preliminary and reconnaissance
surveys suc,h as those required for highways, transmission
lines, railways; canals, and other similar purposes. It is
• led; ideal for exploratory surveys required i"n geologic and
forestry work. ‘ ♦ .
The circle on larger compasses are usually graduated to
hhlf-degre.es, Estimating the position of the needle to
about one-third of the one-half degree graduation (or 10
, min.) is usually possible. On some compasses, bearings could
be fead to within 15 minutes of correct values, however, a
much lower accuracy is obtainable on«small pocket compasses
'which could be read only to about one or two degrees.
An accurate quantitative statement regarding the accu­
racy of compass surveys could not be made because of the
varying conditions affecting this type of Work. It would be
s„afe> however, to state that the error of Closure attain­
able in most compass surveys will fall within 1/500 to
1/1000.' Such accuracy is suitable for the various types of
surveys mentioned earlier.

28-3. SOURCES OP ERROR IN COMPASS WORK..

There are various sources of errors and mistakes related to

the use of a. magnetic compass. Some of these are listed as
follows:
»
1. Bent Needle. When a magnetic compass with a be
needle is used,^ all observed bearings will have a constant
* error . Either end of the needle will read higher or lower
than, the correct value. To eliminate the error during* an
observation, both ends of the needle are read and the two
angular values determined should be averaged. Pliefs may be
used to straightened a bent needle.
'2. Bent Pivot. A variable systematic error is intro­
duced when a magnetic compass has a bent pivot. The magni­
tude of.the error will depend upon the direction in which
the sight is made. The error can be eliminated by reading
both ends of the needle and averaging the two values obser­
ved. A bent pivot* may be straightened by ha net or a .-pair of
pliers. When straightened out correctly the'ends of the
needle should givp readings exadtly 180 degrees apart for
any direction of pointing. * r
3. Sluggish Needle. When the magnetism of the needle is
weak it tends to lag and move in -a sluggish manner. This
lag produces a random error since the needle is not . likely
to come to rest exactly on the magnetic meridian. A weak
0
needle may be remagnetized by d ra w in g i t s ends over a bar
magnet .from the center to the ends of the magnet. The
north-seeking end of the compass needle is drawn over the
south-seeking half of the bar magnet, . and vice-versa? It
must be seen to it that the needle is lifted well above the
magnet on each return stroke during remagnetizing. Also,
tapping the glass lightly as the needle comes nearly to
rest, prevents the needle from sticking to the pivot. If
the pivot is blunt, it may be sharpened by a small file, a
piece of sandpaper, or by rubbing it on a fine-grained
oilstone.
4. Plane of S i g h t Not V e r t i c a l . When observing the di­
rection of a line, the line-of sight may be steeply in­
clined if the sight vanes are bent. The correct alignment
of the vanes may be tested by aligning it with a plumb line
when tbe compass is leveled.
5. E l e c t r i c a l l y Charged Compass Box. The glass cover of
the compass box becomes slightly charged with electricity
when its surface is rubbed. It attracts the magnetic needle
and causes it to stick. Touching the glass cover with a
moistened finger will remove static electricity.
6. L o c a l A t t r a c t i o n . The correct pointing of the magne­
tic needle toward magnetic north is usually affected by
different forms of local attraction such as power transmis­
sion lines, items made of iron or steel, underground ore
deposits, and etc. Compass directions should always be
observed at both ends of any line to detect local attract­
ion and to be able to make the necessary corrections or
adjustments.
7. M agnetic V a r i a t i o n s . Systematic errors in compass
surveys are caused by daily, annual, secular, or irregular
variation in magnetic declination. Such variations are the
sources of the largest and most significant errors in com­
pass work. Since most types of variations in magnetic de­
clination can be detected it is possible to apply correct­
ions and perform adjustments on observed magnetic direct­
ions. , ,' . .
8. E r r o r s i n Reading The N e e d le i Usually the source of
most accidental errors in compass work is due to the inabi­
lity of the observer to determine exactly the point on the
graduated circle where the needle comes to rest. Before any
reading is taken it is important that the compass needle
should be level. The observer should look down and along
the direction of the needle and not obli.quely since this
causes parallax and results in an incorrect reading.

2 8 -4 . MISTAKES IN COMPASS WORK.

Some of the typical mistakes committed in compass 'work

include the following:

a) Beading the wrong end of. the magnetic needle.

b) Falling to observe the reverse bearings or azimuths

VAAlUtCMCftr Of AN II X
At i t AN It P f N t c r n i N t — I mwmmm J » wn
of lines in the traverse.
c) Hot releasing the needle completely and not allowing
it to swing freely about the pivot. *
d) Misreading the quadrant letters when taking a bear­
ing near the cardinal points of the compass. For example, a
bearing of M15°25,W, is misread as N15° 2 5 'E , or a bearing
of S76°15'E is misread as N76°15'E.
e) Bearing letters are not changed when using the re­
versed bearing of a line.
£) Setting off the magnetic declination on the wrong
side of north.
g) Failing to adjust the observed traverse angles prior
to calculating bearings or azimuths of traverse lines.
h) Mixing or interchanging the/recording of azimuths
from north and south, magnetic and true bearings, clockwise
and counterclockwise angles, of forward and back bearings.
i) Selecting a line for referencing arbitrary direct­
ions which may be difficult to locate later.
28-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM.
/. AD JU STM ENT OF A CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE, The fo llow ­
ing are observed bearings of a closed compass tra ve rse . Compute the inter
ior angles and co rrect them for observational erro rs, Assuming the observed
bedring of line AB {"best line"} to be correct, adjust the bearings of the rem ain­
ing sid e s. 1
OBSERVED BEARINGS
LINE LENGTH
FORWARD BACK
AB 4 6 .5 0 m S 30°40'W N 30*40' E
BC 75.15 S 83*50' E N 84 °3 0 ' W
CD .1 17.35 N 02*00' W S 02* I 5' E
DE 7 4 .9 2 S 89*301W DUE EAST
EA 60.25 S 2 8°50‘ E N 28*00' W

f i g , 2t-7., P lot ol the. eloped txaveAte txued on ob-&e*ved data.

26*60'

3Cf4<
S
olu
tio
n:
I; Solving for the Interior ang les:
a) At station A
Fig. 28-3.

*«e. N 2 8 °0 0 'W (observed bearing of AC)

^ab S 30° 40'W (observed bearing of AB)

&a 180 + ^P'ae'^’ ®Oab

1 8 0 % 2 8 °0 0 ' + 3 0 °4 0 ' .
238 40 (In terio r angle at A)

Fig. 28-4.
b) At station B !

N S O ^ O 'E (observed bearing of BA)

^bc" 8 83 5 0 'E (observed bearing of BC)

= 1 8 0 ° - (cCba + oCbo)
= 1 8 0 °- ( 3 0 °4 0 ' + 8 3 °5 0 ' )
= 65 30. (Interior angle at B)

c) At station C'.
Fig. 28-5.
N

= N 8 4 °3 0 W (observed bearing of CB}

°Cc<\ a N 0 2 °0 0 'W (observed bearing of CO)

* cCcb- 0Ccd
= 84° 30' - 0 2 °0 0 ‘
a 82 30 (In te rio r angle at C)

Fig. 28-6.

d) At station D!

oCdc=
°^ 4C S S 0 2 °° 1S
I5 , E (observed bearing of DC)

°^d#e
'de S 8 9 °3 0 'W (observed bearing of OE)

e d s ^dc + <^de
s O a ^ lS '+ 8 9 °3 0 ‘
* 91 45* (Interior angle at D)

xrtnssvuTrX.
 e) At station EI
Fig. ti-7.

cC , = Due E a s t (observed bearing of EO)

90 v.
cCM°. S 28*50'E {observed bearing of EA)

= 180 ° - l c C nd flCea)
3 180° - (90°0bI + 28° 50')
“ 61° 10* (Interior angle at E)

2. Adjusting the interior a n g le s;

a) Suma = -Oa + Ob + 0>c + -Od + 0-e

= 238°40'+ 65*30* + 82°30' 491*45* + 6!*I0'
3 539° 35* (sum of Interior angles)
The sum of the interior angles of a polygon of 5 sides should equal to:
Sumb 3 (n - 2) 180 where: n is the number of sides
c ( 5 - 2 ) 180°
3 540*
e * Sumb - S u m a
3 540° - 539*35’
* • 25 (error of closure)
COHR 3 e /n 3 25*/5 3 05* {correction per interior angle)
Since Suma is less than Sumb ,th e correction is added to each interior
angle to determine the adjusted interior angle at each station,therefore:
s
®a 4 corr & 238*40' 05* 3 238°45'
<
s • 65*30' 4 05’ 3 65*35'
% + corr
3

= X 82*30' 4 05* 3
«c f corr 82*35'
3 ^d 4 corr 3 9 1*4:5' 4 05r 3 91*50*
3-
^ e + corr 3 61*10' + 05' = 61*15'
« Sum = 540*00'
3. Solving for the a d j u s t e d b e a r in g s:
a) Adjustment of lines BC and CB (Note: The adjustcnenf is sta rte d
from eith er end o f the b e st line).

3 6 5 *3 5 * (adjusted int. angle at B)

oCl 3 N 3 0 ° 4 0 ' E (correct bearing of BA,

ba the best line)

oC‘
bc- i80*-(cCU+^b)
flC ie * 180 # - ( < a + <*>;>
* 180° - (3 0 ° 4 0 ' + 6 5 ° 3 5 r)
* 8 3 ° 4 5 ' or
* S 83 4 5 E (adjusted bearing of BC) W

A ls o ; <Clc b ■ N 8 3 ° 4 5 * W (adjusted bearing of CB whloh Is o p p o site the

i ad ju sted bearing of BC )

b) A d ju stm e n t o f lin e s CD a n d D C !
Fig. U - 9 . :
N • . !

V c « 8 2 ° 35' (adjusted fnt. angle a t .C)

oC'CD * N 8 3 * 4 5 'W (adjusted bearing of CB)

oC\m
cd aC\
cb ■*-O*
c
» 8 3 *45* - 8 2 *3 5 '
* 0 1 ° I O' o r
=» N O I * I O 'W (adjusted bearing of#CD)

adjusted bearing of CD)

c) Adjustment of lines DE and ED!

Tig. U- 10.

A is o ; cC* * S 8 9 W2 0 ' E (adjusted bearing of ED which is opposite the ad­

justed bearing of DE) '

d) Adjustment of tines EA and A E !

Ow * 61*15' (adjusted (nt.angle at E)

tf^ed * S S ^ Z O 'E (adjusted bearing of ED)

9i r\
untuiNr or
o m tc n o N %
* "X| 7.
-1i 11-- ’1 u
4. Solution Check: The forward bearing of the best iine.AB is computed from
the adjusted bearing of AE and the adjusted interior angle at station A.
If the same forward and back bearings are determined, the adjustment of
the traverse was done correctly.
fig . 28-12.

cC,ae « N28°05'W (adjusted bearing of AE)

i■
e-1a « 238°45' (adjusted Int. angle at A)

e cab
k * (1 8 0 ° + < , )
= 238°45' - (180° + 28°05')
* 30°40' or
* S 3 0 ° 40* W (adjusted bearing of AB)

Alsoj aC'ba * N30°40‘E (adjusted bearing of BA which is opposite the ad -

Justed bearing of AB)
Since the computed bearing of lines AB and BA are the sarob as the gi-
yen bearings of the best Hne,the preceding computations are all assumed
to be correct.
5. Tabulation of adjusted traverse data:
—
COM PUTED Ad j u s t e d ADJUSTED BEARINGS*
3 ta INTERIOR CORR interior LINE
ANGLES ANGLES FORWARD BACK
A 238° 40* + 05' 238*45' AB S 30*40* W N 30*40' E
B 65° 3 O1 + 05' 65*35' BC ‘S 83*45' E N 83*45' W
C . 82*30' + 05 82*35' CD N 01* 1O' W S 01*10* E
D 91*45' 4 05' 91*50' DE N 89* 20' W S 89*20' E
E 61* 10' 4 05' 61* 15' EA S 2 8°05' E N 28*05' W
SUMS 539* 35' 4 25' 540*00'

X I Q M C A S O f ic M E N T O F AM -
ni?1 ^11— enw—Wi§nn aw PfrccrtoNs
 THE ENGINEER’S
T R A N S IT
AND THEODOLITE
P a r t VI: L esson Nos. 29 T h ru 33

i
THE E N G IN E E R ’S
T R A N S IT A N D
TH E O D O LITE

*9-1. THE ENGINEER'S TRANSIT

*9-f. MAIN PARTSOF THE TRANSIT
I, Uppex Plate
a) TtlCSCOpe gf Optical Plummet
b) Standards k) Telescope Clamp
c) Compass Box i) Telescope Tangent Scxew
d) flats Level fiats j! UppeA Clamp
e l Vextical CiAc.lt fej Uppex Tangent Scxew
|| flats. Vexniexs
i. Lome* flats
a) Louta Clamp
b) Louts Tangent Scxew
3. Leveling Htad Assembly
а) leveling Sextus
б) Plumb Bob Chain
*9-3. SETTING UP THE TRANSIT
1. Positioning the Txipod
t. Mounting the Transit
3. Attaching the flumb Bob
4. final Centexing
*9-4. LEVELING THE TRANSIT
*9-5. CARE OF THE TRANSIT

Lesson 29
rm mametm's r*m~ Ml— I—
n r amd rmoDourt
2 9 -1 . THE E N G IN E E R 'S T R A N S IT .

The invention of the first transit has been credited to

Roemer, a Danish astronomer, who in 1690 ujsed the instru­
ment to .observe the passage (transit) of stars across the
celestial meridian. A similar instrument was used in sur­
veying work about a century later. The instrument then con­
sisted of a telescope mounted on a horizontal axis which
was supported by vertical uprights, and could be moved
around graduated circles. It was' only in 1830 when the ins­
trument became known as the engineer's transit.

tig . 29-1. The. engineer'.* tu u u it.

Telesco p *
Focusing ,Scr«w

Eye p ie ce

Standards Telescope
Tangent Srcew
Compass Box
Plate Level Tube

B. Vernier
A V ern ier
Optical Plummet

Upper Clamp
Lower Tangent Screw

Upper Tangent Screw

m. Leveling Screw
Fo.ot Plate

In principle, the engineer's transit (Fig. 29-1) is

essentially a telescope and two large protractors. One of
the protractors is mounted in a horizontal plane and the
other in a vertical plane. It is so designed to measure- the
angle of rotation of the telescope about its horizontal and
vertical axes. The transit is basically a repeating instru-
 F ig. t 9 - t . V utfax FG-18 tu u i& it. f i g . t9 - 3 . Tppcon AG-20? t u u u i t .

merit since it can measure angles by repetition for any

number of times and their total added on the graduated
circles.
There are other modern types of transit (Fig. 29-2 and
29-3) which differ considerably in design and construction
from the earlier conventional models, but their essential
features, basic principles of operation, and methods of use
are mostly similar and do not differ greatly. As an instru­
ment of precision the transit is used principally to mea­
sure and lay off horizontal and vertical angles and in
prolonging straight lines. It is also commonly employed for
a wide variety of tasks such as determining differences in
elevation, taking magnetic bearings and azimuths, for mea­
suring distances, and to stake out lines, curves, angles
and grades. It will be noted that these operations men­
tioned comprise almost the entire range of surveying work.
By reason of the wide variety of uses for which the transit
is adapted, it is usually referred to as the "universal
surveying instrument."

29-2. MAIN PARTS OF THE TRANSIT.

The transit consists of three main parts: the upper plate

'It* t/it/N tl/l'S 1*AN
s ir and rut t'oou r t ,323
or a l i d a d e , the lower p l a t e , and the l e v e l i n g head assembly
(F ig . 2 9 -4 ). / >

1. Upper Plate. The upper plate, which is also called

the alidade, consists of the entire top of the transit. As*
a unit, the, entire assembly rotates about a vertical axis.
The alidade coritains the standards which support the teles­
cope and level tube, the vertical circle and its vernier,
the compass box, the circular cover plate and plate level­
ing Vials, the upper clamp, tangent screw, and the needle
lifter .
••
i . \
a) Telescope. The transit telescope is an optical
type and is similar to that of a dumpy level. It is used
for fixing the direction of the line of sight, viewing the
objects, and magnifying their apparent size in the field of
view. The telescope contains the objective lens, cross hair
ring, eyepiece, and focusing screw. A sensitive level vial
is attached to the telescope tube to indicate whether or
not the line of sight is horizontal.
The telescope can be rotated or reversed about its
horizontal axis and may be fixed in any position in a
vertical plane.- Any rotation in a vertical plane is called
transiting. It is. from this feature that the transit
derives its name. The telescope is described to be in the
normal or direct position when the level vial is below it.
When the telescope is rotated on its horizontal axis, and
the telescope level vial is above, the telescope is said to
be in a reversed, plunged, or inverted position.
Telescopes of modern transits are usually of the inter­
nal focusing type and employ an erecting eyepiece. Its mag­
nifying power may range from 20 to 28 diameters, The cross
hair ring, which is focused by rotating the eyepiece,-
include vertical ' and horizontal hairs as well as stadia
hairs. These hairs are used in sighting points, determining
differences in elevation, alignment, and determining stadia
distances. When the transit is used in leveling work, any
point on the horizontal cross hair may be used in sighting;
when measuring angles or observing directions, any point on
the vertical cross hair may be used.
■b) Standards. Two vertical standards, either the A
or U type, which are mounted on trunnions, are integral
parts of the upper plate. The standards are used to hold
into position the horizontal axle level so that the teles­
cope can be elevated or depressed by rotating on an axis
perpendicular to the line of sight.
c) Compass Box. The transit is usually provided w
a compass for establishing the magnetic meridian and to
allow-rough checks on measured angles. It is found on the
upper plate between the standards. Most compass circles
found in transits are fixed with the north (N) and south
(S) points located in the same vertical plane as the 1vne
of slight of the telescope. In some transits, the compass
rtfam
Am< TNgootutn
 F ig . t i - 4 . Haiti pcuit6 o{ ik e engines* ’ a t u u t U i.

U PPER P L A T E

.Telescope

Vertical Circle Telescope Level Tube

Standards
Telescope Tangent Screw

Plate A Vernier

nner Spindle

Horizontal Scale
LOW ER P L A T E

Lower Tangent — Lower Clamp

Outer Spindle

LE V E LIN G
HEAD A SSEM B LY
Leveling Screws
Foot Plate

box is so designed that the compass circle may be rotated

with fespect to the upper pla.te. This allows true bearings
to be measured since the magnetic declination can be set
off on the compass circle. The magnetic needle of the
compass can be lifted from its pivot by means of a screw
located at one end of the compass box. This is called the
needle lifter.
d) Plate Level Vials. Attached to the upper plate
are two level vials which are positioned at right angles to
each other. The plate levels are used to establish the
upper and lower plates in a horizontal plane.
e) Vertical Circle. The vertical circle is attached
to the telescope and rotates with it. It is used in measu­
ring vertical angles. Graduations on the vertical cifcle
are normally divided into 1/2-degree spaces with readings
to the nearest minute obtained from a vernier haying 30
divisions.
f ) Plate Verniers. Two opposite verniers, called the
U 4g I HArt
t i t Afin* r H i O in U i t *
 A and B verniers, are provided for the horizontal circle.
The A vernier is located adjacent to the eyepiece where it
is easily used by the instrUmentman. The B vernier is posi­
tioned 180 degrees from the A vernier.. The vernier segments
are each about <5 cm long and fit close to the graduated
circle as they rotate around it.
g ) Optical. Plummet. The optical plummet is a small
telescope through the vertical center of the transit. It is
available in some transits particularly European made ins­
truments. This*»device enables the instrument to be centered
over a given point quickly and precisely by means of an
optical system. By means of a prism the line of sight to
centering point is directed vertically downward so that
viewing is actually horizontal, facilitating ease of obser­
vation. Aside from being more accurate, optical ^entering
is. usually faster than centering with a plumb bob, espe­
cially when there is a strong side wind.
h) Te le s co p e Clamp. To hold the telescope horizontal
or at any desired inclination, the vertical circle or
telescope clamp is tightened. When this clamp is loose the
telescope can be rotated clockwise or counterclockwise in a
vertical plane. This clamp is located near the horizontal
axle of the transit.
i) Te lesco pe Tangent Screw. This is also called the
vertical circle slow-motion screw. Lt allows the telescope
to be rotated slightly or in small movements about the
horizontal axis after the telescope clamp is tightened.
This screw is particularly useful when setting the cro^s
hairs precisely on a distant point sighted.
j) Upper Clamp. The upper clamp is a locking device
which is attached to the upper plate and rotates with it.
When tightened it exerts pressure on the collar around the
outer spindle causing the upper and lower plates to lock
together. Upper clamps are usually with hexagonal heads and
turn inward toward the center of the part they stop.
k) Upper Tangent Screw. When rotated, this screw
allows a small range of movement between the upper and
lower plates even after the upper clamp is tightened. The
screw is located at the upper plate. Most tangent screws
have round heads and Usually turn in a direction tangent to
the motion they control.
1
2. Lower Plate. The lowjpr plate or horizontal circle is
the scale with which horizontal angles are measured. It is
graduated on its upper face and divided around its circum­
ference into 360 degrees. Graduations are further subdivi­
ded into smaller parts, usually half-degrees, one-third
degrees, or .quarter degrees. This plate can be held statio­
nary while the upper plate is rotated or can be rotated
independently. As one unit, it can also be rotated with the
upper plate. The underside of the lower plate is attached
to a vertical and tapering spindle called the outer
spindle.

,3 2 6 .
 a ) Lower Clamp. A lth o u g h the lower motion clamp is
a ttach ed to the horizontal circle, it does not rotate with
it. This clamp: is used to control the rotation of thp
horizontal circle. It tightens a collars around the outer
spindle and stops any motion between the levying head and
the lower plate.
b ) Lower Tangent Screw. This screw is used to make
precise settings after the lower clamp is tightened. It
moves the lower plate to a desired exact position using a
small range of movement.

3. L e v e l i n g Head Assembly;. The leveling head assembly

(Fig. 29-5), consists of a bottom horizontal foot plat**,
four leveling screws, and the plumb bob chain. It is the
lower part of the transit. The assembly allows the instru­
ment to be' leveled and centered over a point. Also included
is a device that permits the transit to be moved in small
increments laterally without moving the tripod.

Fig. ? 9 -5 . CA.c64-4Ze.tion o{ t&vzting head attembly.

a ) L e v e l i n g Screws. There are four leveling screws

that are threaded into the leveling head which bear against
the foot plate. Each screw is set into a cup to protect the
foot plate from continued scoring whenever the screws are
turned. These screws are used for leveling the instrument
by the plate levels. They are operated in pairs and ‘always
turned in opposite directions. When the screws are turned,
the instrument is tilted about a half bal 1-and-s ocke‘ t
joint. If it is desired to shift the transit laterally with
respect to the foot plate, all the four screws are loosened
to release the pressure between the sliding plate and the
foot plate.
b) Plumb Bob Chain. In most conventional transits, a
chain with a hook is suspended from the bottom part of the

4 4
r/4f tnllNlt * t
/r /vi’ r Htotuut m . 1 2 / ,
 le v e lin g head assembly and hangs between the tripod legs.
It is used for attaching a string and a plumb bob so that
the instrument may be set exactly over a selected point on
the ground. The plumb bob string always hangs vertical due
to gravity and its centerline passes through the center of
the transit when the instrument is level.

2 9 - 3 . SETTING UP THE TR A N SIT.

The transit is set up similarly to the dumpy level and most

of vjljat has been said in Art. 14-1 about setting up a le­
vel applies also to the transit. The following are the
different steps followed in setting up the transit:

1 . P o s i t i o n i n g the T r i p o d . On fairly level ground, the

tripod is set up near and over the selected point with the
legs well spread apart to insure stability. It is .also seen
to it that the tripod head is nearly level. This ,is
achieved by looking at the head against the background of
some object like a building. A close comparison will show
if the head is approximately horizontal. If not, the tripod
legs are adjusted until the tripod head is nearly horizon­
tal. It will be convenient and easier to level the transit
later if the head is already horizontally positioned. The
tripod legs are then pressed firmly into the ground to make
it stand stable, and the tripod cap is unscrewed.
When setting up the tripod on hillsides or along a
slope, one of its legs should extend uphill and two down­
hill. Each tripod leg is then moved as required-to bring
the tripod head nearly level. A rough estimate of the
height , of setup should always be made when positioning the
tripod. When the transit is later mounted on the tripod, a
preferable and convenient height is one which will enable
the instrumentman to sight through the telescope without
having to stretch or stoop.
2. Mounting the Tra n s it. Remove the transit from its
carrying case by grasping it with both hands at the level­
ing head assembly or the upright standards. With one hand,
screw the leveling head of tne transit firmly onto the tri­
pod head while holding the standards'with the other hand.
Care shoul-d be exercised in screwing the transit. It should
fit snugly and bear firmly. No force, however, should be
applied at the end of turning since this may make it. diffi­
cult to unscrew the transit after it is used, and it may
also cause some damage. If the transit is loosely fitted,
the instrument will wobble and be unstable. The objective
cap is then removed and replaced with the sunshade.
3. A t t a c h i n g the Plumb Bob. A plumb bob and string is
attached to the transit by suspending it from the hook and
Chain that hangs at the bottom of the leveling head.. To
allow the plumb bob to be raised or lowered, a sliding
loop-knot is made along the string. The plumb bob is usual­
l y lowered within about 1/2 cm above the ground point. It

328,
is then brought close to the center of the point by moving
or pressing one or two tripod legs more firmly into the
ground. - . .
4. Final Centering.' The wing nuts of the tripod must
first be tightened before the instrument is finally center­
ed over the ground point. The exact centering of the pluinb
bob over the point is made by shifting the leveling head of
the transit along the foot plate. Lateral movement of the
head can only be achieved if the leveling screws are first
loosened. When an optical plummet is used, the accuracy of
centering is ensured by rotating the plummet about . its
axis. While looking through the optical plummet, shift the
instrument until the reticle is precisely centered on the
ground point. It will be noted that during the process of
centering, the reticle of the plummet appears to move to
the fight, when the transit is shifted to the right. Also,
the reticle appears to move up when the instrument is
shift’
ed toward the observer'. Focusing of the ground point
is possible through a range of about 60 cm to infinity,
thus allowing a variety of setup heights for the transit.

29-4. LEVELING THE TRANSIT.

G
After the transit is set up over a point, the next step is
to level it carefully by means of the leveling screws. The
upper plate is turned until the plate level vials are ap­
proximately parallel to a line through two opposite level­
ing screws. Leveling is started by turning t>wo opposite
leveling screws uniformly. One screw is loosened as much as
the other is tightened. Shift to the other set of ‘leveling
screws when the bubble is nearly in the center of its tube.
Continue manipulating the screws alternately until both
level vial bubbles are centered. It is important to remem­
ber that 'the bubble will always -move in the direction of
the left thumb as the screws are grasped and turned. All
foot screws must bear evenly on the foot plate and should
never, be allowed to bind. Leveling screws will turn easily
if there is even pressure on the plates. A check must
always be made by turning.the instrument through 180 deg­
rees in azimuth. Once the leveling process is completed,
the plate bubbles will remain centered at any direction the
telescope is pointed. If either or both bubbles move, an
adjustment of the plate level vials should be made.
Most precise transits have three leveling screws and
only one plate level vial. In leveling such instruments,
centering of the plate level bubbles is first done over any
two screws and then at right angle to them by manipulating
the third screw alone. This procedure is repeated until the
Pi ate is level in all directions. ■»

29-5. CARE OF THE TRANSIT.

The engineer's transit is an expensive and delicate piece

9/f Ami i,***♦

r*s iN B t m 1* 4
NtnoottVi
 Of equipment. It should be handled with care to prevent
damage-and preserve its accuracy. A properly used and well
maintained transit will stay in good adjustment for a long
time. Certain routine checks and adjustments.can be made on
the transit,’ but major adjustments*and repairs should only
be undertaken by reliable service centers or manufacturers
for. such types of equipment. Transits which are in constant
use should be cleaned and adjusted at least once a year.
The following is a list of precautions which should be
taken in handling the transit:

1. When the transit is not in use, it should be stored

in its carrying case. If it is to be transported in a
vehicle or over long walking distances, the instrument
should be removed from its tripod and carried in its box.
2. If the instrument becomes wet or damp, dry it off
with absorbent cloth or preferably in sunlight. The object­
ive lens should not be wiped as it is easily scratched.
Clean the lens by rubbing gently with a piece of soft cloth
moistened in alcohol or with a piece of lens paper, then
finish off with a camel's hair brush.
3i Protect the instrument at all times from any shock
or sudden jolt. Never allow the instrument to fall or be
dropped.because very serious damage will surely result.
4. Hold the transit in the arms with the tripod stick­
ing out to the side or behind and not on the shoulder when
carrying it inside a building or when there is danger of
striking the instrument against a tree and other obstruct­
ions.
5. The transit should be lifted from the carrying case
by grasping the standards and not by the telescope.
6. When the transit is set up, the tripod legs should
be spread well apart so that it is stable. To minimize the
danger of damage from overturning, the tripod shoes should
be sunk firmly in the ground. It should never be left un­
attended because it may be upset by passing vehicles, stray
animals, playing children, wind, or it may be stolen.
7. Since tripod legs easily slip on smooth and hard
surfaces, avoid setting up the transit on concrete slabs,
boulders, and steel plates. In soft ground, the pointed
shoes of the. tripod should be pressed deeply enough so that
the tripod will not settle while standing.
8. Graduated circles and verniers should not, be touched
with the fingers since this will only tarnish their
surfaces. If such surfaces are tarnished, they are cleaned
by applying a thin film of oil which should be left for a
few hour3 and then wiped off with a soft clean rag.
9. Clamps should be tighten only until they are snug
and never tighten down hard. Over-tightening may lead £o
appreciable damage of the instrument. A definite and firm,
but not too severe, tightening is all that is necessary.
10. A waterproof cover for the transit should always be
brought along in case of rains, showers, and thunderstorms.
r* f t* A^-
3 3 0 , an amo rnaoooin*
THE ENGINEER’S
TRANSIT AND
THEODOLITE
30-1. CIRCLE GRADUATIONS OF TRANSITS
1. H o rizo n ta l C irc le
2. Vertical Circle.
30-2. VERNIERS
1. Direct Vernier
2. Retrograde Vernier
30-3. . PRINCIPLE OF THE VERNIER
30-4. TRANSIT VERNIERS
1. Single Vernier
2. Double Vernier
3. Folded Vernier
30-5. READING TRANSIT VERNIERS
30-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEUS
1. Determining Least Count
2. Determining Least Count
. >3. Reading Transit Verniers

Lesson O
 3 0 -1 . CIRCLE GRADUATIONS OF TR A N SITS.

The engineer's (transit has two graduated circles or limbs.

One, which is called the horizontal circle, is used when
measuring horizontal angles. When angles are measured along
the vertical plane, the other one, called the vertical
circle, is used. Graduated circles are usually made of
glass, aluminum, or solid- silver mounted in bronze.

1. Horizontal Circle. There are various ways of gradua­

ting a horizontal circle. Usually, there, is a difference in
Fig. 30-1. lUuaZ numbering of the method of number­
gKaduatioM on a horizontal. ciAclt. ing the main gradua­
tion marks and in the
selected size of the
smallest scale divi­
sion. Shown in Figure
30-1 is a commonly
used method of number­
ing horizontal cir­
cles. In this type of
graduation there are
two sets of markings
which are numbered
continuously around
the circle at 10 deg­
ree intervals. Number­
ing is continuous from
0 to 360 degrees in
both directions. The
inside row of figures
increases in a clock­
wise direction, and
the outside row in a
counterclockwise di- t
rection. It will be noted that the figures are generally
inclined in the direction in which the numbers are read.
This method of graduation has replaced the quadrant • system
of numbers used in earlier transits since it facilitates
the reading of azimuths and the measurement of angles to
the right or left.
Most horizontal circles are graduated in half-degrees,
but may also be graduated in third-degrees, or quarter-deg­
rees. Transits which are employed for moderately high pre­
cision work have horizontal circles which are graduated to
15 or 10 minutes. In some special cases, horizontal circles
are graduated in divisions based on the grad or the mil.
A different method of numbering a horizontal circle is
shown in Figure 30-2. In this case, two sets offnumbers are
also* used. The numbers in one set increase continuously
around the circle from 0 to 360 degrees, while in the other
set the numbers increase in opposite directions from 0 ' to
180 degrees.

332.
 2. Vertical Circle. The vertical circle is fastened
securely to the horizontal axis of the telescope. It moves
as the telescope is
Fig. 30-2. Atternate numbwing oi elevated or depressed
graduation* on a horizontal circle..
and may be set in a
fixed position by the
telescope clamp. After
it is clamped, it still
could be turned through
a small range of move­
ment by means of the
telescope slow-motion
or tangent screw. A
sight taken -on an ele­
vated (or depressed)
point would turn the
telescope about its
horizontal axis/ and
the vertical circle
through the angle of
elevation (or depres­
sion) of the point
sighted. The correspon­
ding angle is read on
the vertical circle.
The graduations of
vertical circles in
most transits are*
Identical in each of
the four quadrants as
shown in Figure 30-3.
They are usually num­
bered from zero at the
top and at the bottom,
to 90 degrees in both
clockwise and counter­
clockwise directions.
This design allows the
reading of both eleva­
tion and depression
angles whether the
telescope is in a di­
rect or inverted*posi-
tion. The index marks
are diametrically op­
posite on the limb,
and are so positioned
that the. reading on
the vertical circle is
zero when the teles­ F ig . 3 0 - 3 . F u ll c i r c l e , g r a d u a tio n *
cope is horizontal. An on a v e r t i c a l rcaJbz.
initial reading other than zero may be obtained i the
trans i* not carefully leveled or if some part o the

to ssrwf&wyv ,333
in s tru m e n t is out of a d ju s tm e n t. Sin ce v e r t i c a l Angles
seldom need to be measured as a c c u r a t e l y as h o r i z o n t a l
a n g le s , v e rtic a l c irc le s are u s u a l l y d i v i d e d o n ly in t o
degrees and h a l f - d e g r e e s .
Fig.,, $0-4. V V iict vtKtutK Fig. 30-5. Rtixogiiade. vunteA

—
-10
9
8
7 S m a lle s t d iv is io n
V«rni«r Scale 6 on m ain scale
5
4 "7
3 Main S c a le
2
1 —\
0 -Index 0 -Index Mark
Mark -I
- 2
3
-4
Main Scale 5 - V e rn ie r S c a le
-6
•7
8 JL
S m a lle s t d ivisio n
9
•10 T on v e rn ie r sc a le

3 0 -2 . VERNIERS.

A vernier is a small graduated mechanical device attached

and made to slide along linear or circular scales in order
to increase to a higher degree of accuracy the readings
obtained on such scales. When employed, the device can help
determine the fractional part of the smallest division of a
main scale more accurately than estimating' by eye. It was
invented in 1620 by a French mathematician named Pierre
Vernier. v
Verniers are principally employed in surveying for
reading horizontal and vertical circles of the transit.
They are also used in target rods, sextants, barometers,
protractors, and micrometers. The scale of a vernier can
have any number of divisions and various designs are adap­
ted on different instruments. Before a vernier is used, it
is important to first determine correctly the principle
used in its design. There are two main types of verniers -
direct and retrograde. Most verniers on surveying instru­
ments are of the direct type. *

1. D ire c t V e r n i e r . In the design of a direct vernier

(Fig. 30-4) a certain length of a given scale, containing
n -1 d-ivisions, is divided into n divisions on the vernier.
Thus, the smallest division on the vernier is shorter than
the smallest division on the main scale. In this type of
vernier the main scale and the vernier scale are read in

¥!f A*o>M6ffoooHfri
the same direction. Direct verniers are widely used in sur­
veying’instruments such as the transit.
2. Retrograde Vernier. Retrograde verniers (Pig. 30-5)
are not used in surveying instruments. In this type of
vernier the length of n+1 divisions on the main scale is
divided into n divisions on the vernier scale. Consequent­
ly, »the smallest division on the vernier is slightly longer
than the smallest division on the main scale. In the retro­
grade vernier, the main scale and t,he vernier scale are
read in opposite directions.

Fig. 30-6. Reading a tineiu yeAnieA and aco&z .

(a) (b) (c)

30-3. PRINCIPLE OP THE VERNIER.

The principle of the vernier is illustrated in' Figure 30-6.

which *shows a linear scale that is to be read to tenths of
its smallest division. The attached direct vernier is divi­
ded into 10 parts which is equal to 9 spaces on the main
scale. In this particular design, it can be seen that one
vernier division is equal to 9/10 of one scale division.
Thus,' the difference between a main scale space and a
vernier space is equal to 1/10 of a space on the main
scale. This value is referred to as the finest of reading
or the least count. In reading upward from 4.00 on this
scale, therefore, the first division on the vernier falls
1/10 of a division short of the first mark on the scale.
Also, the second division mark on the vernier falls 2/10 of
a division short of tne second scale, and etc.
In order to determine what fractional part of the smal­
lest main scale division may be read with the vernier, the
1HC tN 9 t N L L H 'S TH A lt-
3 ! T AND T H C O O O U T C ,3 3 5 ,
least count or fineness of reading of the vernier and main
scale must first be known. This value is determined by
dividing the- length of the smallest division on the main
scale 4>y the total number of vernier divisions. It is given
by the following expression

Where: LC = is the least' count.' or the

smallest division that can
be read on the main scale
1 s = value of the smallest space
or division on the main
scale
n = number of divisions on the
vernier

Vernier scales may be rectilinear, as that of a level­

ing rod, ' or it may be circular, as that of a transit. In
either case the principle is the same. On the vernier there
is an index mark which points to the actual scale reading.
The reading on the main scale is determined by first noting
the scale reading as indicated by the last scale mark pass­
ed by the index of the vernier. The vernier reading is then
determined by multiplying the least count of the vernier by
the number of the vernier line which coincides with a line
on the main scale. To obtain the total reading, the vernier
reading is added to the scale reading.
In Figure 30-6a, since the index of the vernier coin­
cides with a major scale division, the vernier is not used
in obtaining a direct reading of 4.00. Taking a closer look
now at Figure 30-6b, it can be seen that the index does not
coincide with any line on the main scale, however, since
the second line of the vernier (2) coincides with a line on
the *raain scale, the reading is 4.02. In Figure 3Q-6c it is
now seen that the index of the vernier has been-moved up­
ward by one scale space (beyond 4.00) and the sixth mark of
the vernier coincides with a main scale division. Accor­
dingly,' the reading of the vernier and scale is 4.16.
It will be observed that when verniers are read, it is
impossible to have more than one coincidence. Xlso, there
is actually no need to memorize any sequence of steps in
reading verniers. The steps mentioned above are given only
as an'aid in visualizing what is actually involved and how
a vernier works. A more thorough understanding of verniers
is best obtained by constantly practicing how to read the
different types of vernier used in surveying instruments.

30-4. TRANSIT VERNIERS.

Verniers a'.low the use'of an engineer's transit for measu­

ring horizontal and vertical angles with a high degree of
accuracy. There are actually three verniers in an engi­
neer's transit. Two are used on the horizontal circle and
one at the vertical circle.
TMA TXAH-
,3 3 6 , * /r AMO XMCP O O L /
 The verniers for the horizontal circle, which are mark­
ed as A and B, are found on opposite sides of the upper
plate. They are positioned exactly 180 degrees apart. Each
vernier is provided with a window in the cover plate and
is protected with a glass cover. The verniers are read by
using an attached microscope or by means of a hand-held
reading glass. Vernier A is found below the eyepiece when
the telescope is in direct position and vernier B is hear
the objective end of the telescope.
Usually, only the A vernier is used for most engineer­
ing-type surveys. In more precise work, however, both the A
and B verniers are read and the mean of two readings taken.
By reading both verniers, imperfections in the subdivision
of the horizontal circle and eccentricity can be compen­
sated. When horizontal clockwise angles are read, the left
half of the A vernier is used. Its right half is used when
counterclockwise angles are read. The B vernier is employed
in a similar manner.
The vernier attached to the vertical circle allow the
reading of vertical angles usually to the nearest minute.
When reading an angle of depression, its left hal,£ is used.
The right half of the vernier is used when reading an angle
of elevation.

Fig. 30-7. Single. veAniet.

The three types of verniers used in transits are:

1. Single Vernier. In Figure 30-7 is shown a single

vernier. This type of vernier is usually employed in
transits which are used for the measurement of angles where
a hig^i degree of precision is required such as.in triangu­
lation work. A single vernier is read in only one direction
and must be set with the graduations ahead of the zero mark
in the direction to be turned. In the given illustration,
since the circle is divided into 10 min spaces and there
are 60 spaces on the vernier scale, the least count is.10
min/60 = 1/6 min or 10 sec.
2. Double Vernier. A double vernier (Fig. 30-8) con­
sists of two parts - a vernier on the left and another
identical vernier on the right. Each one is graduated and
runs in an opposite direction from the common index point.
The vernier on the left is used when reading clockwise
circle graduations and the vernier on the right for reading
counterclockwise circle ciraduations. The least count of the
illustrated scale and vernier combination is 30 sec since a
division on the circle is 20 min and there are 40 spaces on
the double ver-hier. Most transits use double verniers.

IN I iN O l t U t fi '% r HAM- ’X V . ' T

0 $i f an d T H io o o u ft mmmmmmmm J J I i

___
 3. Folded Vernier. The folded vernier (Fig. 30-
avoids the use<of a long vernier plate. It has a length
similar to a single vernier, however, half of the gradua­
tions are placed on each side of the' index mark. . This type
of vernier is used when there is not enough spade available
for a double vernier. In the illustrated example, it will
be noted that the numbers on the vernier increase toward
the left from the index at the center up to 15; and from
the other side of the vernier (extreme right), 15 is re­
peated and the numbers continue to increase toward the
Fig. 30-9. Fotdzd veAnie*.

index which now correspond to 30. When reading a folded

vernier, if,a coincidence is not found.when scanning along
the vernier in the -direction in which the circle is number­
ed/ it is' necessary to go to the other extreme end of the
vernier and continue scanning toward the center Until a
coincidence is found. For this particular combination, the
lea,, t count is 1 min since a division on the circle is 30
min and there are 30 spaces on the folded vernier.

30-5. READING TRANSIT VERNIERS.

A horizontal or vertical angle is read by finding the gra­

duation on the vernier scale which coincides with a gradua­
tion on the main (circle) scale used. When a double vernier
is employed on a horizontal circle, there will always be
two coincident lines - one for a clockwise angle and the
other/ for a counterclockwise angle. The index mark of the
vernier will show1the number of degrees or fractional part
of a degree (usually in multiples of 30, 20, 15, or 10 min)
passed over on the main scale. Additional fractional parts
of a degree which are to be added to the main scale reading
are determined from the coincident graduation on the
vernier.
The least c#6ijt mest first be determined before a
circle and vernier is read since this value will give the
accuracy attainable in using the instrument. The vernier.

lH i IN t H N i l H 'S THAN
fit ANO T H iO O O U T g
should always be read in the same direction as the scale.
In most transits> the relationship is pointed out by the
slope of the numbers on the scale and the vernier. It will
be seen that the numbers on the scale and the vernier which
slope toward a similar direction are read together. To eli­
minate the effect of parallax when reading the circle and
vernier graduations, the instrumentman should always look
radially along the graduations. In some instances, when the
graduations are not viewed properly, there may be two or
more sets of lines which may seem to coincide. •'
When it is desired to check readings made on a transit
vernier, the clockwise and counterclockwise readings should
be noted. Their sum should equal to 360 degrees. Another
check may be made by noting if the difference in reading
between the A and B verniers is 180 degrees. This wi-ll be
true for both clockwise and counterclockwise readings. It
is always advisable to use a magnifying glass when reading
transit circles and verniers. This device enables the ’ob­
server to make more precise .readings, aside from minimizing
eye. strain. This particular item usually comes with the
instrument during purchase.
F ig . 30-10. R eading d ciKciUaA. veAnieA and 4Cal&.

The following illustration Will explain how simple it

is to read transit circles and verniers. In Figure 30-10
there are two sets of graduation on the circle to which a
double vernier is attached. The two dashed lines are shown
to indicate the two sets of.coincident lines. Since the
circle is graduated to half degrees (30 min), and there are
30 divisions on the vernier, the least count is 30 min/30 =
1 min. Therefore, the reading for the inner, set of gradua­
tions (clockwise direction) using the vernier on the left,
is 178°30* + 12 ' = 178°42'. For the outer set of gradua­
tions (counterclockwise direction) aigd using .this time the
vernier on the right, it is 181°00' +18' = 181*18r. A check
is made' to determine if the sum of the clockwise and coun­
terclockwise readings is equal to 360 degrees. Since 178*
42' + 181*18' = 360*00', it can then be assumed that both
readings were correctly taken.

30-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. v

/. D E T E R M I N I N G L E A S T . C O U N T . Determine the least count of a direc

vernier ,,n a scale which is graduated to .1 / 6 degrees if 60 divisions on the
vernier are equal to 59 on the main scale.

t ,n $H 0 W ttN * S THAN
%,r a w * T O0Oi,trm
 r
s a -r- * 10 min B600 sec (smallest division on ths main seals)
6 •
n « 60 (no. of divisions on the vernier)

,L C^ _ s _- —
600gQ—
sec
- —- - 10 s e c (least count)

2. DETERMINING LEAST C O U N T . The value of the smallest division on

the main scale of a horizontal circle is graduated to 1/3 degrees. If 40 divi­
sions on the vernier are equal to 39 on the main scale, determine the least
count Or fineness of reading.

s = 1°
3 • = 20 min = 1200 sec (smallest division on the main scale)

n = 40 (no. of divisions on the vernier) .

s 1200 sec
LC =
n 40 3 30 sec (least count)

READING TRANSIT VERNIERS. The setting of a vernier yon the

rizontal circle of a transit is illustrated in the figures shown below. If the
coincidence is indicated by the dashed lines, determine for each vernier and
scale the following:
a,’ least count c) reading of the outer circle .
b) reading of the inner circle
F i g . 30-11.

Inner Circle Reading 3 184° I 8 l (clockwise)

Outer Circle Reading = 1 7 5 ° 4 2 1 (counterclockwise)
Solu tion C heck:
Inner Circle Reading + Outer Circle Reading . * 360°00‘
184° I8 1 + 1.75° 42* e 3 6 0 ° 0 0 ‘
3 6 0 ° OO' = 3 6 0 ° 00' (checks)

340.

L
 LC * a —^ "■ * I min { least count)

Inner Circle Reading = 62° I9 1 (clockwise)

Outer Circle Reading ■=* 2 9 7 ° 4 l' (counterclockwise)
Solu tion Check: , .
Inner Circle Reading +• Outer Circle Reading « 3 6 0 o0 0 '
6 2 °I9 ' t 2 9 7 ° 4 i' a 360*00'
3 6 0 °00' - 3 6 0 * OO' (checks)

fig - 30-13.

LC = = 30mln - |min (least count)

Inner Circle Reading = 140*02' (clockwise)

Outer Circle Reading = 2 1 9 * 5 8 ' ’ ^counterclockwise)

Solution Check:
Inner Circle Reading + Outer. Circle Reading - 360°00‘
1 4 0 * 0 2 ' + 2 19*58' = 3 6 0 *0 0 '
360° 00' = 360*00' (checks)

trig. 30-14. •

LC = s = —-min =*30sec (least count)

n 40 2
Inner Circle Reading = 2 0 9 ° 5 0 , 30" (clockwise)
Outer Circle Reading = I 5 0 ° 0 9 l 3 0 11 (counterclockwise)

Solution Check:
Inner Circle Reading + Outer Circle Reading = 3 6 0 ° 0 0 '0 0 "
2 0 9 ° 5 0 '3 0 " + I5 0 °0 9 J 30" = 3 6 0 °0 0 '0 0 "
3 '6 0 °0 0 '0 0 " = 3 6 0 ° 0 0 '0 0 " (checks)

'• '• U H U IT 0 mmmmmm 341

THE EN G IN EER'S
T R A N S IT A N D
TH EO D O LITE
31-1. MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLES
31-1. CLOSING THE HORIZON
31-3. LAYING OFF ANGLES
31-4. MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES
31-5. INDEX CORRECTION
31-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Cto&ing the. Horizon.
Z. Index Co**e.ction
3. Index CoKxe.c.tlon

Lesson
 *» . ■) ■
31-1. MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLES,

The most common operation performed’with the engineer's

transit is the measurement of a horizontal aagle. it con­
sists of setting up and leveling the transit Over a selec­
ted point, taking a backsight on a point> and turning the
telescope through an angle, to foresight another point.
Horizontal' angles are measured directly either to the
right (clockwise) or to ,the left (counterclockwise) . It is
important to always remember that when an angle is measured
to the right the inner circle graduations and the vernier
on the left are read, and when the angle is measured to the
left the outer circle graduations and the vernier on. the
right are read. If a close look is made on the horizontal
'circle‘ it will be noticed that the inside row of figures
increases in a clockwise direction and the outside row in a
counterclockwise direction. Usually the numbers slope in
the direction of,reading. To check circle readings and
eliminate errors of eccentricity the A and B verniers
should both be read* However, if only one vernier is read,
it is the A vernier which is employed. This is the vernier
found directly under the eyepiece when the telescope is in
direct or normal position.
To measure a horizontal angle between lines AB and AC,
the-transit is set up at'point A, as shown in Figure 3 I7 I.

The distant points (B and C) may be marked by a range pole

or chaining pin stuck in the ground.' Some surveyors use. a
nail in a wooden stake or a chalk mark on a concrete pave­
ment. After the instrument is leveled the index marks 6f
the horizontal circle and the vernier are set nearly op­
posite each other by turning the plates. This is done by
holding the upper plate while turning the low^r by tan­
gential pressure on its underside. The plates ate then
clamped firmly together and the index marks brought into
exact coincidence by turning the upper tangent screw. When
the lower motion is released, the telescope is .turned
towards point B by approximately looking over the top of
the telescope, after which the lower motion is clamped*. The
telescope is focused by first rotating the eyepiece until
the cross hairs are distinct and then turning the fpeusing

amd rut0001irt
 knob until the distant image sighted is sharply focused. A
precise pointing on point B is made by means of the lower
tangent screw. The tangent screws should not be used to
move the plates over large angles. It should be used for
slight motions only. At this part of the measurement it is
important to check if the reading at the vernier is still
zero. ' . ,■>
To: complete the measurement, loosen the upper clamp,
turn the telescope towards point C, and focus th<* objec­
tive. When the line of sight is set nearly on the ,poiht,
clamp, the upper plate and set the vertical cross hair ex­
actly on ttye point by means of the upper tangent screw.
After which the angle is read at the A vernier by means of
a reading glass.

3 1 -2 . CLOSING THE HORIZON. .<

- ••• i
The process of measuring horizontal angles about a point is
termed closing the horizon. This provides an easy way of
testing instrument readings and pointings since a check is
obtained if the sum of the angles equal to 360 degrees. In
order to fully understand the operation of a transit or
theodolite the student should first learn how to use the
instrument in measuring angles about a point. A continuous
practice should be worked out before a n y ‘attempt is made to
measure horizontal angles for an actual traverse.

The measurement of angles about, a point'by theodolite

or the engineer's transit is but a similar process. It in­
volves using the clamp and tangent screw, aiming at the
left-hand point, reading the horizontal circle, aiming at
the right-hajid point and again reading the circle. The,
transit is usually set up and leveled at d.convenient point
such as at 0 (Pig. 31-2) and several chaining pins are*
* stuck in the ground at convenient distances from the in­
strument. Then the angles between the pins are measured
individually, the vernier and Scale being set back to zero
fdr each measurement. If the'"hor izontal circle reading and
TN*. iNHNiia'V THAN
9tf AMO rMMOOOIjrt .345.
index mark are not set to zero, the difference between the
initial reading and the final reading is the angle through
which the line’ of sight was turned. Upon completion of the
measurement,, angular values observed are added to see if
their sum equals 360 degrees. Any difference between 360
degrees and the sum' of the measured angles is called the
horizon misclosure. , ,.
Fig. 31-3. Sample. iieU note* &ok closing the hoeizon.

January 6,1987 Sunny and Bright

CLOSING THE HORIZON I-4 PM/St’C UB Campus
Lot ExerciseNo.!2 Grp.No.3/CE 22!

A. Tabula ion of Observe1Data. 'i£ft/

STA.OCC STA.OBSOS SERVELM A G N ETIC "angle
A N G L E B E A R IN G re teg' DtFF c
p A \40txM /7
B2’33‘ B2’40' 07' /
N /
B \42’40'E *N
SB’16' 57’SO' 26' N /
C S79’30'E l
67'44' 67‘SO' 06'
D SI/’40'E /
76’OB' 75’55' 13'
E S64’IS'U f-
7S‘23‘ 75’45' 22' * c> \
A 't40’OOV
Sum 360’04‘ )" \
Misclosure O’04'
t' V0 5
4t ct>4 r-da a T .0 'C
r nu s t >3 t7 i< *C r& 9 n>V<*
% ■/ /VAd

7 ' )l
________ nJ "Na -5

It may be worthwhile to determine the magnetic bearings

of the lines from the instrument to the chaining pins.
The angles computed between the lines provide a rough check
on the measured horizontal angles. Also, when using the
transit, the B vernier should likewise be read to check the
reading made on the A vernier. The difference between the
two vernier readings should equal to 180 degrees. There is
no standard format used in recording observed data for this
type of measurement, however, an example is illustrated in
Figure 31-3. ■

3 1 -3 . LAYING OFF ANGLES.

If an angle such as APB (Fig. 31-4) is to be laid off from

line PA, the transit is set up at P and any convenient
reference mark is established along PA. The A vernier is
set at zero and the line*of sight is directed towards the
reference mark. When the upper clamp is loosened the tele-

346,
Fig. SI-4. Laying o{{ a koiizoatal angU.

scope is turned to the desired direction until the index

mark of the vernier is approximately at the required angle.
The next step is to tighten the upper clamp and set the
vernier exactly to read the required angle by means of the
upper tangent screw. The cross hairs on the telescope
should now point to the opposite side of the angle which
has been laid off.

3 1 -4 . MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLES.

Along a vertical plane the difference in direction measured

between two intersecting lines is referred to-as a vertical
angle. Such an angle may be above or below a horizontal
piane through the point of intersection and may lie only
between zero and plus (or minus) 90 degrees. At any instru­
ment set up the horizontal plane (or horizontal^ line of
sight) is established when the telescope is in a horizontal
position, the. vertical circle reading is set at the index
mark, and the bubble in the telescope level tube is- cen­
tered.
Vertical angles are either angles of elevation or an 1
gles of depression. These angles are also sometimes refer-*
red to as positive or negative angles. In figure 31-5,
the tip of the flagpole and the concrete pedestal are
examples of points above or below the horizontal plane
which when sighted will yield positive and negative verti­
cal angles, respectively.
When a vertical angle is to be measured the transit is
set up over a point and the horizontal plates are carefully
leveled. The intersection qf the cross hairs is set appro­
ximately on the point to which a vertical angle is to be
measured, and the telescope is clamped into position.
Exact' pointing is achieved by using the telescope tangent
screw. Then the vertical circle and vernier ard read to
determine the angle above or below the horizontal plane.
An engineer’s transit is equipped with a vertical arc
or a full circle, and a vernier for measuring vertical
angles,. Usually the graduated arc or circle is rigidly
attached to the telescope and* the vernier is fastened to
the standards. When a vertical angle is measured the grad-
T N t f N O I N t t H 'V TH AN”
$ t r AMO T M i O O O t l t t

— ■■ ■ __
fig . 3 1 -5 . V ertica l angleA.

uated circle moves'as the telescope is depressed or ele­

vated. The vernier, however, remains stationary. With the
telescope in direct position, the vertical circle is read
to the right of its index mark using the right half of the
vernier when measuring a positive angle. Correspondingly,
a-negative angle is read to the left of the vertical circle
index, but this time using the left half of the vernier.
When using a transit with a full circle it is advanta­
geous to measure a vertical angle once with the telescope
in normal position and once in reversed position. The
meai\ of the two readings will be the correct value of the
vertical angle since both measurements are made indepen­
dently of each other, thus

aC' = {oCu + oCR)/ 2

Where:
oC' = correct value of the measured vertical.angle
= vertical angle measured with telescope in
direct or normal position
= same vertical angle measured with telescope
in reversed or plunged position

This process eliminates the index error and all other

errors of adjustment. It also minimizes the possibility of
mistakes since the reading is taken twice.

31-5. INDEX CORRECTION.

When a transit.is used the accuracy in reading a vertical

angle is affected if the line of sight is not parallel to

548, TM €
f i t AMO
T*A M -
TMMOPOL /
the axis of the telescope level tube, there is an inclina­
tion of the Vertical axis, and the vertical circle does not
read zero when the telescope bubble is centered. Due to any
of the above reasons an error will be introduced when
observing a vertical angle. This error is referred to as
the index error. Theoretically, there would be no index
error if the instrument were in perfect adjustment and is
leveled precisely when making observations. In practice,
however, such an ideal condition seldom exists.
One way of determining index error is to measure a
vertical angle once with the telescope in direct position
and also once in reversed position. The difference between
the two measured quantities divided by 2 gives the value of
the index error due to a vertical circle which is out of
adjustment.
As an example, assume that a vertical angle measured
with the telescope in direct position is + 6 ° 30' and the
same angle measured with the telescope in reversed position
is + 6 ° 32'. Since both readings should contain the error
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, the index error
(IE) in the position of the vertical circle may be deter­
mined as follows:

IE = (cCN - cCR ) / Z
= [( + 6 ° 3 0 ' - ( + 6 ° 3 2 1)] / 2
= -01 (index e r ro r)

The index correction (IC) is equal in amount but opposite

in sign to the index error, thus

IC => - IE
= -(~ O I ) = + 01 (Index c o rre c tio n )

This correction when added algebraically to any vertical

angle measured with the telescope in direct position gives
the mpst probable value of the measured angle. For this
particular example, the corrected vertical angle should
then be

oC' = cCH +( IC
= 6° 30 + 01 = 6 ° 31 (c o r re c t e d v e r t i c a l angle) 7

Extreme care must Ije exercised when applying index

correction. It should not be mistakenly added when it
should be subtracted or vice versa. Also, when a large
number of vertical angles are to be measured, a lot of time,
is saved if the angles are measured only once with the.
telescope in direct position. The correct vertical angles
are then determined by simply applying the index correction
to the measured angles. It must be noted, however, that the
corrected angles may still contain the’error resulting from
the inclination of the vertical axis of the instrument. *
TUt
M IT
I / H i l N f t It 'S TH AN-
AMO I M t i W O L / r t $ 4$
 3 1 -6 , IL L U S T R A T IV E PRO BLEM S.

§. C LO S IN G T H E HO RIZO N , In Figure 3 1 - 6 , the horizontal angles

about point A were measured as follows: -O-, s 4 4 14 , 5 9 .and
•©•3 3 2 5 6 o5 0 * Determine the horizon misclosure and adjust the m e a­
sured angles by assuming that the error is the same for each angle.

S o lu t io n
a) Determining the Misclosure
n =3 (no, of angles measured)
Sum = -e-, + -e-j + 'e ’3 = 4 4 014 1 + 5 8 *5 9 '
+ 25 6°50 '
= 36 0°03 (sum of measured angles)
Error = 360° - Sum =, 3 6 0 * - 3 6 0 * 0 3 '
= -03 (horizon misclosure)
Corr = Error/n = -03'/3
= -01 (correction per angle)

'Adjusting the Observed Angles.

* Corr 3 44 01 4 1 - O l ‘ = 4 4 ° 1 3*

■4 * ^2 * Corr = 5 8 °5 9 .( - ‘ 3
01 58°5 8 '

• ^ 3 = ^ ± Corr = 2 5 6 * 50* - O f' = 256*49'

Total = 360*00* (chocks)

2 . IN D E X C O R R E C T IO N . A vertical angle oC was measured above the

horizontal as 23*16' with the telescope in direct position and as 23°I8
in reversed position. Determine the following: Index error, ipdex correct­
ion-, and the corrected vertical angle. -

IE = \oCH - cCr ) / 2 = [( + 2 3 * 1 6 ' ) - (+ 2 3 * 1 8 ') | / 2 - - 0 2 '/ 2

3 -01 (index error) i
rc = - IE = - (- 0 1 * )
= + O i' (index correction)

, oC' - cCH + I C 3 2 3 * i 6' + Ol'

* 23*1 7 (corrected value of the ve rtic a l angJe)

3 . IN D E X C O R R E C T IO N . In p r o b l e m ' No. 2 , d e t e r m i n e th e s a m e quam

t it ie s a s s u m in g th is tim e th at the v e rtic a l an g le was m ea su re d belo w
the h o riz o n ta l.

- cCr )/2 ■« [ ( - 2 3 * 1 6 ' ) - (- 2 3 ° i8 ')j /2 = +<X2‘/ 2

£

IE
u

= +01 (index error)

IC = - I E = -(+ 0 l') •
• = -or (index correction) .
oC' = cCH ± I C s - 2 3 * 1 6 * - Ol'
= - 2 3 * ’ 17 (corrected value of the v e rtic a l angle)

350.
THE ENGINEER'S
TRANSIT AND
THEODOLITE
32-1. MEASURING ANGLES BY REPETITION
J. NumbzJt oh Repetitions
2. Telescope, Position*
3. PA.oc.zdu/Lt oh Measurement
4. Additional Techniques Employed
32-2. PROLONGING A STRAIGHT LINE
1. Vouble Centering \
2. Balancing In
32-3. ESTABLISHING A POINT OF INTERSECTION •
1. Employing Only One Transit
2. Employing Two Transits
32-4. MEASURING AN ANGLE WHEW TRANSIT CANNOT BE SET AT
3 2 -5 . ESTABLISHING PARALLEL LINES
32-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Angles by Repetition
2. Angles by Repetition
3. Angles by Repetition

L e sso n 32
r t*4 IN iliN ttN 'x tftAN
lit 4AW’ * fi$•*<•*•<i l$
 32-1. MEASURING ANGLES BY REPETITION.

Mistakes in horizontal angle.measurement are reduced if not

totally eliminated when the angles are measured by repeti­
tion.^ This method is also employed when it is desired to
gain accuracy beyond the least count of the instrument
used., The procedure of measuring an angle by repetition is
almost identical to the procedure followed in doubling an
angle except that there are more repetitions instead of
■one.

1. Number of Repetitions. The number of repetitions

depends on the required accuracy of a particular survey.
For most engineering surveys three repetitions should be
sufficient. It is only in precise geodetic surveys where
horizontal angles are usually repeated six or eight times.
However, it will be noted that repeating an angle more’ than
eight times, does not appreciably improve the precision of
its measurement. This is due to accidental errors that
could be committed aside from the presence of inherent
instrumental errors. Little is actually gained hy making a
very large number of repetitions such that the accuracy
apparently gained is really lost on this account. Thus,
making an excessive number of repetitions becomes imprac­
tical. *
2. Telescope Positions. When an angle is to be mea­
sured by repetition, it is desirable to make half of the
repetition with the telescope in direct, position and the
other half with the telescope in reversed position. The
telescope of a transit is described to be in the direct or
normal position when the telescope level tube is located
below the telescope. It is in reversed or plunged position
when the telescope level tube is located on top of the
telescope. Both of these positions are illustrated in Fi­
gure 32-1.
When turning an angle more than twice, the number of
repetitions should always be made in some multiple of two.
For example, an ang^e measured in six repetitions involves*
turning the angle thrice direct and thrice reversed. Si­
milarly, angles measured in eight, ten, - and twelve re­
petitions are turned four, five, and six times, respec­
tively, in both direct and reversed positions of the teles­
cope. There.should always be an equal number of direct and
reversed observations. Also, it will be seen that the
continuity of operations in measuring is not disturbed even
though an, angle is repeated several times and the telescope
turned in direct and reversed positions. The measurement of
an angle continues to accumulate on the horizontal circle
regardless of the changes made on the position of the
telescope.
3. Procedure of Measurement. To measure an angle by
repetition proceed as follows: After the transit is' set up
and leveled record the initial backsight reading taken on

,352, TH t
fir
£ N O lN £ £ R ‘S T R A N
AND T M O Q Q L I f f
-
 fig . 3 2 - 1 . f a u t i o i u o{ d i e tA cuuit tt h M o p t .

____ Telescope Level Tube ^ __ Telescope Level Tube

(Positioned below the telescope) (Positioned above the telescope)
Vertical. f — Telescope ,------ Tel escope.
Circle

Eyepiece Eyepiece
V e rtic a l
C ircle

Vernier Vernier \

ia) 16}
ViKect ok NokjklI ReveA-Aed ok Plunged
PoM tion P o sitio n

both verniers. The backsight is taken with the telescope

direct and by manipulating the lower clamp aftd its tangent
screw. Then loosen the upper clamp and sight on the fore­
sight point by using the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw. The first foresight reading on the circle is re­
corded as the approximate value of the angle. With the
telescope still in direct position, the lower -clamp is
loosened and the. line of sight is brought back on the
backsight point by means of the lower clamp and its tangent
screw. Then loosen the upper clamp and turn the telescope
towards the foresight point by means of the upper clamp and
tangent screw. This adds another angle (almost equal to the
first one) to the reading on the horizontal circle.
A third backsight is again taken on the first point and
also followed by a foresight on the second point. It will
be noted that each repetition increases the reading on the
circle by an amount equal to the approximate value of the
angle. This process can be,continued for any desired number
of repetitions. For example, after the third or fourth
repetition, the telescope is brought to the reversed posi­
tion and the angle is again turned three or four times.
The final readings on both verniers are then taken after
the desired number of repetitions is completed, and the
total angle accumulated on the circle is divided by the

AM) r tU O O O U T S .35$,
number of repetitions to obtain the average and more pre­
cise value of the measured angle. In sbme measurements, the
total angle may be larger than 360 degrees, . making it
necessary to add a multiple of 360 degrees to the reading
before dividing. It is always desirable, 'therefore, to
determine the single angle during the ‘first measurement.
Figure 32-2 illustrates one way of keeping the field notes
when measuring an angle by repetition.
Fig. 32-2. Sample, (ield nate*.
r~ January to,1987 Sunny and Bright
ANGLl’BY f\EPET TiON 8-II AM/32*C UB Basktlboll Court
.Lob Exorcist No.14 Grp. No. 3/CE 22!
A. Tabulalion of Observid Data S' s ?c
$TA ~~STA teles ~wrsr~ RDGOR RD VG
ERO
NR
__(2£C__ QBB °OS/TlON.REP VERNIER B- IER
A B D ' o’
oo'oo 180*00*00*
C 0 I 75*25*30 255*25*30*
C D 4 301*42*00 /21*42*00* }
C f>\ 4 243*16*00 63*16*00* /
/
B. Compu ations
/
n •8 /r
RDGn-o'oo'oo" RDG,* 75*2530** RD *243*16*
ntR->G,)‘ f 75'25‘31"! ‘ 6C3*24*00 or /
/1360m) 1 243*2■ *oo“ N7 '2 K
TOTAL WG * /?0G„ *At>.of pQ3sts(36C*)- RDG„ ! E
A
* 243*I6*0>>"*H360*J-o’c0*00** H
- 613*16*01 }i
<■^c. 03*8 16*0>"
(ovrog*onglor
\ T
1

) -v
V~
— W -
4. Additional Techniques Employed. Repetitions
usually made clockwise and it is customary to observe both
the A and B verniers. In this method the systematic error
between the two verniers is averaged and the accuracies
possible by repetition are more nearly achieved. It is
desirable that as little time as possible should elapse
between pointings since the inscrument cannot be relied
upon to remain perfectly still especially with the presence
of a strong wind. Walking around the instrument set up on
soft ground should likewise be avoided. Also, errors are
introduced when there is a change in temperature since the
metal parts of the instrument may either expand or con­
tract. The more rapidly the measurements can be made, the
better the result will be.
When sights are relatively short, say 100 m or less,
there is actually little advantage in repetition because
the- errors made in pointing the telescope and in setting- up

£54.
 over the points take away almost all of the increased
' precision obtained by repetition.

32-2. PROLONGING A STRAIGHT LINE.

A typical problem encountered in most surveys is that of

prolonging straight lines. It is ih such type of a problem
that the engineer's transit plays an important role. Al­
though there are various methods available, only two 1 of the
most commonly used are discussed in this lesson.

1. Double Centering. In Figure 32-3 it is assumed that

line XY is to be extended beyond p.oint Y. The instrument is
set up, and leveled over point Y and a backsight is taken on

f i g . 3 Z -3 . Pnotonging a A tiaight t i n t by doubtt c tn tv iin g .

-Prolongation of lin e X Y
Location
of T ra n s it
n ■— ’z "
Xo — l^ z-r£Z------ :-------- °z (
(C o rre ct location of Z )
Y r scop e nve rt« d ---- °Z'
; . •' /
point X with the telescope in normal position. Plunge the
telescope and establish point Z' ahead on line and as far
as can conveniently be seen. If the instrument is not in
proper adjustment, point Z' will not fall exactly on the
prolongation of line XY. With the telescope still inverted,
release the lower clamp and take another backsight on point
X, then plunge the telescope and set point Z ' 1 close to
point Z'. The correct location of point Z, which falls on
the prolongation of line XY, should lie halfway between Z ’
and Z *'. If necessary, the line can be extended further by
moving the transit to Z and repeating the procedure.
Prolonging a straight line by the method of double
centering is nothing more than laying off a very small
deflection angle twice, the first backsight being taken
with the telescope in direct position and the second with
the telescope reversed. This method actually employs the
principle of reversion, and is used to eliminate errors
caused by an instrument which is not in proper adjustment.
It should be borne in mind that i*t is not really necessary
to go through the, procedure of double centering to extend a
line unless a high degree of accuracy is required.
2. Balancing In. In some instances the two ends of a
line are not intervisible but an intermediate point can be
occupied from which both ends can be seen. In Figure 32-4,
both A and B can be seen from the top of a hill. The
process of finding, by trial, the location of’.point C that
will be on the line AB is called balancing in or wiggling
in,. . .
This is done by setting up the transit over a point (C)
which is as nearly on the line from A to B as can be
estimated. A backsight is taken oh A, the instrument clam-

TNC t 'N Q IN t tH 'S TfiA N -

9 / r AMO T N t O O O U T £ 355,
 Fig. 32-4. Vtolonging a itta ig h t tine. by. balancing in .

tical cross hair happens to cut point B, then the estimated

position is on the line. However, if it doesn't, the ins­
trument is moved to another position and another trial is
made. The instrument may have to be moved several times
since it is not easily possible to occupy the correct
position during the first few attempts.
The line of sight should strike point B after a number
of trials. In many instances the final positioning of the
instrument can often be made by loosening the leveling
screws and shifting the leveling head. By the time the
instrument is set correctly in line, any other desired
points may also be set between points A and B.

32-3. ESTABLISHING A POINT OF INTERSECTION.

A surveying problem commonly encountered is the establish­

ment of the point of intersection of' two lines. Usually the
direction of the lines ajpe known but their respective
distances from the point of intersection are not known. In
Figure 32-5, the two lines involved are AB and CD, and it
is required to determine the location of P which is the
point of intersection apd on the prolongation of both
lines. The following procedures are usually applied:1

1. Employing Only One Transit. Aside from a transit,

chaining pins, stakes or hubs, and a piece of string are
also-needed. The transit is initially set up at A, a sight
is taken on B, then the line of sight is ‘directed beyond B
to establish two hubs at points e and f. When establishing
the two hubs it should be'seen to it that the line defined
by points e and f straddles the extension of line CD. A
nail is set sticking out of the top of each of these hubs
and a string is tied between them. The transit .is then
moved to and set up at D. After the line of Sight is
aligned with C, the string located farther ahead‘.is sighted
and broug’ht into focus. The desired point is established at
P where the line of sight i.ntersects the string.

,356.
F *g. 3 2 -5 . Establishing a poin t o{ in te rse c tio n .

2. Employing Two Transits. The problem is handled more

easily if two transits are available. One transit is set up
at A and the other at D, and the line of sight of each
instrument is directed towards B and C, respectively. A
flagman with.either a range pole or a chaining pin is sent
to the vicinity of the intersection point and is directed
to move back and forth until his range pole (or pin) is
lined up with both instruments. The marking device may then
be replaced with a hub and is. stuck into the ground and
identified as point P.
)• /
Fig. 32-6. Ueasuring an angle between two ience lines.

32-4. MEASURING AN ANGLE WHEN TRANSIT CANNOT BE SET AT VER­

TEX.

Figure, 32-6 illustrates a typical surveying problem of

measuring an ang’le at a point where the transit cannot be
set up. Such a situation usually occurs at the intersection
of fences or between the walls of a building. In order to
measure the required angle, lines AB and CD are established
parallel to the two fence lines. These lines are extended,
their pbint of intersection determined, and the desired
angle measured at the established vertex by means of a
transit.
In establishing line AB, point A is positioned at any
convenient perpendicular distance from the fence. This dis­
tance is determined by holding one end of the tape at A and
swinging the other end through an arc and towards the
fence, The rad'ius of the arc is adjusted until the arc,
becomes tangent to the fence. Correspondingly, point B is
established , at the same distance from the fence as A. The
line joining the two points should now be parallel to the
fence.
In a similar manner points C and D are established to
define line CD which should be parallel to the other fence
line. By prolonging lines AB and CD towards the .left, the
point of intersection at I can be located. The transit is
then set up at the vertex I and the desired angle AIC or
OC is measured in the conventional way of measuring a
horizontal angle. The angle measured at I should be equal
to the angle between the two fence lines.
Fig. [32-7. IteMMMing an angle by choed mtlhod.

d (chord
length)

Another method which is quicker and more precise in­

volves the measurement of convenient distances along each
fence line and the chord distance which connects the two
fences. In Figure 32-7, the angle BAC or cC is computed as
follows
sin ,4 ., .

Where oC is the angle to be determined, d is the chord, dis­

tance, and L is any convenient length measured along AB
and AC. , ^ ’ *
Actually, it is also possible -to measure unequal
lengths along eaph fence line and still determine the value
of the angle at the intersection of the two fences! The
angle is computed by using the cosine law.
f*9- 32-1 . Esta b lish in g a l i n t p a K v lltl to a given lin e..
Ac* ............ ■■■■■■-.......—....... i 1-pB

-°D
32-5. ESTABLISHING PARALLEL LINES.

In surveying, any line can be established parallel to a

given' line by using basic principles of plane geometry. For
example, in Figure 32-8 the line CD can. be made parallel ^o
line AB by making the opposite interior angles at B and C
equal. This is done in the field by first setting up the
transit at point B and measuring the angle ABC or -0- . The
transit is then transferred to and set up at C, and the
direction of line CD is made parallel to AB by laying off
the angle" BCD equal to angle. ABC which was earlier measured
at B. If a higher degree of accuracy is required it would
be advisable to measure the angles by repetition.

32-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

.i /"> *
/ . A N G L E S B Y REPETITION, horizontal angle cC was measured
by repetition eight times with an engineer's transit. Prior to measure­
ment, the horizontal scale was set at 0°00'00" and the reading on the
scale was 75°25‘30" after the. angle was measured once. If the final
reading was . 243° I 6' 00 M
T determine the average value c; the angle
measured.
= 8 (number of repetitions)
RDG0 = 0 ° 0 0 '0 0 l (in itia l reading) *
O | ||
RDG, = 75 25 3 0 (reading a ft e r firs t measurement)
RDG8 = 2 4 3 ° 16 0 0 (reading a fter eighth measurement)

n (R D G ,) 8 (7 5 °2 5 '3 0 " )
6 0 3 o2 4 * 0 0 " or 1 ( 3 6 0 ° ) + 2 4 3 ° 2 4 ' 0 0 " (this quantity
represents eight times the approximate angle measured. Also,
this shows that the 3 6 0 ° mark was passed only once during
the eight repetitions)
RDG T O T RDG8 + No. o f Passes (3 6 0 °) - RDG0
2 4 3 °I6 '0 0 " + 1 (3 6 0 °) - 0 ° 0 0 '0 0 "
6 0 3 16 0 0 (total angle accumulated on the horizontal
scale after the eighth repetition)

RDG
1ST = 603°I6'00'
AV E 8
= 75°£4'30" (average value of the angle measured in
eight repetitions)*

2. ANG L E S BY REPETITION. Assume that an angle ABC mea-

 sured with a t r a n s it th r«e tim t s with telesco p e direct, and three times
w ith telescope re v e rs e d , s t a r t in g with an in it ia l backsight s e ttin g of
0 * 2 2 ' 3 0 “ . A fte r the f i r s t and s ix th m easu rem en ts the re a d in g s on ttn
horizontal sc ale were I20® 30‘ 3 0 " and l * 2 4 ' 0 0 " , re s p e c tiv e iy . Deter -
mine the a ve ra g e angle m easu red.
n ° 6 (number
RDGq 0 * 2 2 '3 0 " (initial reading)
RDG, = I2 0 °3 0 ' 30 " (reading af te r first measurement)
rdg6 * 1 ° 2 4 '0 0 " (reading a f t e r sixth measurement)

n(RDG * 6 (I2 0 °3 0 '3 0 ")

- 7 2 3 ° 0 3 '0 0 " or 2 (3 6 0 °) + 3 ° 0 3 '0 0 " (this q u a nt it y
r ep r e s e nt s six times the approximate angle measured. Also,
this shows that the 360® mark was pa s se d twice during the
six r epetitions )
RDG TOT = RDG 6 + No. of P a s s e s ( 3 6 0 ° ) - RDG 0
= l ° 2 4 ' 0 0 " + 2 ( 3 6 0 ° ) - 0 * 2 2 ' ,3 0 "
= 721 ° 0 l ' 3 0 " (total angle accumulated on the horizontal
scale a f t e r the sixth repetition)
R D G j0T _ 72J O I 30
<XABC
« 1 2 0 ° 10'15 '* (average value of the angle me asur ed in
six repetitions)

3 . A N G L E S B Y R E P E T I T I O N . An angle is repeated three times direct

and three tim es reversed with an engineer's t r a n s it . The circle reading
for the in itia l backsight is 3 3 1 * 3 0 ' and a f t e r the f i r s t r e p e titio n Is
I 3 0 ° 3 5 ' . If the c i r c l e reading a f t e r the six th r e p e titio n is 2 0 5 ° 5 4 ' t ‘
d e te rm in e the average angle m easu red.
n s 6 RDG, = 1 3 0 * 3 5 ' .
RDG0 - 331 * 3 0 ‘ RDG6 * 2 0 5 * 5 4 '
A c C ; = 3 6 0 ° - RDG 0 = 3 6 0 ° - 331 ° 3 0 ‘ * 2 8 ° 3 0 '
00 s AoC t RDG, = 2 8 ° 3 0 ' + 130*35'
St 1 5 9 *0 5 (approximate value of the angle measured)

n (off) s 6 ( 1 5 9 * 0 5 ') = 9 5 4 ° 3 0 '

2 (3 6 0 ° ) + 2 3 4 * 3 0 ' (this q u a n t i t y r ep r e s e n ts six times
the approximate tangle measured, it also shows that the 360'
• • mark was pas sed twice during the six r epe t i t i ons )

RDG t ot
a RDG6 + No. oT P a s s e s ( 3 6 0 ° ) + AoC
a 205*54 ' + 2 (3 6 0 °) + 2 8 *3 0 ' v .
* 954*24 (total angle accumul at ed on the circle a f t e r
the si xt h r epe t i t i on)

RDGTOt 954*24'
- a •■ ......—
^AVE n 6
• a 159*04' ' (average value of the m e a s u r e d angle)

360. r*t
9if rNA*rr0
>p/u
Mr
*&
-
«It*
r i iM
rL';M
r uL£w
/1T&
€mJmTrPD'c
MMm%s
TRANSIT AND
Th e o d o l it e
33-1. ADJUSTMENT OF THE TRANSIT
33-2. COMMON FIELD ADJUSTMENTS
1. Adjustment o{ theJPldte Bubbles
2. Adjustment oA the Caoss HaiAS
3. Adjustment oA the Line oA Sight
4. Adjustment oA the StandaAds
5. Adjustment oA the Telescope Bubble Tube
6. Adjustment oA the VeAtical CiAcle
33-3. THE THEODOLITE
33-4. TVPES OF THEODOLITES
1. Repeating Theodolite
2. DiAectional Theodolite
3. Digital Theodolite
33-5. SETTING UP THE THEODOLITE
33-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS ^
1. Angles FAom Measured DiAections
2. Angles fAom Measured DiAections

J t

Lesson
33-1. ADJUSTMENT OF THE TRANSIT.

Although modern surveying instruments seldom get out of

adjustment they should, however, be.tested regularly as it
is impossible to predict when an adjustment would be neces­
sary. The engineer’s transit x~S likely to get out of ad­
justment usually as a result of improper handling either in
the field or when transporting the instrument. Changes in
temperature and in some instances improper adjustments made
on the instrument that were not really necessary are other
reasons why adjustments have to be made. It is difficult to
make a good and accurate survey with an instrument which is
out of adjustment. The instrumentman. must therefore be
capable "of making regular tests and adjustments on his
instrument since he is the one most (familiar with the
instrument, aside from being the most logical person who
should doit.
Adjustments which are made on an engineer's transit are
classified either as shop adjustments or field'adjustments.
Shop adjustments are those made in a service facility of
the manufacturer of tin instrument or through an authorized
dealer or distributor. Such adjustments are undertaken by
trained instrument specialists. Adjustments arid repairs
performed in a shop are often done satisfactorily, however,
these service facilities are not usually available in most
places and considerable delay results due to packing and
shipping the instrument to such shops. Field adjustments
are simpler to perform, and should be undertaken by the
instrumentman periodically or just prior to exequting a
survey. Such adjustments are necessary to maintain the
instrument in operational status.

33-2*. COMMON FIELD ADJUSTMENTS.

The most common field adjustments made oh the engineer's

transit are:

1. Adjustment of the Plate Bubbles.

a) Purpose: This adjustment is undertaken to make
the axis of each plate bubble lie in a plane perpendicular
to the vertical axis of the instrument.
b ) Effect: If the plate bubbles are not centered the
horizontal plate will lie in a plane wttich,is inclined to
the horizontal. Such a condition will affect the accuracy
of measured horizontal and vertical angles andthe lining
in of objects, especially when the points sighted are at
varying elevations. *
c) Procedure of Testing: The transit is $et up and
carefully leveled with each bubble tube parallel with a
diagonal pair of leveling screws then the irffctrument is
rotated*through 180 degrees in the horizontal plane. If the
bubbles remain centered, the axis of each level tube is in
a plane perpendicular to the vertical axi^; but, if not,
IC O W TKAM
nr amv rmoovurg
 either or both bubbles will be displaced and the amount of
the displacement will be double the error of adjustment.
d) Applying the Correction:' It the bubbles become
iisplaced, bring them halfway back by raising or lowering
one end of the bubble tube. This is done by turning the
capstan headed screw with an adjusting pin. The bubble is
then brought exactly to center by means df ^the leveling
screws and the test is repeated to verify the results. This
process will make the .vertical axis truly vertical and
horizontal plate truly horizontal.
2. Adjustment of the Cross Hairs.
a) Purpose: This adjustment is ^performed to deter­
mine if the vertical cross, hair lies in a plane perpendicu­
lar to the horizontal axis of the intrament?.
b) Effect: The ring holding the cross hairs may have
rotated from its correct position such that an object
sighted appears to move away from the vertical hair when
the telescope is raised or- depressed.
c) Procedure of Testing: The transit is set up and
the vertical cross hair sighted and aligned on a well
defined point about 100 m away. It is not necessary ’ to
level the instrument when performing this test. With both
horizontal motions clamped^ the telescope is then rotated
slightly about its horizontal axis to allow the point to
traverse the length of the vertical cross hair. If the
correct relation exists, the point will appeair to move
continuously along the hair. If not, the point v^ill appear
to move away from the vertical cross hair as the telescope
is rotated.
d) Applying the Correction: To adjust, loosen two
adjacent capstan screws holding the cross hair ring and
carefully rotate the ring until the point sighted appears
to traverse the entire length of the vertical*cross hair>
The ring is rotated by applying slight pressure on the
screws or by tapping with a pencil or pen. Several trials
may be necessary to attain the correct adjustment. When the
desired results are attained, the screws should be tight­
ened. *
3. Adjustment of thp Line of Sight.
a) Purpose: The main purpose of adjusting the line
of sight is to bring it perpendicular to the horizontal
axis of the telescope. -
b) Effect: When this desired relationship is not
satisfied errors are introduced in measured horizontal
angles particularly when the objects sighted are located
above or below the instrument. It also causes angular
errors when prolonging a straight*.1 ine by plunging the
telescope only once. ■ *
c?) Procedure of Testing: Set up the instrument and
level it carefully. Sight on a point A about 100 m away
with telescope normal. With both horizontal motions clamp­
ed, plunge the telescope and set another point B on the
line of sight and about the same distance away from the

Srt i ---------- ioA

 instrument. Unclamp the upper motion, rotate the transit
end for end about the vertical axis, and again sight at A
with telescope reversed. Clamp the upper motion and plunge
the telescope as done earlier and see if the vertical
cross hair is on point B. If it is not, the line of sight
is not perpendicular to the horizontal axis of the tele­
scope and adjustment is necessary.
d) Applying the Correction: To adjust, set po
on the line of sight beside B. Locate a point D at one-
fourth the distance measured from C toward B. By means of
two opposite capstan screws on the sides of the cross hair
ring adjust.the ring laterally until the vertical hair is
lined up on point D. Tighten the capstan screws afte*
completing the adjustment.
4. Adjustment of the Standards.
a) Purpose: The standards are adjusted to make the
horizontal axis of the instrument perpendicular . to its
vertical axis.
b) Effect: When this relationship is not satisfied
errors are introduced in measured horizontal angles, es­
pecially when the object sighted are above or below the
horizontal. It also does not allow the transit to cor­
rectly plumb along the vertical. '
c) Procedure of Testing: Set up the transit near a
building then sight on some well defined point A at a
considerable vertical angle. Level the instrument very
carefully, thus making the vertical axis f'ormly vertical.
Sight at the high point A and, with the horizontal motions
clamped, depress the telescope and set a point B on or near
the ground. If the horizontal axis is perpendicular to the
vertical axis, A and B will be in the same vertical plane.
Plunge the telescope, rotate the instrument end for end
about the vertical axis, and again sight on A. Depress the
telescope as before; if the line of sight falls on B, the
horizontal axis is perpendicular to the vertical axis.
d) Applying the Correction: If the line of sight
does not fall on B, set a point C on the line of sight
beside B. A point D, halfway between B and C, will lie \n
the same vertical plane with A./ Sight on D; elevate the
•telescope until the 'line of sight is beside A; loosen the
screws of the bearing cap and raise or lower the adjustable
end of the horizontal axis until the line of sight is in
the same vertical plane with A.
5. Adjustment of the Telescope Bubble Tube.
a} Purpose: This adjustment is undertaken to make
the axis of the telescope bubble tube parallel to the line
of sight.
b) Effect: When the transit is used as a level, dif­
ferences in elevation are in error when sight distance are
unequal.
c) Procedure of Testing: Proceed in the manner des­
cribed for the "Two-peg Test." The Two-peg Test is des­
cribed in Lesson Numbers 15 and 16. Use either of the two
 metheds given.
d) Applying the Correction: When the line of sigh
is set on the rod reading established for a horizontal
line, the correction is made by raising or lowering one end
of the telescope level tube until the bubble is centered.
6. Adjustment of the Vertical Circle.
a) Purpose: The vertical circle of the transit is
adjusted in order that it will read zero when the telescope
bubble is centered. *
b) Effect: An error will be introduced in the mea­
surement of vertical angles if the zero of the vernier and
the zero of the vertical circle do not coincide when the
telescope is horizontal.
c) Procedure of Testing: This adjustment is suitable
only for transits with fixed verniers. With the plate
bubbles centered, center the telescope bubble and read the
vernier on the vertical circle. An adjustment will be
required if the indicated reading is not exactly zero.
d) Applying the Correction: The capstan headed
screws which fasten the vernier to the standards are loos­
ened and the vernier is moved until the zero marks are at
the proper position. Then the capstan screws are re­
tightened. In adjusting, care should be taken to avoid
leaving a gap between the vernier and vertical circle since
a space introduces errors in reading vertical circles.

The above listed adjustments should be- made in the order

given to avoid disturbing the previous adjustments. After
any adjustments have been completed, the proper test should
also be applied at once. However, when a transit is found
to be badly out of adjustment, it may be necessary to-
repeat the wholerprocess after a set of adjustments is
completely carried out. It will be seen that in a severely
maladjusted instrument a proper and thorough adjustment can
( only be effected gradually by repetition.

33-3. THE THEODOLITE.

a
A theodolite is an instrument designed to accomplish the
same primary ^purposes as a transit, that is to measure
horizontal and vertical angles and to prolong straight
lines. There is no certainty with respect to the origin of
this term for a surveying instrument. The appearance o£ a
theodolite can easily be distinguished from a transit since
this instrument is smaller, more compact, lighter in
weight, is easy to operate, has a short telescope, and no
exposed verniers or compass. However, the characteristics
of theodolites vary so much that they are not covered in
detail here. A student who has gained proficiency in the
use of an engineer's transit will find no difficulty in
using a theodolite later. To have a better insight into the
operation of a particular theodolite, a descriptive bro­
chure or user's manual should be obtained from the manu­

jrTf ^ E o ^ rn to o o trrr - n ——
 facturer or distributor of the instrument.
Theodolites have horizontal and•vert lead circles for
angle measurements just as in transits. The graduated hori­
zontal and vertical circles are made of glass instead of
metal and are relatively small. They are viewed simul­
taneously from the eyepiece of the telescope by means of a
system of microscopes and prisms. During daytime observa­
tions, an adjustable mirror mounted on the instrument is
used to reflect sunlight to illuminate the two circles. For
work at night or in dark places, an artificial light po­
wered by battery is provided. The values observed through a
reading micrometer microscope are greatly magnified and
enables the instrumentman to make readings without eye-
strain. These optically read theodolites also enables the
instrumentman to, make single observations of angles more
precisely than those which can be made by several repeti­
tions with an engineer's transit. The procedure of reading
horizontal angles and directions varies with the make of
the theodolite.
There is nothing much of a difference in the design of
the vertical circles of different types and brands of
theodolites. All vertical circle readings are referred to-
t h e t r u e zg.nith. Vertical circles are commonly graduated
clockwise with its index mark pointing vertically upward
when thq vertical circle bubble is centered. With the
telescope in the direct position, the vertical circle will
read 90 degrees on a level line of sight, and 270 degrees
when in reversed position. Consequently, a vertical angle
referred to the horizontal is determined by subtracting the
vertical circle reading from 90 degrees. When the telescope
is reversed, 270 degrees is subtracted from the observed
reading.
■
— - o dV- H g W r t ” "r '1 Voo x j \$ <■;, V'v . ■ ,, r , w
33-4. TYPES OF THEODOLITES.

Theodolites may be classified as repeating, directional,

and digital instruments.

1. Repeating Theodolite. A repeating theodolite is so

designed that it can measure a horizontal angle as many
times as required by adding them successively on the gra­
duated circles. An engineer's transit is actually a re­
peating instrument since it is > capable of accumulating
angles on its horizontal circle by means of its upper and
lower motions. The horizontal scales on a repeating theo­
dolite may allow horizontal angles to be read directly to
10 sec or 20 sec. More precise theodolites may read the
scales directly to 1 sec or even a fraction of a second.
The Dietzgen 6020-AGE Theodolite (Fig 33-1) and the Pentax
TH-20WA Theodolite (Fig 33-2) are examples of repeating
instruments.,
2. Directional Theodolite. In a directional theodolite
the horizontal .circle remains fixed during a series of

T H E E H O IH E E H 'S t h a n -
S I T AHD T H E o DO L i f t
Fig. 33-1. Viztzgzn 6020-AGE Fig. 33-2.'Pzntax TH-20UA
Jtzpzating thiodolite.- repeating thzodctitz.

X
S IT AND 1 H I( I D O L I
observations. The telescope is sighted on each of the
points and directions rather than angles to these points
are read on the circle. A required horizontal angle is
determined by calculating the difference between two ob­
served directions.
A reading,on a directional theodolite represents the
mean of two: diametrically opposed sides of the circle. It
is equivalent to averaging readings of the A and B verniers
of a transit. This is possible because the instrumentman is
able to view both sides of the circle through an arrange­
ment of mirrors and prisms. This procedure not only gives
more accurate readings and saves time, but also automati­
cally compensates for errors due to eccentricity.
The vertical circle .of a directional theodolite is
similar to that of a repeating theodolite. Both types
measure zenith angles, which are angles observed in a
vertical plane downward from an upward directed vertical
line through the instrument. Zenith angles lie between 0
and 180 degrees when the telescope is in direct position.
Most vertical circles used in theodolites are equipped with
either an automatic pendulum compensator or a coincidence
type control bubble which eliminates any index error from
the vertical circle reading.
A directional theodolite ..is considered to be more pre­
cise than a repeating theodolite. The Wild T2 Universal
Theqdolite (Fig.. 33— 3) and the Carl Zeiss-Je'na 010B Theodo­
lite (Fig 33-4) are examples of this type of instrument..
3. Digital Theodolite. Due to recent technological
advances the production of electronic digital theodolites
have been stimulated. The design and use of this type of
instrument resembles very closely a standard theodolite
since horizontal and vertical angles in a survey are mea­
sured in a similar manner.
A digital theodolite can be combined with an EDM ins­
trument and a microcomputer to assemble into what is called
a total station instrument (Fig. 33-5) or an ’electronic
tacheometer. Total stations are extremely versatile and
useful for almost all types of,survey. Such a unit can be
employed for measuring distances and can also automatically
read arid record horizontal and vertical angles as well as
display them externally in digital form. In a' total station
the horizontal and vertical relations of the telescope are
converted from mechanical angular displacements to direct
digital readouts. It eliminates the need to read circles
through a microscope. Either light-emitting diodes ILEDs)
or liquid-crystal diodes (LCDs) are used for read-out» dis­
plays.
In some models, a microprocessor computes the horizon­
tal distance and the vertical distance to a point based on
slope distance which is inputted from the EDM unit and the
vertical circle reading. The readings which are displayed
visually in the instrument can also be recorded automatical­
ly in a sol id-state memory device. A magnetic tape storage
TH E E N G IN E E R 'S TR A N '
S IT AND T H E O D O L IT E

J
 device is sometimes used and the collected data can be fed
to a microcomputer system for further processing^
Total station theodolites are a relatively recent deve­
lopment and to attempt to describe in detail the different
models now available would be outside the scopie of this
lesson. To gain a deeper insight into the operation of
these new instruments, a descriptive brochure should be
obtained from the instrument manufacturers.

Fig. 33-5. Topcon ET-1 Fig. 33-6. Wild Viitomat V14

total station iiutuui&it■ total'station inAttumznt.

When using a theodolite with very, sensitive bubbles it is

important to have a solid tripod set up. The instrument
must be properly shaded when used during bright and sunny
days in order that the bubble will not, expand or run toward
the warmer end of the heated vial.
The tripod of the theodolite is carefully set over the
ground point to be occupied in the same manner described
for transit setups. Once the instrument is approximate!:
centered over the point it can be centered more exactly
with the optical plummet or vertical collimator. This de­
vice consists of a horizontal microscope through which the
observer is. able to view the point directly beneath the
instrument. It is used in place of the plumb bob for making
the final setting over the point. A small circle which lies
in the vertical plane through the center of the instrument
is also visible. When'the point over which the theodolite
is being set coincides with the small circle, the instru­
ment is centered over the point.
A different methoa of centering the theodolite over a
desired point is by "forced centering." This is made pos­
sible by the use of the telescoping plumbing rod. When the
• v
rvjr / n0 inc
9 IT ANO
c*t‘
s r*Av-
T H lO P O L ir g
bottom part of the rod is set into the point, its top is
moved laterally to bring the rod into a vertical position
by means of the tribrach which moves over the top of the
tripod. When the rod is correctly plumbedthe bubble in the
bull’s eye level which is attached to therod should be at
its center. The upper end of the rod and the tribrach are
then locked into position. '
To level the theodolite the plate bubble is# placed
parallel to two of the three leveling screws and the bubble
is brought to the center by manipulating these two screws.
The instrument is rotated 90 degrees and the bubble is
again centered but this time using only the third scre
Then the instrument is rotated back to the first position
to check if the bubble is still centered. If not, the above
process is repeated until the bubble remains centered for
any direction of pointing. ' ' ,- .
33-6. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. A N G L E S F R O M M E A S U R E D DIRECTIONS, A direction theodolite,
reading to Isec, is set up at A (Fig. 33-7) for the purpose of measure-
ing the horizontal. angles between B and C, C and D, and D and E.
The telescope in direct position is turned clockwise and pointed suc­
cessively at B, C, D, and E with the circle. readings recorded as: 128°
50* 16", I79° 16*41 , I93°06'0‘4"f and 233° 15 32''respectively,The teles­
cope is reversed and sighted again on E and then in a counterclockwise
order sighted on D, C; and B. The corresponding circle readings tor^this
second set of sightings were recorded as: 53°I51 34", 13°06' 10% 359° 16'
47", and 308°50'22", respective!y. Determine the required horizontal an­
gles and tabulate values accordingly. Also show check.

S o lu tio n : . V '
•# ♦
a) Determining the Mean Direction to Each Point.
Mean RdgB = [Direct RdgB + (Reversed RdgB ± l8 0 ° )]/ 2
,= [I2 8 ° 5 0 'l6 " + (3 0 8 °5 0 '2 2 " - l8 0 ° )]/ 2
= l 2 8 o5 0 l | 9 " (mean direction to B) •

Meat* Rdgc = [Direct Rdgc + (Reversed Rdgc + l 8 0 ° ) ] / 2

[ l 7 9 ° 16*‘ 4 1" + ( 3 5 9 ° I 6 ' 4 7 " - 180°)] / 2
3 I 7 9 ° 16 * 4 4 M (m e a n d i r e c t i o n to C)

,370, TH £
5/T
I N Q i H t E R 'S THAN*
A H > T M tO O O L tT *
 Mean Rdgo « [D ir e c t RdgD + (R e ve rse d Rddo - l 8 0 ° ) ] / 2
s [ 1 9 7 °0 6 * 0 4 ” + U 3 * 0 6 ' I©" + 0 []/2
s I 9 3 ° 0 6 ' 07*' (mean direction to 0)

Mean RdgE = [ D ir e c t , RdgE + (Reversed RdgE ± 18 0 ° ) ] / 2

* [ 2 3 3 ° 15 ' 3 2 " + ( 5 3 ° J 5 ' 3 4 " +' l 8 0 ° ) ] / 2
= 2 3 3 ° 15 * 3 3 " (mean d ire c tio n to E )

b) Calculating the Horizontal Angles.

= Mean Rdgc - Mean Rdg0 =:■ 17 9 ° I 6 4 4 - . 128 50 19’
= ■ 5 0 ° 2 6 ‘2 5 n ( v a l u e of a n g l e B A C )

s Mean RdgQ ~ Mean Rdgc = 193°06*07" ~ 179° i 6 ’4 4 "

*2
S' I3°49'23" ( v a l u e of a n g le C A D )

s Mean Rdg£ - Mean Rdg0 = 233e 15'33 " - 193°06,0 7 ,‘

°3
= 4 0° 00 ' 26" t v a l u e of angle D A E )
)
■ ^4
s Mean RdgE - Mean Rdg0 = 233° 15 *33 " - 128°50' 19"
= 104° 2 5 1 14" ( v a l u e of angle B A E )
f
c) Solution Check.
3 ■©'4 s •©•] + -©*2 + ^3
I0 4 ° 2 5 'l4 " = 5 0 ° 2 6 '2 5 " + I3 ° 4 9 '2 3 " + 4 0 °0 9 '2 6 "
1 0 4 ° 2 5 ' 14 " = 104° 2 5 1 14 " (checks) *

d) Tabulated Solution.

STA STA TELES

C I R C L E RDG MEAN RDG
OCC OBS POS

A B D 1 2 8 * 5 0 ' 16" 1 2 8 *5 0 19"

R 308* 50' 22"
C D 1 7 9 ° 16 4 1 " 1 7 9* 16 4 4 "
R 3 5 9 * 16 4 7" . ' ■
D D 193° 06 04" 19 3 * 0 6 0 7 "
R 13* 0 6 t o "
E D 2 3 3 * 1.5 32" 2 3 3 *1 5 33"
R 5 3 * 15 34"

2 . A N G L E S F R O M M E A S U R E D DIRECTIONS . A direction theodolite

I:; used to measure angles about a point. Three positions of the circle •
are used and the ees.ulting directions are shown in the accompanying
tabulation.
*_____ . •
ST A STA MEAN V A L U E OF AN GLE W IT H T E L E S C O P E D IR E C T 8 REVERSED
OCC OBS 1S T P O S IT IO N 2ND P O S I T I O N 3R D P O S I T I O N . *
A B-1 18 ° 0 6 ‘ 1 2 .6 " 6 3 * 0 6 ' 0 6 . 1" 1 0 8 * 0 6 *0 2 .9 "
Cv 3 0 * 5 0 * 2 7 .0 " 7 5 * 5 0 * 1 5 .3 " 120*50* I 3 . 0 "
D 1 19 * 4 1 ' 0 7 . 5 " 16 4 * 4 0 * 5 5 . 0 " 2 0 9 * 4 0 * 4 8 .0 " ,
E 2 2 9 * 5 4 * 1 2 .0 " 2 7 4 * 5 3 * 5 8 .0 " 3 19 * 5 3 * 4 9 .0 "
____

iff ,37'
Compute the three angles from each positioh and the mean of each of the
three angles from the three p ositions.
S
olu
tio
n:
o) Determ ining the Three Angles from Each Position.
1st P o s itio n : , - '.
<BAC, 3 >RDGC - RDGb 3 3 0 ° 5 0 '2 7 .0 " - I 8 ° 0 6 'i2 .6 " \
3 I 2 ° 4 4 , I 4 .4 " (valu t of angle BAC calcu lated from the 1st positioh)

<ICAD| 3 RDGd - RDGC 3 i r 9 o4 l/ 0 7 .5 " - 3 0 ° 5 0 '2 7 .0 "

3 SO ^ O ^ O -S " (valua of angle CAD cq lcu la tad from tha 1st position)

<£DAE, ■;= RDG e - RDGp = 229°54,I2.0" - II9°4 1‘07.5"

3 110 ° 13 * 0 4 . 5 ’ (valu a of angle DAE calculatod from the 1st position)

2nd Position : ^
< B A C 2 = RDGC - RDG b 3 7 5 ° 5 0 ' 1 5 .3 " - 6 3 ° 0 6 ' 0 6 . 1"
3 l 2 o4 4 ' 0 9 . 2 " (valua of angla BAC calcu la ted from the 2nd positiorl)

< C A D 2 3 RDG d - RDGC 3 I6 4 ° 4 0 '5 5 .0 " - 7 5 ° 5 0 ‘ l5 .3 " -

3 8 8 ° 5 0 , 3 9 .7 " (value of angle CAD calculated from the 2nd position!)

< D A E 2 = RDGE - RDG d = 2 7 4 ° 5 3 '5 8 .0 " - I 6 4 ° 4 0 '5 5 .0 " .

3 II0 ° I3 '0 3 .0 " (valu e of angle DAE calculated from the 2nd position)

3rd Position:
<XBAC3 3 RDGC - RDGB 3 I 2 0 ° 5 0 ’ 1 3 .0 " - l0 8 o0 6 '0 2 .9 "
3 I2 ° 4 4 <l 0 .l " (value of angle BAC calcu lated, from the 3rd position)

<CAD3 3 RDG d - RDGC 3 2 0 9 ° 4 0 '4 8 .0 " - I2 0 ° 5 0 ' I 3 .p "

3 8 8 * >5 0 , 3 5 . 0 " (value of angle CAD calcu lated from the 3rd position)

< D AE3 3 RDGE - RDG d 3 3 I9 ° 5 3 '4 9 .0 " - 2 0 9 ° 4 0 '4 8 .0 "

3 I I 0 * 1 3* 0 1 . 0 " (value of angle DAE ca lcu la te d from the 3rd position)

b) Determining the Mean Value of Each Angle. .

<XBAC 3 ( < B A C ,+ < B A C 2 + < B A C 3) / 3
3 ( 1 2 ° 4 4 ‘ 14.4" + I 2 ° 4 4 '0 9 .2 " + 1204 4 ' 1 0 .1" ) / 3
3 I2 °4 4 ll.2 (m ean value of angle BAC c a lc u la te d from the
th re e p o sitio n s)

<CAO 3 (< C A D ,+ < C A D 2t < C A D 3) / 3

3 (8 8 ° 5 0 '4 0 .5 " + 8 8 ° 5 0 '3 9 .7 " + 8 8 ° 5 0 '3 £ .0 " ) / 3
3 8 8 ° 5 0 , 3 8 .4 " (mean valu e of angle CAD c a lc u la te d from the
th re e p o sitio n s)
' * ' 1 . \ '
<DAE 3 (<JDAE, + <XDAE2+ <DAE3) / 3
. 3 (I I0 ° I3 '0 4 .5 " + 110°I 3 '0 3 .0 " + I I 0 P 13*01.0 " ) / 3 . *
3 I I 0 ° I 3 0 2 .S " (mean value of angle DAE c a lc u la te d from the
th ree p o sitio n s)

rue e N s t i h e i n 't m a n -
s it AN D T H i 00 0 4 . IT S
 T R A V E R S IN G
AN D TRAVERSE
C O M P U T A T IO N S
Part V II: Lesson Nos. 34 Thru 39
TRAVERSING
AND TRAVERSE
COMPUTATIONS
34-1. INTERIOR ANGLE TRAVERSE
34-2. DEFLECTION ANGLE TRAVERSE
34-3, ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEUS
1. I n t Z K l o K A n g le . T K a v e A & e

2. IntoiioJi Angle. T4.aveA.Ae

3. Ve.ile.cti.on Angle. TKave\ac

Lesson
TNA V t t t S lN P AND TN4~
V t H M C O U N U T A T IO M I
 34-1. INTERIOR ANGLE TRAVERSE.

The interior angle traverse is used principally in land

surveying. An example of this type of traverse is shown in
Figure 34-1. The angles "formed between the adjacent sides
of the illustrated closed figure are known as interior
angles. These are the angles at stations A,B,C,D,E, and F.

F ig . 34-1. J htexioK angle. teavexAe. }

Interior angles may be measured either in a clockwise

or counterclockwise direction, however, the usual "practice
is to measure these angles clockwise. Thus, the int^ior
angle at A is measured from B to F, that at B from C to;/.,
that at C from D to B, that at D from E to C, that at E.
from F to D, and that at F from A to E. The common mistakes
in reading, plotting, and recording are reduced if one
method of measurement is consistently adapted.'
To run an interior angle traverse, the instrument is
set up at each station. The horizontal circle is set to
zero and a sight to the station on the left is taken. The
instrument is then turned on its upper motion until* the
station on the right is sighted, and the interior angle is
observed and recorded. Interior angles should be measured
with sufficient repetitions to obtain the desired preci­
sion. For any number of repetitions, half should be ob­
served with the te*lescope in direct position a*nd the other
half in reversed position. Notes are kept in a form similar
to .that shown in Figure 34-2. /
The interior angles of any closed traverse may be
checked by the geometrical relation that in any polygon
having* n sides the sum of the interior angles must equal
(n-2) times 180 degrees. This relation furnishes a check on
the accuracy of the angular measurements and also serves as
a basis for distributing the errors in measurement. Thds,
rfiA V tH S lM i ANO T A A -
iy f v i a M M c o n t r o l a t u rns
 Fig. 3 4 - 2 . Sgmplt iieJtd notzb j o * an in ttn io K angle. tna vvu e..
November 3,1986 Cloudy Bright
/ VT£R/< 1R ANi 'L E 77 'A VERl '£ 9712 AM/28 1C PMA Parade Ground
Lab £xercise So. IS Grp.So. 4/CE 22/
A. Tabulat, on of c'bservec Data. 3 0 770 0A 0 7
STATION OaS£R\ EO INT. , NGLE OBSERVED
OCC 00S o ta r
SINGLE DOUBLE MEAN PCAMN4 / 7/ 1* / c 7 c*
A E te + /< u * ' ls » e ‘ 04

B I3 9 .il m / 6 6 *5 3 ' 333*45' 166*52' SB9‘ 0 0 'E r t l */ r

8 A i s 5 iSI n 77cn Ot 7/ ( t i it ti nc r c V* t'

C SO. 03 103" 16' 206"30‘ 103*15' S t 2*00'E
C B r/ r u ’ 1- c t s 5 ;

0 2 /0 .4 6 89*29' 178*56' 89*28' S78*30'W ■ < 05 1 / cr 'c r9

0 C
E 80.23 90’05' / 80*08' 90*04 ' S I l*3 0'W i v| 0 V - £ ' IT1/ 1 ? 5/ 5
£ D * < ' :i /• 6c /i / 0 t (9 0 B 1 ) 0 t OC'l
A 74.46 90*16' 180*32' 90*16' S 7 8 ’ 2S'E n /c r 't r 777^ e
539*55' s k 6»
U n tO 1 /
AA
///r ADJ
E 165 5 1X * 6 ____ L
ANGLE INT. ANGL 9-0 r .S l .
A 166'3 2 ' tO j' 166*53' 1
B 103 '15 ' r O l' 103*16 L
■)
C 89*28' r O l' 89*29' \ u. | 97' J
0 ■ 9O’0 4 ‘ * O l' 90*05'
E 90"16' * O t' 90*17' G
s >0
SUMS 53&55‘ 7 05' 540*00' (checks/ t
- r
V . ______, v i d —

t
to test the internal angular closure, the observed interior
angles are added and their sum is compared with (n-2)180
degrees. An angular error exists if the two quantities are
not equal. Should there be art angular ejtrror, the observed
angles are adjusted by assuming that the error is of the
same amount at each station. The adjusted angles should
always be added to check whether their sum is already the
expected value. In so doing, mistakes in adding the in­
terior angles or in applying the corrections becomes appa­
rent. For more precise surveys, an added check is also
provided if the exterior angle at each station is measured
to close the horizon.
Should there be a need to determine the bearing or
azimuth.of succeeding lines in the traverse, a- sketch using
the known data at the succeeding stations should each be
made. From these sketches the required calculations will be
obvious. The distance between stations are measured by tape
or by using EDM instruments and the precision of these
linear measurements should be consistent with that used in
t.he measurement of angles. The surveyor has the option to
measure‘distances either at the same time as the angles are
measured or as a separate step either before or aftef the
angles are measured. *#

34-2. DEFLECTION ANGLE TRAVERSE.

The deflection angle traverse is used frequently for the
T R A V iA M N U AND THA
ViAMi GOMROfATtout .377,
 location survey'of roads, Railroads, pipelines,- transmis>-
sion lines, canals, and other similar types of survey. It
is employed •'to a lesser extent in land surveys and in
establishing controls for hydrographic and • topographic
Surveys. A deflection angle, as shown in Figure 34-3, is a

Fig . 34-5. Peilection angle-A,

horizontal angle • measured clockwise or counterclockwise

from the prolongation of the preceding’ line to the succeed­
ing 1 ine. Such angles vary from 0 degrees to 180 degrees
and? must be designated as right. (R) or left (L). Thus at
station £, the deflection angle is 20°10r(R); and at
( station C, the deflection angle is 85°30,(L).
FlU. 34-4. Ve.6leje.tion angle btaveete..

A deflection angle traverse is run by occupying succes­

sive traverse stations. In Figure 34-4, tHe transit may
first’ be se4: •up at station A. A backsight is taken on
station E, with the telescope in direct position and- the7 0
770
\QlSmmmmmm.rv**A*
vq
mts4#0aho r**~
cqhautat***
circle reading set to 0*00'. Then the telescope is plunged
and a sight is taken on station B by loosening and turning
the upper motion, and the Value of the deflection angle is
read arid recorded. The lower motion is loosened, the teles­
cope turned about the vertical axis and again backsighted
at station E. For the second time the telescope is again
plunged and sighted at station B with double, the value of
the angle now appearing on the horizontal circle, and with
the telescope back in direct position.• The observed angle
is recorded as right or left, according to whether the
upper motion is turned clockwise or counterclockwise. Di­
viding the total angle by 2 gives an average angle. This
process of . turning the angle by double deflection elimi­
nates all errors of adjustment and mistakes, and also gives
a greater precision of measurement. Figure 34-5 Illustrates
the field notes for a deflection angle traverse.
Fig. 34-5. Sample. iield note* to* a deflection angle ttavee^e.

sidering those turned to the left as being opposite in sign

to those turned to the right, should equal to 360 degrees.*
If, however, the lines cross once, or any odd number of
times, the sum of the right deflection angles should equal
the sum of the left deflection angles.
During the execution of a deflection angle traverse^
the bearing of -each line is computed from the preceding
lino and is recorded as the calculated bearing* This.* is

r n A v * * * m * a m p t m a - __________
V A A A i I O A t r v lA i 1 0*9 mmmmm— m J 1 Vi
checked by observing the magnetic bearing on the /-compass*
box.'To determine the forward azimuth of a succeeding line,
a right deflection angle is Simply added to the' forward
azimuth of the preceding line; if a left deflection angle
is observed, it is subtracted. . * -
The principal advantages of running a traverse by" de­
flection angles are: azimuths are easily computed from de­
flection angles, the deflection angles are easy to plot,
ahd these angles are commonly used ih the computation of
circular curves for road and railroad surveys. A distinct
disadvantage, however, is the extreme care required when
working with small angles. Also, there is always the poss'i-'
bility of the notekeeper committing a .unistake in recording
the direction of the deflection angle.
Deflection angles are subject to grave errors if the
instrument used is not in prdper adjustment. These errors.
may"be larger or smaller than their correct values depend­
ing on whether the angle observed is to the right or left*
of the prolongation of the preceding line. It is for this
reason that deflection angles should .always be doubled or
preferably quadrupled when measured. In so doing, most of
the/ instrumental errors are eliminated, and the second
value of the angle provides a check on the first observed
value.
34-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
1. INTERIO R ANGLE TRAVERSE. The interior angles-of a five-sided
closed traverse (Fig. 3 4 - 6 ) were measured as fellows:
* • . *
A = I i 8°30* C = Not Measured E = I40°5(i
B = 95° 33* D = I 34° Io'.

if- all observed angles are assumed to be correctt determine the interior
antfle, at C. Also determine the bearing of each line if the bedrfng of line
AB is N I5°30'E. Tabulate values accordingly.
* •• * .t V'
T I P O _________ T R A V C R 'S t** ANO TKA -
\xS^mmmmmm
l
vtmsM coururArtoH*
Solution.
a) Determining the Angle at C.
n = 5 (number of s id e s In the traverse)
Sum - (n-2) 180° = ( 5 - 2 ) 1 8 0 ° *
3 540° (sum of in te r io r an g les fo r a f lv e - iid e d clo se d tra v e rs e )

Sum 3 < A + <B + <C + <XD + <E '

54q°00' 3 11 8°30' + 95°33' + <C + 134° 10* + I40°50'
<C 3 50 57 (in t e rio r angle at sta tio n C)
b) Determining Bearing of Each Course.

eCbc= 95°33' - I5°30' ,

= 80°03 (T h e re fo re the bearing
of lin e BC Is S 80*03 •£)

oCcA - I 80°00' -(80°03' + 50*57 *•)

3 4 9 °0 0 ' (T h e re fo re the
bearing of line CD is
3 4 9 * 0 0 'W)

cC d 9 3 I 3 4 ° i O' - 4 9 °0 0 '
3 85 10 (Therefore the bearing
of line DE is N 8 5 * I0 'W )

oCma 3 85° 10* t I40°50' - I80°00'

3 4 6 °O 0 ' (T h e re fo re the
bearing of lin e EA is
N46°00'W )

.381,
Solution Check:

cCab= I8 0 ° 0 0 '— ( 11 8 * 3 0 ' + 46°00')

s I5°30' ( T h e r e f o r e the bearing
of line AB is , N I 5 * 3 0 'E )

Note: Sin ce the calculated bearing o f lin e AB is exa ctly equ al to its
known bearing, it can be assum ed that the above calculations are correct.
c) Tabulated Solution.
IN T E R I O R IN TERIO R
ST A LINE BEARING STA ANG LE LIN E BEA RING
ANGLE
A 1I8 °3 0 ' AB N I5 *3 0 'E D 1 3 4 ° 10' DE N 8 5 * I 0 'W
B 95*33' BC S 8 0 *0 3 'E E 14 0 * 5 0 ' EA N 4 6 *0 0 'W
C 50*57' CD S 4 9 ° OO'W

2 . IN T E R IO R A N G L E T R A V E R S E . The observed interior angles of a

closed traverse are as follows: A, 153°30,0 0 11; B15 8 o20l20"; C,I39°I9'00"
D,78o2 l ,2 0 l; and E, 11C^se'cc1’. Determine the angular closure pnd adjust
the measured angles by assuming that the angular error is of the same
amount at each station. Tabulate values accordingly. •
S o lu tio n :
a) Determining the Angular Error or Closure.
n = 5 (num ber of in t e r io r a n g le s in the tra v e rs e )
Sum. = < A + <IB + < C +*<XD + <E
= I53°30'00" + 58°20'20" + I39°I9'00" + 78°2l'20" + II0°28'00"
= ,5 3 9 58 4 0 (sum of o b served in te rio r an g les)

Sum2 = (n - 2) 180° = ( 5 - 2 ) 180°

= 540 (sum of in terio r angles fo r a fiv e - s id e d closed traverse)

Closure = Sum2 - Sum, = 5 4 0 ° - 539°58'40"

= + 1 20" (ang ular e rro r for the o b se rv a tio n s made)
Closure + l',2 0 "
Corr =
n
= + 10 (c o rre c tio n to be applied to each in te rio r angle)

b) Adjusting the Interior Angies.

> <A' = < A + Corr = l 5 3 o30'00" + 16" = I 5 3 ° 3 0 ' 16"
<8' = <2B + #Corr = 58°20'20" + 16" = SS^O'SS"*
 < c' « <C t Corr = 13 9 ° j 9 '0 0 " + .1 6 “ * 1 3 9 ° 19* 16"
<D' = <D + Corr * * 7 8 2 I 2 0 + 16" * 7 8 * 2.1'3 6
< E‘ = <E + C o rr- = N 0 ° 2 8 '0 0 " + 16" = 1 1 0 * 2 8 '1 6 "
Solu tion Check:
Sum2 = ,< a ' + < B ' + < C ‘ + ,< D ‘ + < E '
54 0 ° = ‘I5 3 °3 0 'l6 " + 5 8 °2 0 ‘36" + I 3 9 ° l9 'l6 " 4 7 8 * 2 l'3 6 " + IIO °2 8 'l6 "
540° = 5 4 0 * (checks)

c) Tab u lated Solution.

STA OBSERVED STA ADJUSTED

INT. ANGLE INT. ANGLE
A 15 3*30'00" . +16" 153*30'16"
B 58°20'20" +J6" 58*20'36"
C 139*1 9*00" + 16“ 139* 19* i 6"
D 78*21 20" +16" 78*2 l'36"
E 110 28'OG11 +16" 110*28' 16"
SUMS 539*58'40" + l' 20" 540* OO'OO"

5. D E F L E C T IO N A N G L E T R A V E R S E . Following are the observed de­

flection angles of a closed traverse:
A = 2 8 ° 2 5 ‘0 0 " ( L ) E =. 108* I 3 ' 3 0 " ( L )
B * 68°03'30"(L) F = 16 ° 50 l00"( R)
C = l 2 0 o3 4 ' 0 0 " ( L ) G > 1 10 ° 0 0 ' 3 0 " ( L )
•D = 5 8 o 3 0 ' 0 0 " ( R )
Compute the error of closure and adjust the angular4 values by assuming
that the error is the same for each angle. Tabulate values accordingly.
S o lu tio n :
a) D e te rm in ing the Error of Closure.
n = 7 (number of d e fle c tio n an g les)
, >
2DEFL = A+ B+ C + E+ G
L = 2 8 ° 2 5 '0 0 " + 6 8 ° 0 3 ' 3 0 " + I 2 0 ° 3 4 ‘ OO" + I 0 8 ° I 3 ' 3 0 " + l l 0 o0 0 ' 3 0 "
= 4 3 5 * 1 6 ' 3 0 " (sum of le ft d e fle c tio n an g les)

2D EFL R - D .4 F
= 5 8 ° 3 0 ,0 0 " | + 16° 5 0 ' 0 0 "
= 7 5 ° 2 0 '0 0 " (sum of rig ht d e flectio n angles)

D IF F , = S D E F U - SD EF L r
= 4 3 5 ° I 6 3 0 " - 7 5 o2 0 ' 0 0 u
= 3 5 9 ° 5 6 l 3 0 " (d iffe re n c e between the two sum s)

ERRO R =• 3 6 0 ° - D IF F , = 3 6 0 ° - 3 5 9 *5 6 30
= 3 '3 0 » (ang ular erro r of c lo s u re )

ERROR 3 '3 0 " v

CORR =
- O 30 (correctio n to be applied to each observed d eflectio n angle

1K»Vlhl
ll
uN
u*
rUA
rm
A>
rt1
tHf
At
' i ■ ■■WVi
 b) Adjusting the Deflection Angies.
•

A* = A + Corr + 3 0 " s 2 8 o2 5 * 3 0 " (L )

B‘
c
-
at
B
C
+ Corr
± Corr
* 2 8 tt2 5 , 0 0 " ( L )
* 6 8 ° 0 3 * 3 0 " (L )
? l 2 0 #3 4 * 0 b " (L )
V 3 b" . = 6 8 ° 0 4 '0 0 " ( L )
+ 3 0 " s I2 0 ° 3 4 , 3 0 " ( L )
T R A V E R S IN G
D*
E*
‘s D
E
+■Corr
+ Corr
+ Corr
= 5 8 ° 3 0 * 0 0 " (R )
= 108® 13 , 3 0 ,,( L )
- 3 0 " - 5 8 tt29* 30**(R)
+ 30" 108° 14*00 " (L ) •• ■V
1
A N D TRAVERSE
F*
G*
= F
= G ± Corr
= I 6 ° 5 0 '0 0 " ( R )
= 1 l 0 d0 0 * 3 0 " (L )
- 30" 16 ° 4 9 * 3 0 " (R )
+ 3 0 " = 1 10 ° 0 1* 0 0 " (L ) '/
j
C O M P U TA TIO N S
Note. By analyzing the observed values, it w ill be seen th at the sum
o f the l e f t d eflectio n an gles m ust be in c re a se d ancf the sum o f the
rig h t d e fle c tio n angles m ust be decreased.
S
olu
tio
n Check:
35-7. ANGLE TO THE RIGHT TRAVERSE
S A d j D EFL, = A' + B* + C1 + E* + G* . , „ , a ,
= 28°25*30" + 68°p4'00 + I20°34*30 + I08 oI4*00"+ 110 0100 35-2. AZIMUTH TRAVERSE
= 4 3 5 " 19*00 " (sum of a d j u s t e d l e f t d e f l ec t i on angles)
y 35 -3 . ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
S A d j D E F L r = D' t F' 1. Angle, to th e R ig h t TxaveA^e
= 5 8 °2 9 '3 0 " + I6°49*30"
= 7 5 ° 19' 0 0 (sum of a d j u s t e d r i g h t d e f l ec t i on angles) l. Azim uth T ta v e tse

DIFF 2 = S A d j D EFL l - S A d j DEFLR

* 1j i, -
= 4 3 5 ° I 9 ' 0 0 " - 7 5 ° 19 10 0 "
= 360°00*00" (checks)
.

N o te : In a d o s e d fig u re the d iffe r e n c e between the sum o f the left

r /
{ <f\
U V«,v Id
! i L- .

d eflectio n angles and the sum o f the rig h t d e fle c tio n angles should v'.oVi 'l/r'Vjv
equ al to 3 6 0 degrees.
c) Tabulated S o lu tio n . / it r
O B S ER V ED D E F L A N G LE A D JU ST ED D E F L ANGLE
STA CORR
LEFT R IG H T LEFT R IG H T
A 2 8 ° 2 5 '0 0 " +3 0 " 28 * 2 5 '3 0 "
B 6 8 *0 3 '3 0 *' + 3 0 " 6 8 ° 0 4 '0 0 "
C 12 0 * 3 4 '0 0 " + 3 0 " I 2 0 ° 3 4 '3 0 "
D 5 8 °3 C f 0 0 " -3 0 " 5 8 * 2 9 '3 0 "
•' | i: $€? In-
A- - i ' * c
E I 0 8 ° I 3 '3 0 " + 3 0 " 1 0 8 * I 4 '0 0 "
F I 6 * 5 0 '0 0 " -3 0 " 16*4 9 '3 0 "
G 1 10 0 0 '3 0 " + 30" I I 0 * 0 I ‘ 0 0 " ((
I fO

SUMS 4 3 5 * II
tn
o

7 5 * 2 0 '0 0 " 4 3 5 * 19 '0 0 " 75* I9 '0 0 "

csdefll ) (2 D E F L r ) (3EAdJ D E F L . ) (S Adj DEFL )
L. u R

Lesson 35
VtMSt COMMUTATIONS
*o e irU tA H O M ii
 35-1. ANGLE TO THE RIGHT TRAVERSE.

An angle to the. right traverse is employed when numerous

details are to be located from the traverse stations. Such
type of a traverse is commonly used on city, tuftnel, and
mine surveys, and in locating details for a topographic
map.. An open or a closed, traverse can be executed by this
method of traversing. 1 i
Angles to the right are shown in Figure 35-1, in which
a traverse is run from station A through stations B,C,D,E, r
and back to A. The angles for this type of traverse are
measured clockwise from bhe backsight on the back line to a
forward line. These angles may lie anywhere between 0
degrees and 360 degrees. Observed field data for this type
of traverse is recorded in a £orm similar to that used for
an interior angle traverse.

Fig. 3 5 -1 .’ Angle, to the tig h t txavtA^e.

In running an angle to the right traverse it is custom­

ary to first take a backsight on che preceding station with
the .horizontal circle set to read 0°00’. The instrument is '
then turned‘clockwise on the upper motion, a foresight, vs
taken to the succeeding station, and the angle is read and
recorded. At each station along the traverse a similar
procedure is repeated These angles are usually doubled by
repetition, once with the telescope in direct position and
.once in reversed position. ,This procedure is done to guard
against possible errors which could be incurred in reading
or when using an instrument which is out of adjustment. By
reading angles by repetition, greater precision could also
be attained. , *
For a closed traverse, the sum of the angles to the

X A A TRAVERSING AND TRA~

verse c o m p u t a t io n s
right should equal (n+2 ) times 180 degrees if the;- traverse
proceeds in a clockwise direction. The number of sides in
the polygon forming the traverse is designated by n. If the
traverse proceeds in a counterclockwise direction, the
interior angles are taken as the angles to the right and
the sum of the angles equals (n-2) times 180 degrees. The
method of computing a succeeding azimuth from a traverse
line whose azimuth is fixed is similar to that employed ill
an interior angle traverse. This is done by simply adding
the recorded angle to the right to the known azimuth of the
preceding line.
• •
35-2. AZIMUTH TRAVERSE.

The measurement of azimuth angles is by far one of the

quickest and most satisfactory method where at one setup of
the transit or theodolite several angles or directions can
be determined. Azimuths are measured clockwise either from
the north or south end of a selected reference meridian to
the line. These angles may lie anywhere between 0 and 360
degrefes. Figure 35-2 shows a closed traverse run by the
azimuth method in rwhich the azimuth angles have been mea­
sured clockwise from the north end of the meridian.

Fig. 35-2. Azimuth angle* meaAuted from noith.

graphic and other surveys where a large number of details

are to be located by angular and linear measurements, from
traverse stations. . *
To run an azimuth traverse, it is necessary to have a
reference meridian, either magnetic, grid, assumed, or
true. Usually, foi important surveys the reference direct­
ion is true north or true south. When less impottanc sur­
 veys are undertaken, magnetic north or magnetic south are
convenient /reference directions for the measurement of
azimuth angles. ,
In performing thie azimuth traverse, successive stations
are occupied, beginning with the line of known or assumed
azimuth. If a traverse is to be run on magnetic azimuths,
the initial setup determines the specific magnetic meridian
to which all other lines are referred.- The transit is
oriented on the magnetic meridian as follows: set the outer
circle to read zero, release the compass needle? loosen the
lower clamp, and turn the transit until the compass needle
is aligned with the north point of the compass box. Then
tighten the lower clamp, and set the needle exactly by
using the lower tangent screw. • The transit should now be'
oriented with the magnetic meridian and ready for measuring
magnetic azimuths.
r f i g . 35-3. Azimuth angles micLUVizd. -facm .iouth.

The azimuth of each line in the traverse may be deter­

mined from the preceding line. At a station the transit is
oriented by setting the A-vernier to read the back azimuth
of the preceding line and then backsighting to the preced-t
ing traverse *station. The lower motion is clamped and the
instrument is then turned on the upper motion, and ,a fore-,
sight is made on the following traverse station. The read­
ing indicated1 by the A-.vernier on the outer circle is the
azimuth of the forward line. Sirice it is impossible to
double azimuths, both verniers should be read -to avoid
blunders and small erro'rs due to eccentricity. Another
method may be done by leaving the vernier setting unchanged
between a foresight and the following backsight and #plung­
ing the telescope between each backsight and the corres-
ponding,foresight. A f.oresight is then made by turning on
the upper motion such that the corresponding reading on the
T R A V E R S IN G AND T R A -
IV.VnT— — ■ V S R S E C O M P U T A T IO N S
 fig. 35-4. Samfilt { itld n o tn {oa.«n azimuth tx a u v u i.

A-vernier gives the azimuth of the forward line.

In a closed azimuth traverse the angular error is
determined by again setting up on the starting point and
noting the- difference between initial and final azimuth
readings taken along the first line of the traverse. It is
also important to observe the magnetic bearing of each 1-ine
In an azimuth traverse. A comparison betv/een the observed
bearings and the bearings calculated from the observed
azimuths' should serve as a check against possible blunders
which could be committed. Figure 35-4 shows a sample of set
of notes for a traverse run by azimuths. '*

35-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. .

I; ANGLE TO THE RIGHT T R A V E R SE . A fi ve - sided closed traverse
(Fig. 35-5) proceeds in a clockwise direction and the angle to the right
at each station were observed as follows:
•
cCQ*= 240°30' oCti 3 220°04‘ «'
cCjfc 3 238°I5‘ oC9. 3 27I°I3' •'
cCc - 289°53‘ n = 5 •

Determine the efrot of closure and adjust the observed values on the
assumption that the error is the same for each angle. Tabulate values
accordingly

It * •i*«ISS»Si5t Stitt .309,

c) Tabulated Solution.

OBSERVED AN GLE A D JU S T E D ANGLE

STA CORR
TO TH E R IG H T TO T H E R IG H T

A 2 4 0 *3 0 ' + 01' 2 4 0 *3 1 '

B 2 3 8 *1 5 ' + 01' 23 8 * 16'
C 2 8 9 *5 3 ' + 01' 2 8 9 *5 4 '
D 2 2 0 *0 4 ' + 01' 2 2 0 *0 5 '
E 2 7 1 *1 3 ' + 01' 2 7 1 *1 4 '

SUMS 1 2 6 9 *5 5 ' + 05' 1260*00'

2 . A Z IM U T H T R A V E R S E . Gi ven In the accompanying tabulation are the

observed data for a closed traverse (Fig. 35*6 ). Determine the bearing
and azimuth from north of all traverse lines, and the angle to the right
at each station.
STA STA AZIMUTH STA STA AZIMUTH
DISTANCE DISJ-A^CE FROM SOUTH
OCC OBS FROM SOUTH OCC OBS
A E 90*28' D C . 236*13'
B 210.10 170*30' E 174.50 357*58'

B A 350*30' ’ E D 177*58'
C 155.34 123*05' A 3 3 0 .0 0 270*28'

C B 303*05' - - -
D 206.85 56*13' — —
......;_
Fig. 35-6.

a) Determining Bearing and Azimuth • (from north) of All Traverse Lines

co*rvTAnom
Fig. 35-7 B N

aC.ab
ccab «• I80 #b 0 ' - 170 * 30 '
= 9 °3 0 ' (therefore,bearing of line AB is
N 9 * 3 0 ‘W)
■0K
ab
= 180°00' + i 70°30'
= 3 5 0 o3 0 ' (azim uth from north of line AB)

oCbc= I 8 0 #0 0 ‘ - J 2 3 * 0 5 '
= 5 6 °5 5 (therefore, bearing of
line BC is N 56*55' W)
■0^ = I8 0 ° 0 0 ' + I2 3 ° 0 5 '
= 303 05 (azimuth from north
of line BC)

oCCd - 5 6 ° 13 (th e re fo re , bearing of line CD

is S56*I3'W )
■e-cd= I80°00'+ 56°I3' *
= 2 3 6 ° 13* (a zim u th from north of line CD T"

< C ^= 3 6 0 ° 0 0 ' *• 3 5 7 ° 5 8 '

2 02 (therefore, bearing of
line DE is S 2"02'E)
•O * = 3 5 7 ° 5 8 ' - 180 *0 0 *
s 177 58 (azim uth from north
of line DE)
*
 oC9a= 3 6 0 ® - 2 7 0 ° 2 8 '
= 89®32' ( t h e r e f o r e , b e a r i ng of line EA
is S 8 9 *3 2 *E) ,
2 7 0 ° 2 8 ' - I80®06'
» 90°28' (azimuth from n o r t h of line EA)

b) D eterm ining Angle to the Rig.ht at Each S ta tio n .

<J)C » (360° - 303°05‘) + 5 6 ° 13* ' <)>d ■ 3 5 7 ° 5 8 ‘ - 2 3 6 ° 13 '

a 11 3 * 0 8 ' (angle to the rig h t = I2 I° 4 5 I (ang le to the rig h t
at s ta tio n C) at s ta tio n 0)

am
Am* t a a
comnnatitm* ,393
 = 270°28' - I77°58'
= 92°30' (anglo to tho right
at station E)

to + + <t>c + 4>d + <|>. = (n 2) 180°

80° 02‘ + 132° 35* + II3°08' + I2l°45 + >92*30' = (5 - 2) 180°
540° = 54 0 ° (chocks)
TRAVERSING
AND TRAVERSE
COMPUTATIONS
36-1. TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS
36-1. LATITUDES AMD DEPASTURES
36-3. ERROR OF CLOSURE
36-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Latitudes and Depaxtuxc6
2. Ekkok o i Ctotuxe.
3. Eviox oi Closuxe.

Lesson 36
f'.«A
• v»
»»tnttiwuMr
muAm iiaoam
.3 9 5 ,
3 6 -1 ; TRAVERSE COM PUTATIONS.

For any closed traverse the first step taken by the survey­
or should always be to check if the observed angles fulfill
the geometric conditions of the figure. ..Should there be an
angular errors of closure it must be corrected to give . a
series of preliminary adjusted directions. All linear
distances should then be corrected since errors in measured
lengths will alter the shape of the traverse.
There are various other computations and adjustments
required for a closed traverse. Some of these include:
determining the latitudes and departures and their respectr-
ive algebraic sums, calculating the total efror of closure,
balancing the survey, determining the adjusted position of
each traverse station, computing the area, and in some
instances dividing a surveyed tract intO_smaller parts.
F ig . 36-1. Relationship between a tine, and i t s la titu d e and depoKtuxe.
 referred to as northings or southings. Latitudes of line's
with northerly bearings are designated as being north: (N)
or positive (+); those in a southerly direction are desig­
nated as south (S) or negative (-). On the other hand, the
departure of a line is its projection onto the . reference
parallel or an east-west line. Departures are east (E) or
positive (+ ) for lines having easterly bearings and west
(WJ or negative (-) for lines having westerly bearings.
The algebraic signs of latitudes and departures are
thus assigned on the basis of the direction of the bearing
angles. For example, the latitude and the departure would
be positive* for a line with a northeast bearing, and if the
bearing were southwest both latitude and departure would be
negative. It will be noted that the latitude and departure
are simply the X and Y components of a line in a rectangu­
lar grid system, as commonly used in mathematics.
The relationship between a line and its latitude and
departure is shown in Figure 36-1. From the geometry of the
figures given, it is easily seen that the magnitude of the
latitude is the product of its length by the cosine of its
bearing angle, and the corresponding departure is numeric­
ally equal to the length of the line multiplied by the sine
of its bearing angle. Thus, if the horizontal length of a
line is designated by d and its bearing angle by cC , the
following equations, may be obtained for lines AB, CD, GH,
and EF:
LaU = ^ab C°s °^ab DepGb 8 dab SincCab
La'cd = dcd Cos cCcd Depcd - dcd Sin oC*gd
L o , gh 3 dflhC°soCgh Depflh * dgh Sin cCgh '
•
La»„ s def Cos cC9f Dep*f 3 d*f Sin oC#f

When the direction of a line is given in terras of

azimuth from north, the proper signs of the latitudes and
departures are automatically generated in the calculator or
electronic digital computes. It is for this reason that
traverse computations are more convenient when directions
are given in terms of azimuths reckoned from north.
The student should always remember that a very common
type of error committed in traverse computations is to
enter a latitude or departure with the wrong sign, or to
enter a latitude in a column designated for departures and
vice versa. If a cursory inspection is always made, error^
of this kind can easily be seen or avoided. To avoid such
errors,' it .is therefore important to always see to it that
latitudes and departures should be entered /correctly a. d
also affixed with the correct algebraic sign.

36-3. ERROR OF CLOSURE.

There is no such thing as a mathematically perfect survey.

Sma 1 1 nior:; tn both distances and angles will always be

T O A V t m » )N 0 ANO T ffA
u t k t r u t a t !O f * t ,397,
 •
present even in closed traverses observed usindj instruments
and methods of high precision. In all probability a survey­
ed closed traverse would not satisfy the geometric require­
ments of a closed polygon. Until adjustments are made to
these observed quantities it will always be expected that
the traverse will not mathematically close.
When a closed traverse is plotted on paper the survey
must close on the starting point. The closure must be
effected not only graphically but also mathematically. For
a closed traverse, this simply means that the algebraic sum
of the north and south latitudes should be zero, and the
algebraic sum of the east and west departures should also
be zero. However, this condition is true only in theory. It
is seldom true in practice because of the inherent errors
in the, measurements of the angles and distances. It will
always be expedted that the last course will not end exact­
ly on the starting station. Although it closes physically
in the field, it will not close mathematically or when
plotted on paper.
The difference between the north and south latitudes,
designated here as CL, is called the closure in latitudes.
It indicates how much the traverse computations fail to
close in a north-south direction. Also, the .difference
between the east and west departures, designated here as
C D , is referred to as the closure in departure and it
indicates how far the closure misses in an east-west di­
rection. The values of C L and CD assume the sign which is
obtained by adding algebraically all latitudes and all
departures respectively.
The linear error of closure (LEC) is usually a short
line of unknown length and direction connecting the initial
and final stations of the traverse. It is, approximately
determined by plotting the traverse to scale, or more
exactly by computing the hypothenuse of a right triangle
whose sides are the closure in latitudes and the closure ,in
departures, respectively. This quantity reflects the al­
gebraic sum of all the accumulated errors of measurement
both in angles and distances when running the traverse. The
length of the linear error of closure and the angle that
this line makes with the meridian is determined by the
following equations

LEC = hJcl + Cp‘ and Tan ■©■ =

Where:
LEC =( linear error of closure
CL = closure in latitude or the algebraic
• sum of north and south latitudes
CD = closure in departure or the algebraic •
sum of the east and west departures
-O- = bearing angle "of the side of. error

iXQA
rf.irv
tm m m m m m
T H A V t R S lN O ANO T H A -
c o m r v t a t io n s
 If the linear error of closure is excessive, it indi­
cates that a mistake has been committed during the field
measurement or in plotting and computing the trayerse data.
The first step-then would be to check all the calculations
to make sure that the mistake is not in the calculations
themselves. The field work should either be ^checked
repeated if after a recomputation the error of closure
still does not come within the expected limits.
The linear error of closure does not indicate the
precision of the measurements until it is-compared with the
total length of the traverse. A convenient and more useful
measure of precision is defined by the ratio( of the linear
error of closure to the perimeter or total length of the
traverse. This is usually expressed as a fraction Whose
numerator is unity and the denominator rounded off to the
nearest multiple of 100, as 1/5000. Such a fraction states
that the error of the survey is one part in 5000 parts,
thus

LEC
RP = D
Where: /
RP = relative precision
LEC = linear error of closure
D = total length or perimeter of the traverse.

All terms in the above equation, except RP/ should be

expressed in the same unit of linear measure.

36-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEHS.

A LATITUDES A N D DEPARTURES. Given in the tabulation below grd

notes for an open traverse. Determine the latitude and departure of eact
course and tabulate observed and computed values accordingly.

COURSE DISTANCE BEARING COURSE DISTANCE BEARING

AB 550.30 m N28° 10'E OE 631.22m N 50*00'E
BC 395.48 S69°35'E EF 340.05 S 25°05'E
CD 462.70 S27°50'E FG 275.86 'Due East

S o lu tio n .
a) Determining Latitudes: L a t = dCos cC
Latab = 550.30 Cos 28° I01 =+485.1 3 m '
Latbc =. 3 9 5 .4 8 Cos 69°35' = - 137.96
Latcd = 46 2 .7 0 Cos <27°50' = - 4 09 .1 7
Latde = 63 I .22 Cos 50°00' = +405.74
L a t = 340.05 Cos 25°05' = - 307.98
Latfg = 275.86 Cos 90°00' = 0.00

b) Dotermining ♦Departures: Dep = d S in cC

vgAU lourut
 Depob = 55 0 . 3 0 Sin 28° I O' = + 2 5 9 .7 6 m
Depbc = 395.40 Sin 69°35' = +370.64
Depcd = 46 2 .7 0 Sin 27°50' = + 21 6 .0 4
Depd# = 631.22 Sin 50°00' = +483.54
Depef =' 340.05 Sin 25°05' = + 144.16
Depfg = 27 5. 86 Sin 90°00' = + 275.86
c) Tabulated Solution.

LATITUDE DEPARTURE
COURSE DISTANCE BEARING
+N -S +E -W
AB 550.30 m N28* lO'E 485.13 259.76
BC 395.48 S69*35'E 137.96 370.64
CD 462.70 S27°50'E 409. 17 216.04
DE 63 1.22 N50"00'E 405.74 483.54
EF 340.05 S25*05'E 307.98 144.16
FG 275.86 Due East — 275.86

N ote: In the above calcu lation s, north la titu d e s and east dep a rtu res art
co n sid ered p lu s; south la titu d es and w est d ep a rtu res minus.
2 . E R R O R O F C L O S U R E . Given in the accompanying tabulation are the
observed data for a closed traverse obtained from a tr an s it - ta pe survey.
Determine the following quantities; latitude and departure of each course
linear error of closure, bearing of the siae of error, and the precision of
the measurements. Tabulate observed and computed values according to
the* usual format.

AZIMUTH AZIMUTH
LINE LENGTH FROM NORTH LINE LENGTH FROM NORTH
’ (d) IcC) (d) (aC)
AB 233. 1Ofri 122*30* DE 234.46fr 333*35'
BC 242.05 85*15' EF 270.65 254*08'
CD 19 1.50 20*00' FA 252.38 2 13*00'

Solu tion.
a) Determining Course Latitudes. L a t - d Cos oC
L-01 ab_ = 233.10 Cos 122° 30' = - 125.24 m
L a t bc = 242.05 Cos 65° 15' S' + 2 0 .0 4
L a t cd = 191.50 Cos 20° oo1 = + 1 7 9 .9 5
= 234.46 Cos 333° 35'
+ 209.98
L a t de
L a t ef = 270.65 - 74.00Cos 254° 08* =
Latf a = 252.38 Cos213° oo' =
-21 1.66
Determining Course Departures. Dep = d S in (C
D ePob 233. iO Sin 122° 30' = ■+ 196.59 m
Depbc
= 242.05 Sin 85° 15' +241.22
Depcd
= 19 1.50 Sin 20° oo' = + 65.50
Depdb = 234.46 Sin 333° 35' = -104.31
Dep„ = 270.65 Sin 254° 08' = - 2 60 .3 4

V E R S E C O N F U T A T IO N S
 Depfa = 252 38 Sin 21 3°00' = - 1 3 7 . 4 6
c) Determining the Precision of the Measurements.
D = dat> + d bc + Jcd + de + d'ef « , + d' fa
= 2 3 3 - 10 + 2 4 2 . 0 5 + 1 9 1 . 5 0 t 2 3 4 . 4 6 t 2 7 0 . 6 5 + 2 5 2 . 3 8
= 1,424.14171 ( p e r i me t e r or total length of the tr a v e r se )

SNL = Latbc + L a t cd + L a t de= 20.04 + 179.95 + 209.98

= + 409.97 m (summat ion of nort h l a t i t u d e s )

SSL = L a t flb + L a t #f + L a t f 0 - - 1 2 5 . 2 4 - 7 4 .0 0 .- 211.66

= -4 1 0 .9 0 m (summation of south l a t i t u d e s )

SED = Depab + Depbc + Depcd= 196.59 + 241.22 + 65.50

= t 5 03.31m (summation of e a s t de pa rt ure s)

SWD = Depde + Der' Jf + Depfa=- 104.31 - 2 6 0 . 3 4 - 1 3 7 . 4 6

= - 502.1 I m (summation of west de pa rt ure s)

CL = SN L + SSL = + 4 0 9 .9 7 + (-410.90)
= -0 .9 3 m (total c o rr e c t i o n in lat it ude)

CD = S E D + S W D = +503.31 + (-5 0 2 .1 1 ) c
~ + 1.20 m ( t otal correcti on in d e p a r t ur e )
IM.

LEC = ^(CL ) 2 + ( C ^ = "n|(-0.93)2 + (I.20)2 '

s 1.52 m d i near e r r o r of closure)
r>
Tan -0- = —~D
- . -(+ 1.20) -1.20 '
= -1.290323
~CL -(-0.93) +0.93
-©• = 52 13 ( t h e re fo re, the bearing of the side of e r r o r is N 5 2 * I 3 ‘W)

RP LEV 1.52
D 1,424.14

^36~93^ Sa^ 900 ( P r ®cision of the m e asurem ents)

(I) Tabulated Solution.

AZIMUTH
LIN E len gth LA T ITU D E DEPARTURE
(d) aO +N -S +E -w
AB 2 33.1 0m 1 2 2 °3 0 ' 12 5 .2 4 19 6 . 5 9
BC 2 4 2 .0 5 85° 15' 2 0 .0 4 2 4 1.22
CD 19 1.50 20°00' 17 9 . 9 5 6 5 .5 0
DE 333*35' • 1 0 4 .S 1
2 3 4 .4 6 2 0 9 .9 8
EF
2 7 0 .6 5 254*05' 7 4 .0 0 2 6 0 .3 4
FA
_ J*5 2 .3 8 21 3*00' 2 1 1 .6 6 13 7 . 4 6
SUMS
^ * 4 2 4 . 14m +4 0 9 .9 7 - 4 10 . 9 0 + 5 C 3 .3 1 - 5 0 2 .1 1
- (S N L) (S S L) (S F D ) (SWD)

5' C L O S U R E . In a given closed traveVse the sum or the

,U)r 1 u 1 n< exceeds the sum of the south latitudes by 2.74m and the

. 4 01,
 sum of the west departures exceeds the sum* of the east departures by
3.66m, Determine the linear error of closure and the bearing of the
side of error.
CL = S N L + S S L = + 2.74 m
Co - *&ED + SW D - —3 .6 6 m

LEC * “>1(CL ) Z t (CD) 2 ' = W (2.74)2 + (-3.66)2

= 4.57m (lin e a r e r ro r of c lo su re )

Tan = —p r = -(-3.66) +3.66

-(+2.74) 2 .7 4
= - 1.335766
~ l'L
■
©■ = 5 3 I! (t h e r e fo re , the bearing of the sid e of e r ro r Is S 5 3 * l l ' E )

4
"
0 ? ____
.
— ——I
T R A V E R S IN G AND
VtR IT COMPUTATIONS
TRA-
TRAVERSING
AND TRAVERSE
COMPUTATIONS
3 7 -7 . TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENT
37-2. ARBITRARY METHOD
37-3, COMPASS RULE
37-4. ADJUSTED LENGTHS AND DIRECTIONS
37-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Compaq Rate.
2. Adjustment ofi Lengths and Beating*

Lesson 37
 37-1. TRAVERSE ADJUSTMENT.

The procedure- of computing the linear error of closure and

applying- corrections to the individual latitudes and de­
partures for the purpose of providing a mathematically
closed figure is referred to as traverse adjustment. It is
necessary that the traverse is geometrically consistent
before coordinates or areas are•determined, or prior to
determining the location of lines from the traverse sta­
tions. When a traverse adjustment is undertaken it must be
borne in mind that the adjustment of the latitudes and
departures will slightly alter the length and direction of
the measured sides of the traverse. Also, the adjustment
should only involve small or allowable errors which must be
within the range of the precision specified for the survey.
It is riot possible to idetermine the true magnitude of
the errors in angular and linear measurements for a tra­
verse. However, in surveying practice if is reasonably fair
to assume that errors are gradually accumulated and cor­
rections can be applied accordingly if conditions surround­
ing the field measurements have been uniform. There are
some surveys where traverse adjustment is not required,
particularly when* the latitudes and departures are to be
used only in plotting the positions of the stations on a
map and when the error of closure is too small to be por­
trayed to scale. Also, in some instances a rough combina­
tion of traverse adjustment is employed instead of an exact
mathematical application of only one method.
There are different rules and methods used in adjusting
a traverse. Some aye performed graphically and others
analytically. Each of which will producf a closed figure.
These methods of adjustment are usually • classified as
either rigorous or approximate. The least squares method
provides the most rigorous adjustment while the arbitrary
method, the compass rule, ' the transit rule, and the
Crandall method are all approximate methods of traverse
adjustment. '

37-2. ARBITRARY METHOD.-

When the arbitrary method of adjustment is employed the

latitudes and departures are adjusted in a discretionary
manner according to the surveyor's assessment of the condi­
tions surrounding the survey. It is the simplest to per­
form. This method does not conform to established rules or
mathematical equations since the surveyor simply•relies on
his own estimation and personal judgment. • . . *
For example, if one traverse line is measured 6 ver
rugged terrain requiring frequent plumbing and breaking
tape, it might be that applying all or most of the correc­
tion into this one line would balance the survey satisfac­
torily. Such an arbitrary method of adjustment would likely
be as good as, if not better than, any of the other conven-
A C l/ L T H A V t NSlNCf A N P f ft A -
c o y r u r A T I OHS
tional methods of adjustment.

37-3. COMPASS RULE. 7

The compass or BpwditJSk* rule which was nam^d sifter the-

distinguished American navigator Nathaniel Bowdltch (1773-
1838), is a very popular rule for adjusting a closed tra-*
verse. Of the several methods used for balancing la"tituqes
and departures, perhaps the most commonly used is this
rule. It is simple to apply and at the same time theoretic
cally sound. c
The .compass rule is based on 'the assumption that all
lengths were measured with equal care and all angles taken
with approximately the same precision. It is also assurb'd
that the errors in the measurement are accidental and that
the total error in any side of the.traverse Is directly
proportional to the total length of the 'traverse.
The compass rule may be stated as follows: The correct­
ion to be applied to the latitude (or departure) of any,
course is equal to the total closure in latitude (or de­
parture) multiplied by the. ratio of the length of the
course to the total length or perimeter of the traverse.
These corrections are given by the following equations:

CL <-§-) and ■ CD«tr>

Where:
c( = correction to be applied to the latitude of
any course ,
cd = correction to be applied to the departure
of any course '
CL = total closure in latitude or the algebraic
sum of the north and south latitudes ( 5NL+
SSL)
Gp- = total closure in departure or the algebraic
sum of the east and west departures ( SED+
5WD)
d = length of any course *
D = total length or perimeter of the 'traverse
■* # ■ .,v
All computed corrections should be added to check
whether their respective sums equal ‘the closures in la­
titude and departure. It will be observed that during the
process of adjustment an excess or deficiency of OvOl m may
result when rounding off computed values. This imbalance is
usually eliminated by applying an arbitrary correction ?uch
■in revising one of thfe computed corrections.
To determine the adjusted latitude of any course the(
latitude qorrection is either added to or subtracted from
Ihe computed latitude of the course. A simple rule to
rem em be r is: If the sum of'the north latitudes exceeds, the
• *
■n...... iftQ5
 sum of the south latitudes, latitude corrections are
subtracted from north latitudes and added to corresponding
south latitudes. However, if the sum of the south latitudes
exceeds the sum of the north latitudes, the corrections ai;e
applied in the opposite manner. A similar procedure is used
when adjusting the departures. After all corrections have
been applied properly to the latitudes and ' departures of
ttite traverse, it will be expected that a perfect closure
will be obtained.

37-4. ADJUSTED LENGTHS AND DIRECTIONS.

After the latitudes and departures of the courses of a

closed traverse have been so adjusted, the bearings (or
azimuths) /of the courses and their lengths should also be
adjusted to correspond to the adjusted latitudes and de­
partures. The following are the equations used for this
purpose

L‘ = ^ ( L a t f + (Dep‘f * and Tan oC =

wnere:
L’ , = adjusted length of a course
Lat1 = adjusted latitude of a course
Dep1 = adjusted departure of a course
cC - adjusted horizontal angle between the ref­
erence meridian and a course

In the computations it will be seen that the adjusted angle

(cC ) seldom differs significantly from the originally ob­
served angle. The corrected length of each course, however,
usually differs rather significantly from the measured
length. The adjusted length may be either greater or less
than the measured length.

37-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

/. C O M P A SS R U L E . Given in the accompanying tabulation are the ob­
served data for a traverse obtained from a tr ans it -ta pe survey. Deter -
mine the latitudes and departures of each course and balance these
quantities by employing the compass rule. Also determine the linear er­
ror of closure, bearing of the side of error, and the relative error of clo­
sure. Tabulate values accordingly.

COURSE DISTANCE BEARING COURSE DISTANCE BEARING

AB 496.85m N05°30’ E DE 1,020. 87m S I2*25'E
BC 850.62 N 46*02* E EF 1,117. 26 S83°44'W
CD 855.45 S 67* 38'E FA 660. 00 N5 5 °0 9' W

Solution:
a) Computing Latitudes: Lat a Length x Cos cC

406.
 Lat = 4 95.85 Cos 05°30' - + 4 9 3 . 5 7 m
OD
Lat. - 850.62 Cos 4 6 ° 02* = + 590. 53
be (
Lat = 855 .4 5 Cos 67° 38 , = - 325 .53
cd
Lat . s 1,020.87 Cos I 2 ° 25* * - 996. 99
de ■
/
Lat , =1,1 1 7 . 2 6 Cos 83° 44' = - 121.96
ef 1
Lat, *» 6 6 0 . 0 8 Cos 55° 09' * + 377. 19
to
b) Computing Departures: Dep a Length x Sin
Dep = 4 9 5.85 Sin 05° 3 0 1 = + 47.53 m
ob ,
Dep = 8 5 0 . 6 2 Sin 46° 0 2 * + 612. 23
be o i . + 79{ . 09
Dep = 8 5 5 . 4 5 Sin 67 38 »
cd i
Dep = 1 , 0 2 0 . 8 7 Sin 12° 2 5 » + 219.5!
do ,
Dep = 1 , 1 1 7 . 2 6 Sin 83° 44 = -1,1 10. 58
Dep = 6 6 0 . 0 8 Sin 55° 09' = - 541.70
fa
c) Tabulated Solution;
COMPUTED LATITUDE COMPUTED DEPARTURE
COURSE DISTANCE bea r in g -W
+N -S +E

AB 495.85m N05°30'E 493 .5 7 47.53

BC 850.62 N46 o02'E 590 .5 3 6 12.23
CD 855.45 S67 °38 'E 325.53 79 1.09
DE 1,020.87 S I 2 “25'E 996.99 2 19.51
EF 1,1 17.26 S83°44'W 12 1.96 1,1 10.58
FA 660.08 N55°09'W 377. 19 54 1.70
t_________
SUMS 5,000.13m +1,46 i . 29 -1,444.48 +1,670.36 -1,652.28
(ZNL) (S SL) (3EED) OEWD)

d) Determining Total Closure in Latitude and Departure:

2NL = + 4 9 3 .5 7 + 5 9 0 .5 3 + 377.19
= + 1,4 6 1 . 2 9 m ( summat ion of north l a t i t ud e s )
S S L = - 3 2 5 . 5 3 - 9 9 6 , 9 9 - 121.96
= - 1,444.48m (summation of south l at it udes)
2 ED = + 4 7 . 5 3 + 6 1 2 . 2 3 + 7 9 1 . 0 9 + 2 1 9 . 5 1
= + 1,670.36m (summation of e a st d e p a r t ur e s )
SWD = -1,110.58 - 5 4 1 .7 0
= - 1,652.28 m ( summat ion of west d e p a r t u r e s )
CL * Z N L + S S L 3 + 1,461.29 + ( - 1 ,4 4 4 .4 8 )
= +16.81 m (total c l o s u r e in l a T it u d e J

CD = Z E D + Z W D = + 1,670.36 + ( - 1 , 6 5 2 . 2 8 )
= +18.0 8 m (total closure in depart ure)

D « d, + d2 + d3 + d4 + d5 + d6

,407
 = 49 5. 85 + 850.62 + 855.45 + 1,020.87 + 1,117.26 +660.08
= 5,OOO.I3m (length o fth e traverse)

e) Determining Corrections for Latitude: » S jk C/ *

KI 16.81 = 0.00336
3
in
o
o
O
c ab 495, 85 X 0.00336 = ! . 67 m
C bc - 850.62 X 0.00336 2.86
C cd
• S' 855 .45
X 0.00336 = 2 . 8 8
c de 1,020 87 X 0.00336 = 3.43
c ef =1t, 117.26 X 0.00336 •s 3.75
= 660.08 X 0.00336 s 2.22
C fa
S o lu tio n Check: S u n o f La titu d e C o rrectio n s = C L .
1.67 + 2. 86 + 2.88 + 3.43 + 3.75 + 2.22 = I 6.B I
16.81 * 16.81 ( c hec ks) ' 1
*- v Q
f) Determining Corrections fer Departure: k z * c^ * dK 2

K2 = 5,000.13' = 000362

cob = 495.85 X 0.00362 2 1 . 79m

Cbc % 850.62 X 0.00362 3 3. 08
Ccd = 855.45 X 0.00362 = 3. 09
Cde = 1,020.87 X 0.00362 3 3. 69
Cef = 1, 1 i 7.26 X 0.00362 3 4. 04
cfa , = 660.08 X 0.00362 3 2. 39

So lu tio n Check: Sum o f D ep a rtu re C o rre ctio n s - CD

1.79 + 3.08 + 3.09 + 3.69 +.4 .04 + 2.39 * 18.08
18.08 = 18.08 (checks)
Adjusting the Latitudes: A d j L a t *' Com puted L a t ± ct
Adj Lat ab •* + ( 4 9 3 . 5 7 - 1.67) * + 4 9 1.90 m
Adj Lat =
be + ( 5 9 0 . 5 3 - 2 . 8 6 ) = + 5 8 7 . 6 7
Adj Lat ca, - - ( 3 2 5 . 5 3 + 2. 8 8 ) = - 3 2 8 . 4 1
AdjLatde = - ( 9 9 6 . 9 9 + 3. 4 3 ) = - I j 0 0 0 . 4 2 /
•
Adj Lat,f • - ( 1 2 1 . 9 6 + 3. 7 5 ) - 125.71
Adj Latra = + ( 3 7 7 . 19 - 2 . 2 2 ) 2 + 3 7 4 . 9 7
N ote' Since the sum o f north latitudes exceeds the sum o f south- latitudes,

TM A V C A SIN O AMD T H A -
C O N F U T A T IO N S
latitude corrections are subtracted from the corresponding north latitudes
and added to corresponding south latitudes to determ ine the a d ju ste d la­
titu d e s. , •
So lu tio n C h e ck : A lg e b ra ic Sum o f A d ju ste d L a titu d e s * 0 .0 0
+49 1. 90 + 587.67 -328.41 - 1,000.42 - 125.71 + 374.97 * 0.00 ’
0 .0 0 * 0.00 (chicks)
h) Adjusting the Departures: A d j Dep * Computed Dep i cd
Adj Dep - +( 47.53 - 1 . 7 9 ) = + 45.74 m
ab *
Adj Depu = +(612.23 - 3 . 0 8 ) * + 609.15
bo
Adj Depcd = +(791.09
.
- 3. 09 ) * + 7 8 8 . 0 0
, Adj Depd# * + (219.51 - 3 . 6 9 ) •= + 2 1 5 . 8 2
Adj Depef = -(1,110.58 + 4, 04) = >1,114.62
Adj Dep * - (541.70 +2:39) « - 5 4 4 . 0 9
to
N ote: Since the sum o f east d ep a rtu res exceeds the sum of w est depar­
tures ,th e departure corrections are su b tra cte d from the corresponding
oast departures and added to corresponding w est dep a rtu res to d e t e r ­
mine the a d ju ste d departures.

So lu tio n C h e ck: A lg e b ra ic Sum o f A d ju s te d D e p a rtu re s * 0 .0 0

+ 4 5 , 7 4 +609.15 +788.00 + 215.82 -1,114.62 - 544.09= 0.00
0 .0 0 = 0 .0 0 (checks)

I) Tabulated Solution. *
CORRECTION ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE
COURSE
LAT DEP +N -S +E -W
AB 1.67 1.79 49 1 90 45.74
BC 2.86 3.08 587.67 609.15
CD 2.88 3.09 328.4 1 788.00
DE 3.43 3.69 1,000.42 2 15.82
EF 3.75 4.04 125.71 > 1, 114.62
FA 2.22 2.39 374.97 544.09
SUMS 16.81 18.08 +1,454.54 -1,454.54 + 1,658.71 -1,658.7 1
(2NL + SSL = 0.00) (SED.tZWD s 0.00)

j) Determining Linear Error of Closure, Bear log of the Side of Error*,

and Relative Error of Closure: «
L EC * i ( C L f t (CD f i '

3 ^|( + 16.81 )2 + ( + l 8 . 0 8 ) 2 3 24.69 m (linear error of closure)

Tan " ‘~ cd / ~ cl B - ( + 18.08)/-■(+ 16.81 }

m - 18.p8
E-- - 3 + 1. 075550
-1 6 .8 1 .
 ^ a 47°05‘ * (Bearing of S ide of Error v S 4 7 * 0 5 'W)

RP * LE C /D
f 2 4 . 6 9 / 5 , 0 0 0 . 13
■=*. 1 / 2 0 2 . 5 2
*■ s a y 1 / 2 0 0 (Relative Precision)

2. A D J U S T M E N T O F L E N G T H S A N D BEARINGS. Given the observed

and calculated data in Problem No, L Determine the adjusted length and
adjusted bearing of each course and tabulate values accordingly.
S o lu tio n .
a) Determining Adjusted Length of Each Course. L ‘ - ~]j(Lat,J 2 + ( Dep'j2'

L^b « ’J(+49l .90)2 + (+ 4 5 . 74)2 ' = 494.02m (adjusted length of

course AB)
Lbc = N(+ 5 8 7 . 6 7 )2 + (+ 6 0 9 .15)2' - 846.42m (adjusted length of
course BC)
3 i(-328.4,J )2 + ( + 788.00)2' = 853.70m (adjusted length of
course CO)
L'd, = l|(- 1,000.42 )2+ (+ 2I5.82)2' = 1,023.43m (adjusted length of
course DE)
L'#f = 1(- 125.71 )2 + ( - I J I ^ ^ ) 2’ = 1,12 1.69 m (adjusted length of
course EF)
L'fa = i ( + 37 4;97)2 + (-544.09)2' - 660.78 m (adjusted length of
course FA)

b) Determining Adjusted Bearing of Each Course. Tan oC =

Lat
+ 4 5 7 4 * .
Tan<*ab= +491.90 = +0.092986 and oCQh =- 5° 19'
(therefore, bearing of course AB is N5*I9'E)
TancCbc= = + 1.036551 and oCbc - 46°02'
+ 00Y . D / ( t h e r e f o r e , bearing of course BC is N46#02'E)
+ 788 00
Tan«~d= =- 2 . 3 9 9 4 4 0 and aCcd =67°23'
0 ^:0 .hi (therefore, bearing ofcour.se CD is S67°23'E)

TanoCde= -T7s'n5n T p ~ = " 0 . 2 I 5 7 2 9 and <*Td, = I2°.I0'

.*+£ (therefore, bearing of course DE is SI2*I0*E)
TancC“#f = =+ 8 . 8 6 6 5 9 8 and oCBt s 83°34''
(therefore, bearing ofcourse E+ is S83°34'W)
- 5 4 4 09
Tan <27,,,=
'fa +374.97 =- 1 . 4 5 1 0 2 3 and oCtn =55°26
(therefore, bearing of couVse FA is N55*26'W)
c) Tabulated Solution.

COURSE ADJUSTED ADJUSTED COURSE ADJUSTED ADJUSTED

LENGTH BEARING LENGTH BEARING
AB 494.02m N05°I9'E DE 1,023.43nr > S 12 *10'E
BC 846.42 N 46*02*E EF 1,12 1.69. S 8 3*34*W
CD 853.70 S67*23'E FA 660.78 N 55 *26*W

4J0,
TRAVERSING
AND TRAVERSE
COMPUTATIONS
36-1. TRANSIT RULE
36-2. LEAST SQUARES METHOQ
36-3. CRANDALL METHOD
36-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Transit Rule.
2. Adjustment Lengths and Azimuths

Lesson 38
 38-1. TRANSIT RULE.
I ' :r : ■' •
The method of adjusting a traverse by the transit rule is
similar .to the method using the compass rule. The,, main
difference is that with the transit rule the latitude and
departure corrections depend on the length of the latitude
and departure of the course respectively *instead of both
depending on the length of the course.
The transit rule has no sound theoretical foundation
since it is purely empirical. It is not commonly used as
the compass rule, however, it is best suited for surveys
where the sides of the traverse are measured by the stadia
or subtense bar method. The rule is based on the assumption
that the angular measurements are more priecise than the
linear measurements and that the errors in traversing are
accidental. Since it is merely a rule of thumb it may not
be applicable in some instances.. For example, if a line
runs along an east or west direction it will have no lati­
tude correction and if it runs along a north or south
direction it will have ho departure correction. This is due
to the fact that the cosine of 90 degrees or 270 degrees
and the sine of 0 degrees or 180 degrees are all equal to
zero.
The transit rule may be stated as follows: The cor­
rection to be applied to the latitude (or departure) of any
course i^ equal to the latitude (or departure) of the
course multiplied by the ratio of the total closure in
latitude (or departure) to the arithmetical sum of all the
latitudes (or departures) of the traverse*. These cor­
rections are given by the following- equations

Lot (CL) Dep (CD)

C| 2ND - SSL and Cd = SED - 2WD

Where:
correction to be applied to the latitude of
any course
correction to be applied to the departure
of any course
total closure in latitude or the algebraic
sum of the north and south latitudes ( 2NL+
SSL)
total closure in departure or the algebraic .
sum of the east and west departures ( 2ED+
2WD)
2ENL = summation of north latitudes
SSL = summation of south latitudes
SED = summation of east departures
2WD = summation of west departures

Since the north latitudes are positive quantities and south

latitudes are negative quantities, the arithmetical sum of

,412,
 ■V’S
all latitudes is obtained if the summation of south lati­
tudes is subtracted from the summation of north latitudes.)
Similarly, the arithmetical sum of all departures is.
tained if the summation of west departures is subtracted
from the summation of east departures since east arid west
departures are positive and negative quantities, respec­
tively. Another way of determining these arithmetical sums
is simply to add the absolute values of the required quan­
tities • V
Latitude and departure corrections are applied in a
manner similar to that described for the compass rule.
However, before any corrections are applied it is important?
to first check if the sum of £he computed corrections for
the ..latitudes (or departures) equal the closure in latitude!
(or departure). A perfect closure will always be assured if
this is done.

18-2. LEAST SQUARES METHOD. \"•

The 1 method of least rquares is a mathematically exact

method. It is the best way of adjusting survey data par-
licularly very precise measurements. This method of ad­
justment is well suited for traverses and traverse nets
regardless of the relative precision.of linear and angular
measurements. It is useful for the determination of the
best value which is possible to*obtain from a giveq set ofc
measurements, and for estimating the relative worth of
different determinations. The adjustment is one of t?he best
.•ad most rigorous for traverses. It is, however, somewhat
complex, laborious to perform, requires lengthy computa­
tions, and seldom used except in large scale geodetic
nurveys. > ' •
The least squares method is based on the theory of
probability. It is employed to simultaneously adjust the
.mgular and linear measurements to make the sum of the
squares, of the residuals a minimum. It allows for varia­
tion in Drecision of the observations, provides the best
estimates for positions of all traverse stations, and also
provides statistics relative to the accuracies of adjusted
observations and positions.
The availability of electronic digital , computers has*
now made these lengthy and complex calculations no more,
difficult than other methods of adjustment. The required
calculations -are now but simple routines and are much
easier to work on with computers. -Consequently, the least
■quares method is starting to ..gain popular acceptance among
.urveyors and engineers. However, t^iis method of adjustment
la outside the scope of this book. '

10-3. CRAKDALL METHOD. *

The Crandall methcld ' of adjusting a traverse is an

application of the theory of least squares. It was intro-
rt4 A \I HMNV 4/VP/iMfl
fr'#/*** I o v r u i At
tH A
,413,
 duced by Prof. C.L. Crandall and is suitable for use when
the linear measurements made are less precise than the
angular measurements., ,
In this method of adjustment, the angular misclosureNis
first distributed equally to the measured angles. The ad­
justed angles are then held fixed and all remaining cor­
rections applied on the linear measurements by a weighted
least squares procedure. A convenient check is provided
after fehe computations if the sum of the separate cor­
rections, equals, the total error but with opposite sign.
Although the Crandall method of adjustment is more
reliable than the compass rule and the, transit rule, it is
time-consuming when done without the use of an electronic
calculator or a digital computer.

38-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

/. T R A N S I T R U L E . Given in the accompanying. tabulation are the
observed data for a t r a v e r s e j obtained from a transit - tape survey. De­
termine the latitudes and departures of each course and balance these
quantities by employing the transit rule. Tabulate values accordingly.

AZIMUTH AZIMUTH
COURSE LENGTH COURSE LENGTH
FROM NORTH FROM NORTH
AB 4 9 3 . 85m 5*30' DE 1 ,0 2 0 .87m 167 ° 3 5 '
BC 850.62 46*02' EF 1, 1 17.26 '2 6 3 * 4 4 '
CD 8 3 5.46 112*22' FA 660.08 304*51 1

S o lu tio n .
a) Computing Latitudes: L a t * Len gth x Cos oC

Lat.k
ap =* 4 9 5 . 8 5 Cos 0 5° 3 0' = + 493.57 m
Latbe = 8 5 0 . 6 2 Cos 46 02 = + 590.53
Lat cd 8 5 5 . 4 5 Cos 112°22* *= - 325.53
L a r * ( , 0 2 0 . 8 7 Cos 167 35' * - 9 9 6 . 9 9
Lat 9f , 1 1 7 . 2 6 Cos263°44' * - ! 2 1.96
Lat,fa = ' 6 6 0 . 0 8 Cos 304°5i' s + 3 7 7 . i9
b) Computing Departures: Dep * Len gth x S in oC
Dep . * 4 9 5 . 8 5 Sin 05° 30* = + 47.53 m
ab
Dep = 850. 62 Sin 46° 02' * + 6 1 2 . 2 3
bC
DepCO =» " 8 5 5 . 4 5 S in ll 2 ° 2 2 ' * + 7 9 1 . 0 9 '
Depa©=• %1,0 20.8 7 Sin I67°35' * + 2 19.51
Dep I, I l 7. 2 6 Sin 263°44 * -1,1 I 0.58
•f
Depfa .* . 6 6 0 . 0 8 Sin 304°5l‘ * - 541 .70
c) Tabulated Solution.

,4I4__
 COURSE DISTANCE -COMPUTED LATITUDE COMPUTED DEPARTURE
from north +N -S +E -w
AB 495.85m 5*30* , . 1*93:57 47.53
BC 850.62 46* 02*., ; 5 9 0 .5 3 6 12.23
CD 855.45 1 12*22’ .’ 325.53 7 9 1 .0 9 ■# ’
OE 1,020.87 167*35* 996.99 21 9.5 1
,EF > 1,1 1 7.26 263*44* 121.96 1,1 10.58
FA 660.08 304*5 1* 3 7 7 .1 9 5 4 1 .7 0
SUMS 5 ,0 0 0 .13m + 1,46 1.29 - 1 ,4 4 4 .4 8 + 1,670.36 - 1 ,6 5 2 .2 8
(2N D (29L) (SEED) (SWD)

I) Determining Total Closure in Latitude and Departure.

5NL = + 4 9 3 . 5 7 + 590.53 + 377.19
j ~ + i .4 6 i . 2 9 m (summation o.f north latitudes)
2SL = - 325.53 - 99 6. 99 - 121.96
= - 1,444.48 m (summation of south latitudes)
SED = +47.53 + 612.23 + 79 1.09 + d 19.51
= + 1,670.36 m (summation of • east departures)
2WD = -1,1 I 0.58 - 54 I .70
= -1,652.28 m (summation of west deoartures)
CL = 2.NL * S S L = + 1,46 1.29 + ( - 1 , 4 4 4 . 4 8 )
= +16.81 m (total closure In latitude)
Cn- = 2 E D + SW D = +1 ,6 70. 36 + X—1,652.28)
= +18 .08 m (total closure In departure)

») Determining Corrections for Latitude: Kt - '2 M "'Z~~^sL cf - L a t (Kf )

.. _ 16.81 _ 16.81 = 0.00579
+ 1,461.29 -( - 1,444.48) 2,90 5.77
'ab = 4 9 3 . 5 7 x 0.00579 = 2.86 m
'be = 590. 53 x 0.00579 = 3.42
ccq. = 3 2 5 . 5 3 x 0.00579 = 1.88
C.de = 9 9 6v. 9 9 x 0.00579 = 5.77
' ef
12 1 . 96 X 0.00579 = 0.70
c.fa = 3 7 7 . 19 x 0.00579 = 2.18
S o lu tio n Check: Sum o f L a titu d e C o rre ctio n s *
2 .8 6 + 3 .4 2 + 1 .8 8 + 5.77 + 0 .7 0 + 2.18 = 16. 81
16.81 = 1 6 . 8 ^ (checks)

1) Determining Corrections for Departure: K£ - - 2WD c = Dep (K^

18.08 18.08 = 0.00544

K, + 1,670.36-(-1,652.28) 3,322.64
'ab 47. 53 x 0. 00544 = 0.26 m
f NA\ t
viA\r i.oMAN P TNA
ruiArid*} 413,
 Cbc = 6 12 . 2 3 X 0. 0 0 5 4 4 « 3. 33
Ccd s 7 9 I. 09 x 0 . 0 0 5 4 4 = 4,31
cda = .219.51 x 0. 0C544 = 1.19
■cef = 1,110. 58 x 0 . 0 0 5 4 4 = 6 . 0 4
cfQ = 5 4 1.70 X 0 . 0 0 5 4 4 = 2 . 9 3
So lu tio n C h e ck: Sum o f D eparture C o rrectio n s * Cp
0.26 + 3.33 + 4.31 + 1.19 + 6.04 + 2.95 = 18.08
18.08 = 18.08 (checks)

g) Determining Adjusted Latitudes: A d j L a t - Computed L a i t c{

Adj Lat Go = + (493.57 - 2 .8 6 ) = + 490.71 m
Adj Lat DC = + '590.53 - 3 .n4 2 ) = + 58 7.11
AdjLatc(j= - (325.53 + 1.88) = - 327.41
Adj Lat 0.8 = - (996.99 + <
5.77) = -I ,002 .76
Adj Lafef = - (1 2 1.96 + 0. 70) = - ! 22.66
Adj Latf a = + (377. 19 - 2 .18) = + 375.0!
N ote: Since the sum of north latitudes exceeds the sum of south lati­
tudes ) the latitude corrections are subtracted from the corresponding '<
north latitudes and added to corresponding south latitudes to determine
the adjusted latitudes. *
S o lu tio n C h e ck : A lg e b ra ic Sum o f A d ju ste d La titu d es * 0 .0 0 '
490.71 + 587.11 ~ 327.41 - 1,002.76 - 122.66 + 375.01 = 0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (checks)
h) Determining Adjusted Departures: Adj Dep - Computed Dep t ‘ cd
Adj Dep =+( 47.53-0.26) = + 47.27m
ab
Adj DepDC = + ( 612 .23 - 3.33) = + 608.90
Adj Dep =+-(79 1 . 0 9 - 4 . 3 ! ) = + 786.78 ’ •
cd
Adj Depae, = + ( 2 1 9 . 5 1 - 1. . 1 9 ) = + 2 i 8,3 2
Adj Dep = - (1,1 10.58 + 6.04) =-1,116.62 •
ef
Adj Depfa = - ( 541.70 + 2.95) = - 544.65

N ote: Since the sum of the east departures exceeds the sum of west cje-
partures,the departure corrections are subtracted from the corresponding
east departures and added to corresponding west departures 'to deter-
mine the adjusted departures.
Solution Checkv Algebraic Sum of Adjusted Departures = 0.00
+ 4 7 .2 7 + 608.90 + 786.78 + 2 1.8.32 - !,l 16.62 - 5 4 4 . 6 5 =-0.00
0.00 = 0.00 (checks)

■416, T R A S C R S lN G AN P T R A -
V t R S C C O M R U r A f IO N S
i) Tabulated Solution.
— -----
CORREC“ lON ADJU STED L A T IT U D E ADJUSTED D EPA RTU RE
CO URSE
LA T DEP \ ■*N -S +E • -,w. * ;
AB 2 .8 6 0 .2 6 4 9 0 .7 t 4 7 .2 7
BC 3 .4 2 3 .3 3 587. 11 6 0 8 .9 0
CD (.8 8 4 .3 1 3 2 7 .4« 7 8 6 .7 6
DE 5 .7 7 1. 19 1 ,0 0 2 .7 6 2 1 8 .3 2
EF 0 .7 0 6 .0 4 1 2 2 .6 6 • 1,11 6 .6 2
FA 2 .( 8 2 .9 5 3 7 5 .0 1 5 4 4 .6 5

SUMS 16.81 1 8 .0 8 +1,4 5 2 .8 3 - 1 ,4 5 2 .8 3 + 1 ,6 6 1 .2 7 - 1 ,6 6 1 .2 7

(SNL + S S L = o.oo: (SED t SWD = O.OO)
Note: Since the algebraic sum o f north and south latitudes and the a/g >~
rale 'sum o f ea st and w est departures are both equal to zero, the latitudes
and departures are assumed to be adjusted.
2. A D JU S T M E N T O F L E N G T H S AND A Z IM U T H S . Given the observed
and calculated data in Problem No. 1. Determine the adjusted length and
adjusted azimuth (reckoned from north) of each course and tabulate values
accordingly.

a) Determining Adjusted Length of Each Course. L 1 - l ( L a t ')2 r (Dep ')* 1

490.71 )2 + (+ 47.27)2 .=. 492 ,98m (adjusted length of

course AB)
L'bc 587. 11)2 + (+ 608.90)21 = 845. 85m "(adjusted length of
course BC)
L'cd *i<- 327.41 )2 + (+ 786.78)2* = 852. 19 m (adj usted length of
course *CD)

(4 - i n .002.76)2 + (+ 21 8.32)21 = 1,026. 25 m (adjusted length of

course DE)
4 = i(- I22.66)2 + (- IJI6.62)21 = 1, 123.,34m (adjusted length of
course EF)
544.65)2' = 66 !. 27m
L-'fa = 1(+ 375.01l)2 + (- (adj ust ed •length of
course FA)
Dep
b) D e term in ing Adjusted Azimuth of Each Course. Ten cC
L a t1
+ 47,27 = +0 .0 9 6 3 3 0 and cCab = 5°30'
Tan cCab = + 490.71
( t he r e f o r e , azimuth from north of course AB is 5*30' )
+ 608.90 = + 1 . 0 3 7 114 and cCbG - 46°03'
Tan cCbc ~ + 587. I I
(therefore, azimuth from .north of course BC is 46*©3')
+ 786.78 = - 2.403042 and oCcd = 67°24'
Tan cCcd ~ - 327.41
(therefore, azimuth from north of course CD is 1 8 0 ° -
67*24' or 112*36' )
+ 2 I 8.32 - - 0.2177 19 and cCde = 12° f 7 ‘
Tan cDds ~ -1,002.76 u h e r e f o r e azimuth from north of course DE is 1 8 0 * -
12° 17* o' i 6 7 ° 4 3 ' )
-I.I 16 .62 = + 9.103375 and cCef = 83°44'
1 :n oC9i - - I 2 2 . 6 6 (t herefore, azimuth Trom north of course* EF is 180^ +
8 3 ° 4 4 ' or 2 6 3 * 4 4 ' )

f.Wft
l f l A V t ft ANl)
417,
'i*\t i oM.Utt-*ncN\
 Tan cCfa -544.65 -1.452361 and cCfa s 55 °2 7 ‘
+ 375.01 (thtrsfors, azimuth from north of cours# FA is 360
5 5 * 2 7 ' or 304*33')
c) Tabulated Solution.

ADJUSTED ADJUSTED AZIM ADJUSTED ADJUSTED AZIM

COURSE LENGTH FROM NORTH COURSE LENGTH FROM NORTH
A0 492.98m 5* 3 0 1 DE 1,026.25m 167*43'
BC 845 .8 5 46*03' EF 1,1 23.34 263*44'
CD 8 5 2 . 19 11 2*36' FA 66 1.27 304*33'

d) Sketch of the Adjusted Traverse.

f i g . 38-1.

418.
TRAVERSING
AND TRAVERSE
COMPUTATIONS
_________________ f —

39-1. GRAPHICAL METHOD

39-%. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES
39-3. COORDINATE METHOD
39-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Re.c.tangulaA CooAdtmteA
2. CboA.dim.te. Me.thod

Lesson. 34
/*»
tv*VI </*•
 35-1. GRAPHICAL METHOD.

The graphical method is essentially an application of the

compass rule. It provides a simple graphical means of
making traverse adjustments. In this method each traverse
point is moved in a direction parallel to the error of clo­
sure by an amount proportional to the distance along the
traverse from the initial point to the given point.
F Jg . 39-1. P lo t o { tfi& tia v v u e ..
b

The plotted traverse ABCDEA* shpwn in Figure 39-1 does

not close on the initial point due to a,certain error of
closure, A A 1. To adjust the traverse graphically, the fol­
lowing steps are performed:

a ) Construct a straight line A A ' equal to the tovtal

length of the traverse with the points B, C, D, and E plot­
ted on this line in proportion to the distances of these
points frpm thfe starting point A. *
b) At the farther end of the line (A') construct line
A'a equal to the linear error of closure and perpendicular
to line- AA' . " .
c) Draw a line connecting A and a. Thus, in Figure 39-2

t4 2 0 .
is now formed the correction triangle which is defined by
points A, A', and a.
d) At B, C, D, and E draw Bb, Cc, Dd, and Ee parallel
to A'a, and where these lines intersect line Aa, label the
points of intersection as b, c, d, and e, respectively.
ej Going back to Figure 39-1, draw linies through B, C,
D, and E parallel to A'A and along these set off distances
equal to Bb, CC, Dd, and E e . Each of these lines represents
the correction to be applied at each of the four interme­
diate stations on the original traverse. Then AbedeA repre­
sents the ad justed traverse .
*
39-2. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES

The two horizontal distances measured to a point from a

pair of mutually perpendicular axes are referred to, as the
rectangular coordinates of a point. All coordinate values
are computed from an origin fixed by the intersection of an
x-axis and a y-axis. The x-axis is a reference line which
runs along an east-west direction and the y-axis 'runs
along a north-south direction.
Coordinate locations are given by two quantities, the X
and Y' coordinates. The X coordinate of a point is the per­
pendicular distance from the y-axis and its Y coordinate is
the perpendicular distance from the x-axis. Thus, when the
rectangular coordinates of a number of points are known,
their relative positions are explicitly defined. Usually,
the origin of coordinates is located far enough south and
west of the traverse points to make the coordinates ■-of all
points positive values. In this manner the chances of
making mistakes in computations involving the coordinates
are reduced since all coordinates will have only one sign.

Y-axis

«
rn A v ru M N n a n p t a a ~
vt* it c o unt ia n o u s
 In Figure 39-3, the X and Y coordinates of point 1 are,
respectively, X( and Y( ; those of point 2 are X2 and Y2 ;
and those of point 3 are X 3 and Y, . It will also be seen
that the X coordinate of point 2 is equal to the X coor­
dinate of point 1 plus the departure of line. 1-2, and the X
coordinate of point 3 is equal to the X coordinate of point
2 plus the departure of line 2-3. Similarly, the Y coordi­
nate of point 2 is equal to the Y coordinate of point 1
plus the latitude of line 1 -2 , and the Y coordinate of
point 3 is equal to the Y coordinate of point 2 plus the
latitude of line 2-3.
It is therefore obvious that, if latitudes and depar­
tures have been computed and adjusted, and if the coordi­
nates of one point are known, the coordinates of all other
points can be determined by adding successive departures to
the previous X coordinates and successive latitudes to the
previous Y coordinates.
In the case of a traverse which begins and ends on the
same point, the final X and Y coordinates of the point- of
beginning computed by using the latitudes'and departures of
the traverse sides should be the same as the initial X and
Y coordinates. This of course will only be possible if thte
latitudes and departures of the traverse have all been ad­
justed accordingly.
Coordinates are commonly used in different kinds of
traverse-related computations such as determining areas of
tracts of land, determining lengths and directions of
lines, and for locating points on a horizontal plane. They
are also suitable for plotting horizontal control surveys
and for calculations related to route curves.

39-3. COORDINATE METHOD.

When a survey is run and made to close on a distant termi­
nal station or point of known coordinates, it will be ex­
pected that the computed coordinates of the terminal sta­
tion will differ from its known coordinates. There will be
an error of closure along the x-axis and also along the y-
axis. This is due to inherent errors in both angular and
linear measurements during traversing. The coordinate meth­
od .of traverse adjustment may be employed when the prelimi­
nary coordinates of stations along the traverse have been
determined.'This method of adjustment is simply ap applica­
tion of the compa'ss rule since the corrections applied are
proportionate to the lengths being adjusted. The following
formulas are used in this method of adjustment:

d Y( x2 - (V, Eq. ( I )
Cx *K - Eq.(2) ' *
Cy yk - Y, Eq. (3) •.
1 ( C X)2 t <CY)‘
RP Eq.(*4)

T R A V C R S In G a n d t h a -
&Z V t N S l C O M P U T A T IO N S
 X * d (•&•). * ......................; . frq { 5 ,

y = y * : ■ • rv . . Eq. ( 6 )

*' s x ± x ................................. • Eq'.(7V

Y' y Y ± y ••••: •• •. •• • • • • . ............... ... • E q .( 8 )

Wh^re: -
d = distance between any two stations whose x
and uy coordinates are known ' 9
X2 = coordinate along the x-axis of a succeed­
ing station
Yg 7 coordinate along the y-axis of a succeed­
ing station - „ •
’
Xj" = coordinate along the x-axis of a preced­
ing station
Yj = coordinate along the y-axis of a preced­
ing station '
Cx = error of closure along •■the x-axis
XK = known^, coordinate along the x-aXis of the
distant terminal station
Xc. = computed coordinate along the x-axis of
the distant terminal station
Cy = error of closure along the y-axis
Yk ‘ = known coordinate along- the y-axis of the
distant terminal station
Yc = computed coordinate along the y-axis of
the distant terminal station
RP = relative precision of closure
D = total length or perimeter of the traverse
from the initial station to the distant
terminal station - '
x '= coordinate correction along the x-axis
y = cbordinate correction along the y-axis '
X' = adjusted X coordinate of a station
Y* = adjusted Y coordinate of a station

Equations 5 and 6 are used to determine corrections to

X and ¥ coordinates of each station. It will be seen that
the corrections to be applied to each X coordinate is found
by multiplying the distance of the station from the initial
.station by the ratio of the error of closure along the x-
axis to the total length or perimeter of the traverse. Si-
mi larlyy the correction to a Y coordinate is determined by.
the product of the distance of the station from the initial
station and the ratio of the error.of closure along the y-
axis to the total length of the traverse. Corrections to
coordinates are added algebraically to the preliminary
coordinates. The signs of the corrections follow the re­
sult inq signs of the error of closure along the x-axis and
the error ol closure along the y axis, respectively.*

r **»/*•/*«# A f W t A *
t OVrUTATIOHi ■23,
 3 9 -4 . IL L U S T R A T IV E PRO BLEM S.

/. R E C T A N G U L A R COORDINATES . Given in the accomp.qnying tabula­

tion are the adjusted latitudes and adjusted departures of a closed tra­
verse. Calculate the coordinates of each station along the traverse if the
coordinates df station A are X * 3,000.00 01 and V = 4,000.00m. Tabu­
late values accordingly. " / ,

ADU, LATITUDES ADJ. DEPARTURES

LINE
■i- +N -S tE -W
AB 405 .5 0 202.25
BC 218.1 3 - l 175,6 4
CD 71.08 415.36
DE 325.67 355.62
EF 389.70 58.51
FA 488.52 739.08
SUMS 949.30 949.30 973.23 97 3.23

Solution.

a) Calculating the X - coordinates.

3 , 0 0 0 .0 0 - X coordinate of station A
+ 202. 25 - Departure of line AB
3,202.25 - X coordinate of station B
- 175.64 - Departure of line- BC
3, 92 6. 6 1 - X coordinate of station C
+ 4 15.36 - Departure of line CD
3, 44 1 .9 7 - X coordinate of station D
+ 35 5 .6 2 - Departure of line DE
3 ,7 9 7 .5 9 - X coordinate of station E
~ 58.5 1 - Departure of line EF
3,7-39.08 - X coordinate of station F
- 739.08 - Departure of 1ine FA
3,00 0.00 - X coordinate of station A (checks)

:ulating the Y- coordinates.

4, 000 .00 - Y coordinate. of station A
+ 40 5 .5 0 Latitude of line AB
4,405.50 - Y coordinate of station B
+ 218. 13 - Latitude of line BC
4 ,6 2 3 .6 3 - Y coordinate of station C
- 71.08 - Latitude of 1ine CD
4, 55 2. 5 5 - Y coordinate of station D
t 325. 67 - Latitude of line DE
4 , 87 8. 22 Y coordinate of station E
- 38 9. 70 Latitude of 1ine EF
4 , 4 8 8 .5 2 - Y coordinate of station F
- 488.52 Latitude of 1ine FA
4,000.00 Y coordinate of station A (checks)

A O A r/M v c i r n . v ca n d r /M -
rtfcK Tfiwesoemm vf*sr. c o m m tat ion*
c) T a b u l a t e d Solution.

COORDINATES COORDINATES
STA STA
X Y X Y
A 3 ,0 0 0 .0 0 4 ,0 0 0 .0 0 E 3 ,7 9 7 .5 9 4 ,878.22
B 3 ,2 0 2 .2 5 4 ,4 0 5 .5 0 F 3 ,7 3 9 .0 8 4 ,4 8 8 . 5 2
C 3,026.61 4 ,6 2 3 .6 3 A 3 ,0 0 0 .0 0 4 .OOO.po
D 3 ,4 4 1.97 4 ,5 5 2 .5 5 (chocks) (checks)

d) Plot of the Traverse.

2. C O O R DINATE M E T H O D . Given in the accompanying tabulation .are

the known and computed coordinates of stations along a traverse. The
traverse originates on station Baguio whose known coordinates' are
X 3 6,2 08 .6 7 and Y - 8 , 6 0 1 .$ 4 , and closes on station Acupan whose
known coordinates are X * 5,2 26 .1 0 and Y = 5 , 7 8 2 .6 2 . Adjust the co­
ordinates of the traverse stations and tabulate values accordingly.

COMPUTED COORDINATES
STA
X Y
Baguio 6 ,2 0 8 .6 7 8 ,6 0 1 .4 4
A 7 ,0 3 0 .4 5 8 ,2 9 9 .5 4
8 6 ,9 8 4 .6 3 7 ,6 9 8 .8 9
C 7 ,0 0 1.1 4 7 ,260.00
D * 7, 1 1 2 .9 9 6 ,774.08
E 6 ,5 e S .7 0 * 5 ,9 4 1.82
F 6, 1-47.28 6 ,038.24
G 5 ,4 67.06 6 ,0 6 6 . 6 4
Acupan 5 ,2 2 6 . 18 5 ,7 8 2 .9 8

Mf W**/#* AtH>
4 iffA
,425,
V fftir i ountt 4fnw%
Solution
' . ’• . ■*i
a) Determining Total Distances.

d0 * 1 ( 7 , 0 3 0 . 4 5 - 6 . 2 0 8 . 6 7 ) 2 + ( 8 , 2 9 9 . 5 4 - 8 , 6 0 1.44)?'
s 875 .4 8 m (distance of sta. A from sta. Baguio)

db » 1 ( 6 , 9 8 4 . 5 3 - 7 , 0 3 0 . 4 5 / + (7 ,6 9 8 .6 9 - 8 , 2 9 9 . 5 4 / + 875.48
3 602.60 + 8 7 5 .4 8
= * 1 ,4 7 8 .08 m (d i st a n c e of sta. B from sta. Baguio)

dc =• 1 ( 7 , 0 0 1 . 1 4 - 6 , 9 8 4 . 5 3 ) 2 + ( 7 , 2 6 0 . 0 0 - 7 , 6 9 8 . 6 9 ) 2 l + 1 , 4 7 8 . 0 8
= 4 3 9 .0 0 t 1,478.08
- | , 917.08m (distance of sta. C from sta. Baguio)

dd a 1 ( 7 , I 1 2 . 9 9 - 7 , 0 0 1 . I 4 ) 2 + ( 6 , 7 7 4 . 0 8 - 7 , 2 6 0 . 0 o / + 1,9 1 7 . 0 8
\ - 4 9 8 . 6 3 + 1 , 9 i 7. 08
.=: " 2 , 4 1 5 . 7 1 m (distance of sta. D from sta. Baguio)

dt - 1 ( 6 , 5 8 6 . 7 0 - 7 , ! I 2 . 9 9 )2 + ( 5 , 9 4 I . 8 2 - 6 , 7 7 4 . 0 8 } 2 + 2 , 4 1 5 . 7 1
3 9 8 4.70 + 2 ,4 1 5 .7 1
3 3,400.41m (di st ance of sta. E from st a. Baguio)

a 1 ( 6 , 1 47 28 - 6 , 5 8 6 . 7 0 } 2 + (6,058 ! 24 - 5 , 9 4 l.82)2'+13.400.41
a 454.58 + 3,400.41
3 3,854.99m- ( d i s t a n c # of s t a. F f r om sta. B a g u i o )
«
3 1 ( 5 , 4 6 7 . 0 6 - 6, I 4 7 . 28)2 + (6, 0 6 6 . 6 4 - 6, 058.24)^+ 3,854.99
3 680.27 + 3, 854.99
3 4,53 5.26 m ( d i s t a n c e of s t a. 6 f r om s t o. B a g u i o )

Acupan
=■ 1(5,226.18 - 5.467.06)2 + (5,782 98 - 6,066.64 2 ' +4,535.26
3 372.14 + 4 , 5 3 5 . 2 6
3 4,907.40m ( d i s t a n c e of s t a . A c u p a n f r o m s t a . B a g u i o)

b) Determining Precision Closure and Coordinate Corrections for Each

Station.
XK 3 5 , 2 2 6 . !0 m ( k n o wn X - c o o r d i n a t e of s t a . A c u p a n )

Xc 3 5, 2 2 6 .1 8 m (computed X- coordinate of s t a. Acupan)

Yk 3 5 , 7 8 2 .6 2 m (known Y - c o o r d i n a t e of st a. Ac upan)

Yc 3 5 , 7 82 .9 8 m ( c o mp u t e d Y-coordinate of st a. A c up a n)

D 3 4,907.40m ( t o t a l l en g t h of the t r a v e r s e f r o m s t a. B a g liio

to s f a . A c u p a n )

3 XK - X^ 3 5 , 2 2 6 .1 0 - 5,226.18
3 - 0.08m ( e r r o r of c l o s u r e a l o n g the X -axis)

426. f H A V IN '* INO A N P T N A ­

VI n sr f
c o m n o t a r io n
 Yk - Yc a 5 , 7 82 .6 2 - 5 ,7 8 2 .9 8
- 0. 3 6 m (error of closure along the Y - a x is )

■\|cx2 + Cy "N|(-0.08)2 t (-0.36) _ 0.36878

RP D “ 4 ,9 0 7. 40 4,907.40
' T- say 1/13,300 (precision closure)
13,307.12 *

(equation used for determ ining coord in a te c o r r e c tio n s

CL
It
X

D along the X - a x i s )

y 3 d (- (equation used for determining c o o rd in a te c o r r e c tio n s

D along the Y - axis)

-0.08 ) 3 -0.01m -0.36

875. 48{ 4,907.40 ya = 8 7 5 . 48(-‘4 ,9 0 7 .4 0 } = - 0,06m

‘a = li478 0 8 ( 4 T 9 ^ 0 1 = - ° ' ° 2 *>'* 4 7 8 . 0 8 ( ^ § ^ ) - ■ -0

X« * '4,907.40 = - 0 . 0 3 yc = ' . 9 ' 7 . 0 8 i 4~ ° 0376 4 o) = -0.1414

— OO
= 2 . 4 1 5 . 7 1 ( ^ 3^ - ^ ) = - 0 .0 4
^ = 2r4 l 5 -7 l l 4 ^ # 4 0 ' = - ° 18

= 3,400.411-^1^ ; = - 0 .0 6 y. = 3 , 4 0 0 . 4 1 ( ^ 1 ^ ) = - 0 .2 5

-0.08
Hf - 3,854.99 {4 ^qq7 4 q ) =.-0.06 yf = 3, 8 5 4 . 9 9 9 0 7 4 0 ^ " “ 0-28

<„ = 4 . 9 3 3 . 2 6 ( ^ 1 ^ ) = - 0 .0 7 y„ = 4,S3S:2614- ° 037% o-) = - 0 . 3 3

-0.36
XAcupon° 4'907'40(4,907,40) = - ° - 08 ^ p o n ' 4 .9 0 7 4 0 ' ? ^ ' = - ° 36

1 ) Adjusting the Coordinates of Each Station.

At sta. A: •
X'a = *a + xa= 7,030.45 - 0.0 1 = 7,030.44 m
Ya = Ya ± y0 = 8,299.54 - 0.06 = 8,299.48 m
At sta. B:
X'b = xb ±x b = 6,984.53 - 0.02 = 6,984.51 m
Y|> = Yb i y b = 7,698.69 - 0 . i l = 7,698.58 m
At sta. C:
x'c - Xc ±*c = 7,00 1.14 - 0.03 = 7,001.1 1 m
Y'c ■ Y0 1 yc « 7,260.00 - 0 1 4 * 7,259.86 m

# rh4 t nsin*
>
>
1>
4«m
1
l ,. .
«>< .Ii
k.u
/r
tii*! .427,
 At sta. D:
X, - xd i xd = 7,1 12.99 - 0.04 7, 112.95 m
x = X iVd = 6,774.08 - 0.1 8 6,773.90 m
At sta. E :
X. = X, -+ *8
y = 6,586.70 - 0.06 6,586 .64 no
X - Y.
t y
/e
= 5,941.82 - 0.25 5,941 .57 m
At sta. F :
-■ xf ± xf = 6,147.28 - 0.06 6,1 47.22 m
y; = V ±yf = 6,05 8.24 - 0.28 6,057.96 m
At sta. G:

xi s Xg -+ xg = 5 ,4 6 7 .0 6 - 0.07 = 5,466.99 m

X = Y +y
g ya
= 6 ,0 6 6 .6 4 - 0.33 = 6,066.3 1m

At 'Sta. Acupan:
, Coupon “ X Ac u p on i x fl oupon = 5,226.18 0.08 = 5,226.10m
Xcupor, = Coupon ! » « « , „ • ■ 5,782.98 - 0.36 - 5,782.62m

d) Tabulated Solution.

COMPUTED COORDI NATES TOTAL CORRE CT I ONS A D J U S T E D COORDINATES

STA
« X Y D-IST X y X* Y'

Bagui o 6,208.67 8,601 .4 4 6,208.67 8,601.44

A 7,030.45 3,299.54 875.48 -0.01 -0.06 7,030.44 8,299.48
B 6,984.53 7,698.69 1478.08 -0.02 - 0.1 I 6,904.51 7,698.58
C 7,001.14 7,260.00 19 1 7 . 0 8 -0.03 -0.1 4 7 , 0 0 1. I I 7,259.86
D 7, 1 1 2 . 9 9 6,774.08 2 4 15 . 7 1 -0.04 -0.1 8 7, 1 1 2 . 9 5 6,773.90
E 6,586.70 5,941.82 3400.41 -0.06 - 0.25 6,586.64 5 ,9 4 1 .57
■' F 6, 1 4 7 . 2 8 6,058.24 3854.99 -0.06 -0.28 6, 14 7 . 2 2 6,057.96
G 5,467.06 6,066.64 4535.26 -0.07 -0.33 5,466.99 6,066.3 1
Ac upan 5,226.18 5,782.98 4907.40 -0.08 -0.36 5 , 2 2 6 . 10 .5,782.62

,428,
 O M IT T E D
MEASUREMENTS
P art VIII: L esson Nos. 40 Thru 42
OMITTED
MEASUREMENTS
40-1. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS
40-1. MISSING DATA ARE IN ONE SIDE
40-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS 1
1. i Omitted MensuAement*
1. Omitted Meatutements
3. Omitted Measu/iement^

Lesson
uH trrco
M tA S U h C M C N T S
 40-1. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS.

Sometimes it is not possible or practical to determine by

field observation the length or direction of a line (or
lines) within a closed traverse. These missing quantities
may - be determined analytically to obtain a complete set of
notes for the traverse as long as they do not exceed two in
number. However, the practice of omitting measurements for
one or more sides of a closed traverse and solving for them
is not a desirable one and should be avoided. The trouble
with such calculations is that it* tends to throw all possi­
ble errors and mistakes into the computation c^f the lengths
or directions. Also, it eliminates the check on the preci­
sion of the field measurements that were made. There is no
choice but to assume that the measurements taken are all
correct and without error in-order that the missing quanti­
ties may be calculated. In many instances large errors can
be made in the field thereby causing the computed values to
be meaningless or without significance. ,
It is not justifiable, however, to say that such a
practice should never be attempted or employed. There are
various circumstances where this me'thod can be used to
advantage. For instance, if a traverse of a large tract of
land is run, the principle of omitted measurements may be
employed to compute the length and direction of a line
which will divide the tract into specific parts or required
(
„ r
Fig. 40-1. Omitted q u a n tities in the p a rtitio n oi land.

areas. To illustrate another example, assume that a group

of lots (Fig. 40-1) are to be laid out in the field. The
perimeter of the lots (shown ‘in solid lines) has been run
with an acceptable precision and the traverse lines adjust­
ed accordingly. For such a case it is perfectly acceptable
to calculate the lengths and bearings of the missing in­
terior lot lines (shown as dashed lines in the sketch).
There ai?e several other reasons why measurement^ are

i43: O M trre v
U tA S V fU M C N T S
omitted in the field and are computed later in the office.
Conditions or problems encountered may also be due to the
presence of obstacles, rugged terrain, lack of time to
complete the survey, unfriendly or hostile landowners, and
etc. It is therefore evident that if the field measurements
for any lengths or directions of a closed traverse are to
be omitted, it is always essentially important to employ
approximate checks on the computed values. _
The following are some of the more, common types c
omitted measurements:

1. Omitted Measurements Are in One Side

1ST CASE: Length and Bearing of One Side

' Unknown

2. Omitted Measurements Involving Two Adjoining

Sides

1ST CASE: Length.of One Side and Bearing

of Another Side Unknown
2ND CASE: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3RD CASE: Bearings of Two Sides Unknown

3. Omitted Measurements Involving Two Non-Adjoin­

ing Sides t

1ST CASE: Length of One Side and Bearing

of Another Side Unknown
2ND CASE: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3RD CASE: Bearings of Two Sides Unknown

40-?. MISSING DATA ARE IN ONE SIDE.

illustrated in Figure 40-2 is a closed traverse in which

the lengths and bearings of sides AB, B*C, .DE, EF, and FA
.ire known but the length and bearing of side CD are un­
known.
If the measurements for the five known sides a*^ pre­
sumed to be correct and without error, it is acceptable to
<ompute the missing quantities of side CD (considered as
the closing line). The problem of determining the length
,md direction of one side of a closed traverse is primarily
t.he same as that of computing the length and direction of
t.he side of error in any closed traverse.
In ‘solving this particular problem it is necessary to
first compute the latitudes and departures of* lines having
known directions and lengths. Since only one latitude and
one departure are unknown, the algebraic sum of the north
and south latitudes (taken with opposite sign) will yield
t.he latitude of side CD; also, the algebraic sum of the
t aryl west departures (also taken with opposite vsign)
will be t.he departure of side CD.
o*tir t i p
M iA HUA t HAHTi n »i ,4 3 3 ,
 If the algebraic sum of the latitudes and the algebraic
sum of the departures of the known sides are designated by
CL and CD , respectively, then the length L of the unknown
side (CD) is

L ‘ 1 CD + CL

and the tangent of the bearing angle ( oC ), which is taken

with due regard tc sign, is

Tar\jC

The length and direction of line CD may also be determined

by using two simultaneous equations> This is done by set­
ting the sums of the latitudes and the departures respect­
ively to zero. .With this- it is possible to have two un--
knowns in'two simultaneous equatijns . These equations ^re
then solved to determine the values of ’the unknown quanti­
ties. This jmethod, however, is not as popularly used as the
first method explained above.
*
40-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS'.
/. O M IT T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S . Given the following sketch and tabu­
lated data for a closed traverse. Determine the length and bearing of
the unknown side* FA. *

___________ o m it t e d
IT — W M EA SU REM EN TS
 LATITUDES DEPARTURES
LI NE LENGTH BEARING
+N - S +E - W
AB 733.75 m N76*1 8'E 1 7 3 .7 8 7 12.87
BC 598.23 N 23*2 0*W 5 4 9 . 3 0 236.95
CD 415.05 S6I*35'W 19 7 .5 1 3 6 5 .0 4
DE 5 1 1.38 N 57*00'W 2 7 8 . 5 2 4 2 8 .8 8
EF 395.06 S 32*45'W 3 3 2.26 ,. 2 13.72
FA Unknown Unknown — —
SUMS + 1001.60 - 5 2 9 . 7 7 + .712.87 - 1 2 4 4 .5 9
( 5NL) (SSL) (SED) (SWD)

1st So lu tio n .
CL = JN L t S S L = + 1001 . 6 0 + (- 5 2 9 . 7 7 ) = + 4 7 1.83 m
CD = J E D + JWD = +, 7 1 2 . 8 7 + ( - 1 2 4 4 . 5 9 ) = - 5 3 1. 72m

L
L fa
= V YL + U
C2>
0
= N( + 47 1,83)2 + ( - 5 3 I . 7 2 ) 2'
= 710.88m (Length of line FA)

r -CD -(-531.72) . + 531.72 _

TancCfo- rjjr- - - (+4 7l.83) -471.83 ’ , 2 6 ®3 '
oC1a= 48°£5 (Therefore the bearing of line FA is S 4 8 <,2 5 ,E)

2n d Solution.
2ELat ■ 0

A/ ! A W f i t H t N l f i „435,
 L<Jtab + Latbc + Latcd + Lat^ + Lat#f + Latf0 = 0 ADJ. LATITUDES ADJ. DEPARTURES
LINE LENGTH BEARING
173.78 + 5 4 9 . 3 0 - 197.5 1 + 278.52 - 3 32 .2 6 + Lat?a = 0 +N -s +E r-W
47 1.83 + LatfQ = 0 AB 395.50m N 38#45'E 3 0 8 .4 4 247.55
BC 518.62 N 70°35'E 172.41 . 489.12
Latf0 = - 4 7 1 . 8 3 • • • • .................. Eq. (I)* CD 583.22 S 50*1 5'E 3 7 2 .9 3 448.40
SDep = 0 . DE 813.38 N 7 4°2 9‘E 2 17 .5 9 783.73
EF 1218.96 S 19*1 1'W 1151.30 4 0 0 .4 6
Depab + Depbc + Depcd + Depde + Depef + Depfa =# 0 F<? 8 1 1.35 N 52*05* W 4 9 8 .5 9 6 4 0 .0 8
GH 606,43 S 83*50'W 65. 14 6 0 2 .9 2
712. 87 - 236 .95 - 3 65 . 0 4 - 428.88 - 213*. 72 + Depfa = 0
HA 509.68 N3 9*40 'W 3 9 2 .3 4 ■J 3 2 5.3 4
-531.72 + Depfa = 0 '
SUMS +1589.37 -1589.37 +1968.80 -1968.80
Depfa = +53 1 .72 • • • • * ................Eq.(2)
(2N D (SSL) (2 ED ) (2W 0)
Therefore:
So lu tio n :
L fa - 'yJ(La tfa) 2 + (Depfa) 2 ' = N (- 4 7 1.83 )2 + (+531.72)2' a) Determining the Length and Bearing of line CH.
= 7 1 0 .8 8 m (Length of line FA)
LATITUD ES DEPARTURES
_ DePfa _ + 531.72 = - 1 . 1 2 6 9 3 . LINE LENGTH' BEARING
TancCro- -TSt^-----------
471.83 +N -S +E - W
25 ( T h e r e f o r e the b e a r i n g of l i ne FA is S 4 8 * 2 5 ' E ) AB 395.50m N38°45'E 3 0 8 .4 4 247.55
*f«f 48 BC 5 18.62 > N70°35'E 17 2 .4 1 4 8 9 . 12
2, O M IT T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S . The data for the tract of land shown CH Unknown Unknown -
HA 509.68 N39*40'W 3 9 2 .3 4 3 2 5 .3 4
In- Figure 4 0 - 4 is given in the accompanying .tabulation. The whole
tract is supposed to be divided into three smaller parts, however, the SUMS i + 873.19 - 0 .0 0 + 736.67 -325.34
length and bearing of the dividing lines CH and DG have not been ob-
served in the field. Assuming that an acceptable precision has been ob­ (2 N D (SSL) (2 ED) (2WD)
tained in the measurement of the sides of the main traverse, determine
the lengths and bearings of the unknown quantities. - ZNL + IS L = + 873.1 9 + ( -0.00) = + 8 7 3 . 19 m
Fig. 40-4. Z ED + IW D = + 73 6 . 6 7 +(-325.34) = + 4 1 1.33 m
v A

H?
V
"^(+873.19)2 + (+411.33)2'

n
L ch “
- 965.22 m (Length of line CH)

1 1
Tan cCch=
-{+41 1.33). -41 1,33 3
+ 0.4710658-
-(+873.19) -8 7 3 .1 9
^Ch=! 25° 13 (Therefore the bearing of line CH Is S25* 13*W)

b) Determining the Length and Bearing of line DG.

LATITUDES DEPARTURES
LINE LENGTH BEARING
+N -S +E * TW
CD 583.22m S 50* 15 'E 372.93 4 4 8 .4 0 .
DG U nknown Unknown — —
GH 606.43 S83*50'W 65. 14 6 0 2 .9 2 '
HC 965.22 N 25* 13 *E 8 7 3 .2 4 4 1 1 .22 •
* SUMS +873.24 - 4 3 8 .0 7 +859.62 -6 0 2 .9 2
*
(2N D (S S L ) (ZED) *( SWD)

o u ir rc z
A S U A C M fN T S
>>un , f
A\umr a t m * .437,
 CL - SN L t S S L ■'» + 8 7 3 . 2 4 +(-438.07) = +-435.17m
Qd - + JSW0 = + 8 5 9 , 6 2 +(-602.92) = + 2 5 6 . 7 0 m

L dgs ^ cl * CD 3 i ( + 4 3 5 . l 7 ) 2 + ( +256.70)2 * ' .

- 5 05 .2 4 m (L e n g th of lin e DG)

Tan cCdg = Z£ d . - - (+ 256.7Q1 - -.£.5 6.70 _ + q 5 8 9 8 8 4

-C, -(+ 435. 1*7) - 435 .17
= 30°32' '( T h e r e f o r e th e b e a r i n g of l i n e DG. is JS 3 0 ° 3 2 1W)

5. O M ITTED M E A S U R E M E N T S . Given in the accompanying tabulation are

the observed data for an open traverse which was made between stations A
and E (see Fig. 40*5). Determine the shortest distance between the two sta­
tions and the direction of line AE. Assume that the observed data are cor-
fecf and without error.

A Z IM U T H L A T IT U D E S DEPARTURES
L IN E LENGTH
FROM NORTH +N -S +E '- W
AB 5 1 8 .3 2 54*50' 2 9 8 .5 3 4 2 3 .7 2 •
BC 5 9 4 .0 8 7 9 ° 18' 1 10 . 3 0 5 8 3 .7 5
CD 9 3 6 .7 6 130*05' 6 0 3 . 18 7 16 . 7 2
DE 4 2 5 .8 9 22*35' 3 9 3 .2 3 16 3 . 5 5

Solution (U sing Sim ultaneous E q u a tio n s):

5 Lat = 0
L a t ab + L a t bc + L a t cd + L a t d e+ L a t ea = 0
298.53 + 110.30-603.18 + 393.23 + Latw = 0 and Latea = -1 98.88
SDep * 0 •
D e p ab + D e P bc+ D e Pcd + D e p do+ D e Pea = 0
423.72 + 583.75 + 716.72 + 163.55 + Dep^ 0 and Depea= -1887.74

L ea = ~\l(Latea) 2 + ( D e p ^ f = N(- I98.88)2’ + (-1887.74)2'

= If898.l9m ( L e n g t h of C o u r s e EA)

Dep ea _ -1887.74
. Tan cCea - ,= + 9.491854
Lai«o -19 8.88
oCt■
ea- 83 sj*
59 ( B e a r i n g of l i n e E A is S 8 3 ° 5 9 ' W )

Therefore the bearing of line AE is N83°59rE which is the t^ack bearing

of line EA. . .

OH IT T i P
H lA S U N t H I N T t
OMITTED
MEASUREMENTS
41-1. CASES Of OMITTED MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING ADJOINING SIDES
1. Length oh One Side and Beating oh Anothet Side Unknown
2. Lengths oh Two Sides Unknown
3. Beatings oh Two Sides Unknown
41-2. ILLUSTRATIVE TROBLEMS
1. Omitted Measurements
2. Omitted Measurements
3. Omitted Measurements

Lesson 41
41-1. CASES OF OMITTED MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING ADJOINING
SIDES.

The following are the usual cases of omitted quantities

involving adjoining sides:

1ST CASE: Length of One Side and Bearing of Ano­

ther Side Unknown

2ND CASE: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown

3RD CASE: , Bearings of Two Sides Unknown

0
For the traverse shown in Figure 41-1, assume that the
omitted or missing data occur in DE and EA which are adja­
cent courses. The conventional approach to this problem is
to first connect stations A and D by a straight line thus
making the length and bearing of AD, in the traverse ABCDA,

as the, initially unknown quantities. The unknown data of

line AD are determined by the method described earlier in
Article 40-2, and then the triangle ADE is solved for the
missing angles and/or lengths of courses. The solution
usually require only basic principles of geometry and tri­
gonometry.

•1. Length of One Side and Bearing of Another Side

Unknown. Figare 41-2 shows a closed traverse for which the
length of side CD and the bearing of side DE are unknown.
The lengths and beatings of the other sides AB, BC, and EA
are known. Since the latitudes and departures of the known
sides may be calculated, tKe length and bearing of the
closing line EC may in turn be determined.

44 Q. O t d tV H t n •
U i A 9 U * t U t NIK
I <g. 41-2. Sketch oi the. fxa.WA&e.
with omitted me/utuemejiti ( I-it
iv u e , adjoining tide * }.

Unknow n
Ltngfh

.U n k n o w n
B e a rin g

Redrawn in Figure 41-3 is triangle CDE which contains the

missing quantities. By simple geometry, the angle at
station C can be computed from the known bearings of sides
CD and CE. And since one angle and the lengths of two sides
of the triangle are already known, the sine law may be used
to find the angle at D. Thus
lig. 41-3. T r i a n g l e CVE.

-s L

1
X
lI ’By Sine Law
\
OBI
S 1 w CE DE
C losing_____ ^
1°r Sin D Sin C and
Lin e \
\
\ / ' Sin D = CE DE
Sin C
x
\
• X
'K / '

With the above equation the angle at D can be determined,

thus giving two of the three angles of triangle CDE. Angle
E equals 180 degrees - (<£C +<ID) and the length Of side CD
Can, be determined by sine law or •
CD _ ’ CE CE Sin E
and CD = Sin D
Sin E ~ Sin D
For particular case, however if the angle between

«•*#/r tti* ■41,

the s i d e of unknown b e a r i n g and the s i d e of unknown l e n g t h
is c l os e t o 90 d e gr e e s , the s o l u t i o n may be v e r y weak and
w ill yield u n s a t i s f a c t o r y answers. This is because the
v a l u e of the s i n e near 90 degrees changes v e r y s l o w l y and a
smal l v a r i a t i o n i n the c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s can cause a r e l a ­
t i v e l y l a r g e e r r o r i n the a n g le c a l c u l a t e d by the s in e law.

Si nce the l a t i t u d e s and d e p a r t u r e s of s id e s AB, DE, EF, and

FA can be computed and summed, the l e n g t h and b e a r i n g of
the c l o s i n g l i n e BD may i n t u r n be d e t e r m i n e d . I t can be
seen i n t r i a n g l e BCD ( F i g . 4 1 - 5 ) t h a t the b e a r i n g s of a l l
three s i d e s ar e known as i s « t h e l e n g t h of l i n e BD, thus,
the unknown q u a n t i t i e s may then be det er mi ned by the sine
l aw as f o l l o w s

Fig.' 41-5. Ttiangte 8CV.

By Sine Law
BC CD BD
Sin D S in B Sin C
BD Sin D
BC = Sin C
BD Sin B
CD = : Sin C r

oHirrco
M C ASU AS M CN TS
 3. Bearings of two Sides Unknown. In t h i s particular
case i t i s assumed t h a t the b e a r i n g s of s i d e s DE and E A
(Fig. 4 1 - 6) are the unknown q u a n t i t i e s . Si nce the l e n g t h s
o

-»,nd b e ar i ngs of s id es AB, BC, and CD ar e known, their

respective latitudes and d e p a r t u r e s can be computed and
l.ummed; and from the r e s u l t s the l e n g t h and b e a r i n g of the
closing l i n e (AD) is d e te r m i n e d . Then the l e n g t h s of a l l -
/ides of t r i a n g l e ADE ( F i g . 4 1 - 7 ) ar e known as w e l l as the
he ar ing of s id e AD.

By Cosine Law x
c2 = ^a2 + b2 - 2 abCosC

Let:
a - - DE, b, = AD, c = E A , and C = A
( DE )2= ( AD) 24-(EA)2- 2 ( AD)(EA) Cos A .

C m A ( AD)2f ( EA) 2 - ( D E )2
2(AD)(EA)
r
A 9UAt Hi N * t ,443
 The angle at A may also be computed by the following
equation

Sin
■ f(S - (ADHEA)
AO) (S - EA)

Where:
s = (I/2HDE + AD + EA)
After the angle at A is determined the sine law may be
applied to obtain the other missing angles in triangle ADE.
Thus .
EA AD DE
Sin D Sin E S in A
EA Sin A AD Sin A
Sin D = DE and Sin E = DE
With the above equations the remaining two angles (<TD and
E) of triangle ADE can be computed and the unknown
bearings of sides DE and EA correspondingly determined. As
a check, the sum of the three computed angles should equal
to 180 degrees.
41-2. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
/. O M IT T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S . Given the following sketch and ta ­
bulated data for a closed traverse in which the length of DE and the
bearing of EA have not been observed in the field. Determine these
unknown quantities.

AAA __ O M IT T E O
Q - j - jte w iW F iT ir n i m ca su r e m c n ts
 L A T IT U D E S D EPA RTU RES
LIN E LEN G TH B E A R IN G
+N -s +E -w
AB , 1,084.32m S75*48'E 265.99 1,05 1.19
BC 1,590.5 1 S I5*I8'W 1,534. 14 4 19.69
CD 1,294.74 S 68*06'W 482.92 1,201.31
DE Unknown N 28*39* W — —
EA 1,738.96 Unknown —• —
SUMS +0.00 -2,283.05+ 1,051. lb -1,621.00
LEND (S S L ) (5 E D ) (S W D )

S o lu tio n :
a) Determining Length and Bearing of the Closing Line.
CL = SN L + ZSL = + 0 . 00 +( -2 ,28 3’. 05) = - 2,283.05m
CD = Z ED + JW D = + 1,05 I .19 + (- 1,621 .00) = - 569.8 I m

L da ~ V c f + =")|(- 2,283.05)2 + (-569.81)2

= 2,353.08m ( L e n g t h of c l o s i n g l i n e DA)

- ~ CD _ - ( - 569.8 I )
Tan oCda =
+ 569,8 1 = +-0.249583
-c, -(-2,283.05) +2,283.05
^da= I4*0r ( T h e r e f o r e the b e a r i n g of the c l o s i n g lin e DA is
N 14° O l ' E )

b) Determining Bearing of Line DE and Length of Line EA.

--^ = ? _

14 or

< D = 28°39‘+ 14°011= 42°40'

By Sine Law:
, DA = EA
Sin E Sin D
(DA)Sin D
Sin E =
(EA)
_ (2,353.08) S in 42°40'
* 1,7 38.9b
= 0.917076
\ r-?l4 "0 r < & = 66°30'
28* 3 9 ‘\ /

1iu. 41 9

.445
 Since the sum of interior angles of ADE should equal to I80e
<A = 180 - <<D + <E) = 180 - (4'2#40 + 66 30')'
= 70°50‘ ■'
About station E
■0- = 180° - (<E + 28°39*) = 180° - (66°30' +• 28°39')
- 84°5l' ( T h e r e f o r e the b e arin g pf line, E A i i N 8 4 * 5 l ' E )
By Sine Law
DE EA _ _ (EA)Sin A *
DE Sin D
Sin A Sin D
(1,738.96) Sin 70° 50
DE ■= — 1--------- :------ -----■ ------
Sin 42°40
2,423.62 m ( L e n g t h of l i n e D E )
2 . O M IT T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S . Given the following sketch and ta ­
bulated data for a closed traverse in which the lengths of BC and
CD have not been measured in the field. Determine these unknown quan­
tities.

L A T IT U D E S DEPARTURES .
L IN E LENGTH B E A R IN G
+N -S +E -w
AB 6 3 9 .3 2 m N 0 9 *3 0 'W 6 3 0 .5 5 10 5 . 5 2
BC Unknown N 5 6 * 5 , 5 'W
CD Unknown S 5 6* rVw
DE 5 7 0 .5 3 S 0 2 * 0 2 'E 5 7 0 . 17 2 0 .2 4
EA 1 ,0 8 2 .7 1 S 8 9 * 3 1'E 9 . 13 1 ,0 8 2 .6 7
, .S U M S +6 3 0 . 5 5 -5 7 9 .3 0 ♦ 1,1 02.9 1 - 1 0 5 . 5 2

(35 NL) ’ (S S L ) (ZED) . (3WD)

441 O M IT T E D
M EA SU REM EN TS
S o lu t io n :'
a) Determining Length and Bearing of Closing Line.
Cl - JN L *

JE D *
n

Lbd a v t / +
3 998.71

Tan cCbd =
- cD I . W I .J3 - + I Q / Cl o c q
-cL
-(+51.25) ' - 5 1 .2 5 ' + 19-461268
87° 0 4 1 (T h erefo r* th e b e a r i n g of th e closing lin e BD is S87*04'W)

b) Determining Length of lines BC and CD.

Fig. 41-11.

56O 13
IO ✓ >..30
nnJ56*55‘
AA
vv5685^!

998.71 1A
87 0 4\k

< B =I 80° - (8 7 ° 0 4 ' + 56°55') = 3 6 ° 0 l ‘.

< C =5 6 ° I 3 ‘ + 56*55' = I i 3°08'
<T D =87°04' - 5 6 ° I 3.' = 30 °5 l'
Sum = 180°00r (C h eck s)

By Sine Law
BC CD BD
Sin D Sin B Sin C
BC CD 998.7 1
Sin 30°51 Sin 36°0I Sin 11 3 08
BC = 998.71 Sin 3 0 ° 5 l‘
Sin 113°08
556.91 m ( L e n g t h of l i n e BC)

cp = 998 .7 I Sin 36°Oi'

• Sin 113 08
n-----
638.6 1 m ( L e n g t h of lin e CO)

3 . O M IT T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S . Given the following sketch and tabula-

tod data for a closed traverse in which the bearings of DE and EA have
not been measured in the field. Determine these unknown directions.
O H IT T t O
ML A S U M M L N T S ,447;
 L A T IT U D E S DEPARTURES
L IN E LENGTH BEA R IN G
+N -s +E -w
AB 1 , 0 8 1.35nr S 7 3 °4 7 'E 3 0 1.99 1,03 8.33
BC 1 ,5 8 9 .5 0 S 1 5 * I4 'W 15 3 3 .6 5 4 Itt. 6 4
CD 1 ,2 9 3 .7 2 S 6 7 ° 0 7 ‘W 5 0 3 .0 7 1 19 1 . 9 0
DE 2 ,5 0 6 .9 4 Unknown -
EA 1 ,7 3 7 .9 8 Unknown

SUMS + 0 .0 0 - 2 , 3 3 8 . 7 1 + 1 ,0 3 8 .3 3 - 1 , 6 0 9 . 5 4
0 (S N L) (S S L ) (SED ) (2 W D )

S o lu tio n :
o) CL - SN L + SSL =+ 0.00 + (-2,338.71) = - 2,338.7! m
SED * SWD = +1,038.33 + (-1,609.54) *= - 57 1.21m

l / c f + Cj*‘ = N ( - 2 3 3 8 . 7 1)2 + (-57.! ; Z \ P

2*407.46 m ( L e n g t h of c l o s i n g li n e DA)

~ CD _ -(-571.21) _ •+571.2! = +Q . 4 4 3 4 1
Tan cCda = ~CL - ( - 2 3 3 8 . 7H +■2338.71
|3 ° 4 4 ' ( T h e r e f o r e the be a rin g of the c l o s i n g line DA Is
■ ^do" N I3 °4 4 'E )

VM!r1
U£A SU/UkiCNTS
 b) Determ ining b e a r in g s of lin es DE and EA.
; \
Fig. 41-13.

J j 7 3 7 j)8

»3*44*

By Cosine Law

£2 = a2 + 'b2 - 2abCos C and Cos C = b2 -

2ab
Let: a = EA c = DA
b = DE <C = <E
fherefore:

Co$ E = (EA)2 (DE)2 - (DA)2

2(EA)(DE)
(1,737.98)2 + ( 2 , 506.94)2- ( 2. 407 .4 6) 2
2(1,73 7.98) (2 ,5 0 6 .9 4 )
0. 40 2 7 3 7
<E r 66° 15'
By Sine Law
EA DE DA
Sin D Sin A ~ Sin E
1,737.98 _ 2,506.94 _ 2 , 4 0 7 .46
Sin D Sin A Sin 66° 15'
Sin D 1,737.98 (S in 66° 15*)
■-------- ---------------------- 3 0 . 66 07 77
<0 'll"22'

omit
.449,
 2 5 0 6 . 9 4 ( Sin 6 6 ° i 5 l)
Sin A = = 0.953134
2,407.46
.< A = 72*23'

ofution C h e ck:
B * *
_ ' < A + <X D + <E > 180°00' *
72*23' + 4 I°2 2 ‘ + 6 6 °I5 ' = 180°00'
! 8 0 ° 00' = I8 0 °0 0 ' ( C h ec k s )

About station D

•©• - <D -
O I13°441 = 4I°22' - I 3 > 4 ‘
= 27 38 ( T h e r e f or e the bearing of li ne DE is N 2 7 ° 3 8 ' W )

About station £

= I80°00‘
& ■ < E - -0- = I 80*00* - 6 6 * 1 5 ' - 2 7 * 3 8 '
- 86 07 ( T h e r e f o r e the beari ng of line EA Is N 8 6 P0 7 ' E )

r r V y w w w B i * hit. A su /o c M t n t*
OMITTED
MEASUREMENTS
42-1. CASES Of OMITTED MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING NON-ADJOINING
SIDES
1. Length oi One. Side and Beaming oi Anothex Side Omitted
2. Length* oi Two Side* Omitted
3. Beating* oi Two Side* Omitted
42-2. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
1. Omitted Mea*unement* ( Non-Adjoining Side*)

lesson 42
U t.iu X tittH T t .451
 42-1. CASES OP OMITTED MEASUREMENTS INVOLVING NON-ADJOIN­
ING SIDES.

In the previous two lessons it was pointed out that the

Jdlutions of the different cases of omitted measurements
may be classified according to whether the two unknown or
omitted quantities (lengths and/or bearings) are in the
same side* in any, two adjoining sides, or in two non­
adjoining sides. This lesson will cover solutions to the
following typical cases involving omitted quantities in two
non-adjoining sides.

1ST CASE: Length of One Side and Bearing of An­

other Side Unknown
•
2ND CASE: Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3RD CASE: Bearings of Two Sides Unknown

With an added graphical solution, the determination of

missing data as explained in the previous two lessons are
also applicable even though the sides with two unknown
quantities are non-adjoining. .For the different cases of
omitted measurements involving non-adjoining sides the
following principles are adapted:
j ' " • ' ’
1ST PRINCIPLE: A line may be moved from one loca­
tion to a second location parallel with the first,
and its latitude and departure will remain un­
changed . „

2ND PRINCIPLE: The algebraic sum of the latitudes

and the algebraic sum of the departures of 'any
system of lines forming a closed figure must* be
zero, regardless of the order in which the lines
are placed.

A solution by simultaneous equations will give the

missing parts. In practice, however, this method is seldom
applied since geometric Solutions are preferred by most
engineers and surveyors. Hence, when two sides of a closed
traverse with unknown quantities are not adjoining* one of
the sides is considered as moved from its location to a
second location parallel with the first, such that the two
unknown sides adjoin. The solution then becomes identical
with those- described for adjoining Sides. Problems of this
type are simplified by first plotting.the given traverse
data to scale, then creating a "transformed" figure prior
to undertaking the actual computations. Aside from 'the
cases mentioned above there are some special cases of
omitted measurements which can be solved by simple geomet­
rical analysis. Other complicated cases, of omitted measure­
ments which will involve the use of simultaneous equations
... ,/ (
A W
— ' — — W
o m fts o
U f A i UKtUtr/ft
V l
are riot discussed here. \ ■ -f -■:-T'^.
As a check on the calculation® made on each of the
three cases, the latitudes and departures of the'sides with,
unknown quantities must be computed. The algebraic sum of
the latitude^ and the algebraic sum of the departures for
.ill sides should both be zero if the comput' tions made^ for
determining the unknown quantities are correct.

1. Length of One Side and Bearing of Another Side

Omitted.. In Figure 42-1 are given the directions and lengths
of sides AB, CD, EF, and FA; length of side BC; and direct­
ion of side DE. The unknown quantities are the bearing of
.side BC, and length of side DE which are non-adjoining. The
traverse is first plotted to scale based on given data;
with the sides shown in the order a,b,c,d,e, and f. The
sides with unknown quantities are shown in dashed lines and
sides with known quantities in solid lines.

tnd d the figure is transformed as shown in Figure 42-2. A

losing’ line divides the'figure into two parts and its
length and bearing are determined from the algebraic sum of
the departures and latitudes of the known sides. The first
l-.irt is formed by the known sides (a,c,e, and’ f) and the
closing line; the second part by the unknown sides (b and
«1) and the closing line.
dimple geometrical constructions are involved in *plot-
I Inq out the transformed figure. In the process of rear-
lunging the. aides to arrive at the desired figure a‘11 the
■t i t l es . t i c drawn parallel I o t h e corresponding sides of the

53>
previously plotted traverse. In this example the locations
of sides c and d have been interchanged. The transformed
figure now shows that the sides with unknown quantities are
made adjoining. The problem of determining the unknown
quantities is now seen to be identical with that of a case
whose sides are adjoining as explained in lesson number 4! .
2. Lengths of Two Sides Omitted. • Given in Figure 42-3
are the lengths and directions of sides AB, CD, DE, and
direction of the non-adjoining sides BC 'and EA are the

,45; O M ir f t r p - •
H KASufitufrirt
 The transformed figure now shows that the sides with
anknown quantities are made adjoining. The problem of de­
termining these unknown quantities is now seen to be * iden­
tical with that of a case whose sides are adjoining as
explained in lesson number 41. 4
For this'particular case, it must be noted that as the
angle between the unknown sides approaches 90 degrees, the
solution becomes strong, and as the angle approaches 0
degrees or 180 degrees, the solution becomes weak. The
problem becomes indeterminate when the lines are parallel.
3. Bearings of Two Sides Omitted. Given in Figure 42-5
are the lengths and directions of sides BC, DE, and EA;- and
the length of sides AB and CD. The bearing of the non-
adjoining sides AB and CD are the unknown quantities.
Following the same procedure outlined in the first two
cases, the traverse is plotted to scale based on the given
data and with the sides drawn in the order a,b,c,d, and e.
The transformed figure is arrived at by .rearranging the
order of the sides into b,d,e,a, and c as shown in Figure
42-6. •
Again, the closing line divides the figure into two
parts. The first part is formed by the known sides (b,d,
and e) and the closing line; the second part by ^he unknown
sides (a’and c) and the closing line. Since the transformed
figure hu:. the unknown quantities now adjoinihg, the prob^
lem <>l determining the unknown quantities is again seen to

OMirrru
number 41.
It will be noted that when the unknown sides are paral­
lel but are hot of the same length, their direction is that
o f the closing line. However, when the unknown sides are
parallel and are also of the same length, the solution for
the problem becomes indeterminate since the length of the
closing line becomes a point'. ’.

42-2. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM.

/. O M IT T E D M E A S U R E M E N T S (N o n -A d jo in in g S i d e s ) . Given the
following data for a closed traverse for which the lengths of the non - ad­
joining sides BC and EF have not been measured in the field. Determine
the unknown quantities.

L A T IT U D E S DEPARTURES
COURSE BEA R IN G D IS TA N C E
+N -s +E -W

AB S 9 2 *3 0 'E 6 2 0 .0 6 2 7 .0 5 6 19 . 4 7
BC N 30*30* E Unknown — \ -

CD S 4 2 *4 5 'E 6 9 1 .5 6 5 0 7 .8 3 4 6 9 .4 3
DE S 60*40*W 0 6 8 .4 8 3 3 7 .2 8 60 0.21
EF N 7 4 * 05* W Unknown — ■— ,
FA N 0 7 *0 2 'E 4 1 2 .3 5 4 0 9 .2 5 5 0 .4 9
Sums + 4 0 9 . 2 5 - 8 7 2 . 1 6 + 1139.39 - 6 0 0 . 2 1

N o te s : D 'T h e f i r s t ste p is to p io t the tr a v e r s e to s c a le b a se d jon the

g iv e n d a ta . '.
2 ) The n ext s te p is to draw an e q u iv a le n t tr a n s fo rm e d fig u re
*such th a t th e s id e s w ith unknown q u a n titie s a re m ade ad ­
jo in in g .
S o lu tio n : :
a) Plotting the traverse to scale

oM
m NCM•CttrS
/rrto
ASV
b) Drawing an equivalent transformed figure.

c) D et e r mi n i ng the length and bearing of the closing line

>NI " 8 + 40 9. 25 m 2ED = + I I 39.3 9 m .
:-SI -872.16 m 2WD = - 6 0 0 . 2 1 m ,
ounrt 57,
 CL s 2N L + JS L = + 409.25 +(-872.16)
= -462.91m ( d i f f e r e n c e between north ond south l a t i t u d e s )

CD = J E D * J W D . = + 1139.39 + ( - 6 0 0 . 2 1 )
* + 5 3 9 .1 8 m ( d i f f e r e n c e between east and w e s t de par t ur e s )

Lc l = V cf + c/' = "\|(- 4 6 2 . 9 1)2 + ( + 5 3 9 . 18)2 ’

= 710 .63 m ( l en gt h of the c l o s i n g line)

Tan cCCL =
-C r -(+ 539. 18) - 5 3 9.18
~°L -(-462.91) +462.91 = “ I 164762
oCri = 4
-t 9 2
c.Ii ( T h e r e f o r e , b e a r i n g of th e c l o s i n g lin e Is N 4 9 * 2 l ‘ wi

d) Determining lengths of sides BC and EF

Fig. 42-9.

< i = 30°30' + 49°21' = 79°5I'

< 2 = 74°05’- 49°2!' = 24° 44'
< 3 = 1 8 0 ° OO1- (30°30‘ + 74°05')
= 75°25‘
S o lu tio n C h eck:
< 1 + < 2 ’+ < 3 = !80°00'
79°5l' t 24°44' + 75°25' - I 80 ° 0 0 f
I 80°00' = I 80°00' (C hec k s)
By Sine Law:
BC EF 710.63
Sin < 2 Sin < i Sin <J 3
710.63 Sin<l 2 7 10.63 S in 24°44'
BC =
Sin <[ 3 -Sin 75 25
= 307.22 m ( l e n g t h of s i d e BC)
710.63 Sin<M 7 10.63 Sin 79°511
EF =
Sin< 3 Sin 75°25‘
= 722.80 m ( l e n g t h of s i d e E F )

45a
 A R £A
C O M P U T A T IO N S
Part IX: Lesson Nos. 43 Thru 46

L
AREA
COMPUTATIONS
43-1. METHODS OF DETERMINING AREA
43-2. AREA BY TRIANGLES
1. Known Base and. Altitude
2. Two Sides and Included Angle. Measured
3. Three Side* Measured
43-3. AREA BY COORDINATES
43-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Area By Triangles
2. M en By Triangles
3. M en By Triangles
4. M en By Coordinates
5. Area By Coordinates

Lesson 43
r\n at tohf, ,4 61,
 43-1. METHODS OF DETERMINING AREA

An important objective of most land surveys is the determi­

nation of the area of tracts of land. The method of deter­
mining areas of land by plane surveying differs from that
by geodetic surveying. In plane surveying, the area is not
the actual area of the land surface but is taken as its
projection upon a horizontal plane. Areas of large tracts
of land such:as a country or a continent are obtained by
geodetic surveying. Such areas are taken as the projection
of the tract upon the earth's spheroidal surface at mean
sea level.
Areas of land also come in different shapes. Some areas
may be in the shape of a regular geometric figure such as a
square, triangle, or parallelogram. Others may be quite
irregular and may be bounded entirely by curved bounderies.
The hectare (Ha.) is the most commonly used SI unit of
area. One hectare is equal to 10,000 square meters (sq.m.).
When large tracts of land are measured the hectare is used.
Areas of smaller tracts such as subdivision lots, play­
grounds, small farms, cemeteries, and building sites are
more conveniently expressed in square meters.
There are different methods used in determining area.
Some of these methods include the use of triangles, the
trapezoidal rule, Simpson's one-third rule, the coordinate
method, the DMD or DPD method, coordinate squares, and by a
planimeter.

43-2. AREA BY TRIANGLES.

.The triangle method is a useful and fairly accurate method

of computing the area of traverses that have only a few
sides. This method is well suited for determining dreas of
small tracts of land and was popularly used before the
engineer's transit was invented.
The following are the commonly used cases:

1. Known Base and Altitude. The area of a triangle

(Fig. 43-1) whose base and altitude are known or measured
may be computed by the following formula

A = ( / 2 ) ( b) h Eq.( i) Fig. 43-1.

Where:
A = area of the tract of
land (sq. m.)
b = base or any side of
the triangle (m)
h = altitude or the perpen­
dicular distance from
the corner opposite the
base Cm)

AHCA c o m -
F o rA n ohs
 2. Two Sides and Included Angle Measured. When tlfti
lengths of two sides and the included angle of any triable
(Fig. 43-2) are known, its area is given by the following
formula /

A = (1/2) (a) (b) Sjn QC • • ••

Where:
A = area of the tract of
land (sq. m.)
a, b = sides of the triangle (m
aC = angle between sides
a ■a nd b

3. Three Sides Measured.- The area of a triangle (Fig.

43—3) whose three sides are known can be computed by the
formula

A = -\|s ( s - a ) (s - b) (s - c)' • Eq. (3) Fig. 43-3.

Where: ,
A = area of the tract of
land (sq. m.)
s = one half of the peri­
meter or ( l/ 2) (a + b+ c),
where a, b, and c are
the sides of the triangh

The area of any field in the shape of a geometric

figure can be found by dividing it into a series of trian­
gles. When the sides or diagonals are measured, the area of
the triangles are computed separately by the usual mathema­
tical formulas given above. The area of the field is then
taken as the sum of the areas of the triangles into which
t.he field is divided. However, this method is limited to
!igures that are bounded by straight lines.

43-3. AREA BY COORDINATES.

The method of coordinates is another useful method for

computing the aresf of any closed figure bounded by straight
lines. It is applicable for calculating areas of ■ either
.-.mall or large sizes of land. Since it is easily understood
and applied, the method has many applications in surveying
practice. «
Essentially*, the calculation involves determining the
areas ol the individual triangles or trapezoids formed by
l >r o ie< l lug IInes upon a coordinate axes. The coordinates

<’A/
AOf A (
r\n at tout ,463
 used are the total latitudes and total departures for the
corners of the closed traverse. If the coordinates have
been determined accurately it will follow that the area
determined will also be accurate.
Fig . 43-4. Knia. by caMcUnaXti.

C O O R D IN A T E S
CORNER
(T O T A L D E P ) (T O T A L L A T ).
A X. V
B x2 y2
C X3 V
0 X4 Y4

In Figure 43-4 it will be seen that

Area of ABCD = Area of Trapezoid aABb + Area of

Trapezoid bBCc - Area of Trapezoid
9. aADd - Area of Trapezoid .dDCc
The area in terms of X and Y coordinates is
Area of ABCD » (|/2)(X, + X2) ( Y , - Y 2) * ( l / 2 ) ( X 2 ♦ X3) ( Y 2 - Y3)
- ( I / 2 K X , + X4 ) ( Y r Y4 ) - ( l / 2 ) ( X 4 + X 3) ( Y 4 - Y3)
- (1/2) [(X| Y, ~ X, Y- + X2Y, - X2Y2) + (X2Y2 - X2Y3 + X,Y2 - X 3YJ
- i x , y , - x , y4 * x 4y , - x 4 y4i - i x 4 y 4 - x 4 y 3 * x 3y 4 - x 3 y 3 i]
3 ( I / 2 J ( X 2Y , . X 3YZ + x 4 y 3 . x , y 4 - x , y 2 - x 2y 3 - x 3y4 - x 4y , i

In surveying it is more convenient to reduce the above

equation to the conventional determinant form as derived in
analytic geometry, thus

Area of ABCD = —

To be suitable for determining the area of a closed tra-

\Zetse haying any number of sides, the following general
form is used

*3
Area =
y,

Where: X ( , Xg , X3 , and etc. are the X-coordinates or to-

A REA CO M -
ROTATIONS
 tal departures; Y, , Y2 , Y3 , and etc. are the Y-eoordtr
nates or total latitude; and the subscript »n is the last
numbered corner of the closed traverse.
It is advantageous to have the traverse portrayed in
one quadrant so that the coordinates of all points are
positive in sign. When this is not done, the north ordif
/nates are taken as positive and t he’south ordinates as
(negative. Also, the east abscissas are taken as positive
|and the west abscissas as negative. *
The algebraic signs must be considered carefully during
computations. It will be noticed that some areas may be
positive values while others negative. The sign of the
lesulting quantity is immaterial and is disregarded.

'43-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS. »' ■

\ -■
1^ A R E A B Y T R IA N G L E S . The sides of triangle ABC were measured
as'follows : AB = 12 9 . 2 6 m ,. BC 2 58 .7 3 m , and AC = 211.25 m. Calcu­
late the'^erea In square meters and in hectares.
Fig. 43-5. Tsiangie mitk tkA.es. Aides mtasuKtd.

a) l 9t S o lu tio n : (Using Hero’s Formula).

S = (I/2)( AB + BC + AC)
= (1/2)029.26 +’258.73 + 211.25)
= 2 99 . 6 2 m •

= ~\299.62(299.62 -129.26K299.62 -258.73H299.62- 2

= 13,580.95 sq.m, or 1.358 Ha ( A r e a of t r i a n g l e A B C )

2 nd So lu tio n : (By Applying the Cosine Law).

<(AB)2 = (AC)2 + (BC)2 - 2( AC) (BC) Cos C

Cos C = (AC)2 + (BC)2 - (AB)2

2(AC)(BC)
(2M.25 )2 + .(258.73)2 - (129.26 )2
2(211,25)(258.73)
0.8677765
< C = 29°47 55" ( T h e Included qngle be tw ee n

A abc = ( l / 2 ) ( A C ) ( B C ) S i n C ,
= 0 / 2 K 2 1 1 .2 5 ) (2 5 8 .7 3 ) S in ( 2 9 ° 4 7 5 5 "
= 1 3 , 5 8 0 . 9 5 sq.m, or 1 . 3 5 8 Ha ( A r e a of t r i a n g l e AB C)
• *
Note: Since tfre .area of the triangle as computed by the two solutions
(iro equal,it can be safely assumed that both solutions are correct.
2. A REA BY T R IA N G L E S . A surveyor sets up a transit at P

Ateta iiw• ,4 6 ;
r or A n ON4
 which is lo c a t e d in the middle portion of a four - s id e d tract of land and
r e a d s directions and m easu res d i s t a n c e s , a s given below, to the five cor­
ners. Find the area of the t r a c t , in square m eters.

LINE BEARING DISTANCE

PA N 41 ° 3 0 1W 4 1 0 .3 2 m
PB N 38° 1O' E 5 3 2 .1 8
PC S 70° 2 0 ' E 4 8 0 .7 5
PD S 60* 13 ' W 5 9 0 .0 8

So lu tio n :
a) Calculating the Angles about Station P!
Fig. 43-6. T\ac.t divided into iotix txiaAgte^.

<APB = 4 I ° 3 0 ‘ + 38° I O1 = 7 9 ° 4 0 '

<BPC = I 80° - {38°IOl + 7 0 ° 2 0 ‘) = 7 I ° 3 0 '
<CPD = 7 0 ° 2 0 ‘ + 60° 15' = I 3 0 ° 3 5 '
<DPA * 180° - (60° 15* + 4 ! o3 0 ‘) = 7 8 ° I 5 '
b) Calculating Area by Triangles:
Agpb* (I/2HAP) (BP) Sin < APB
= (1/2X4 I 0.52) (5 32.18) Sin ( 7 9 ° 4 0 ‘)
* I 0 7 , 4 6 3 . 5 6 sq. m.
Abpc * (1/2) (BP) (CP) Sin < BPC
= (1/2) ( 5 3 2. i 8) (450.75) Sin (7 1 °30')
= I I 3 , 7 4 2 . 0 0 sq. m.
•
Acpd = (1/2) (CP) (DP) Sin < CPD
* (l/2 t (450.75) (590.08) Sin (I 30°35‘)
3 10 1, 0 0 0 . 12 sq. m.
Adpa* (1/2) (DP) (AP) Sin <1 DPA
=»* (1/2) (590.08) (410.52) Sin (78° I 5')
= 1 1 8 , 5 8 1 . 8 1 sq. m.

466.
c) D e te r m in in g t h e T o ta l Area:

* ^apb + ^bpc A ^cpd + ^d.pa

* 10 7 , 4 6 3 . 5 6 + 11 3 , 7 4 2 . 0 0 + 1 0 1 , 0 0 0 . 1 2 t 1 1 8 , 5 8 1 . 6 1
* 4 4 0 , 7 8 7 . 4 9 s q. m, or 4 4 . 0 7 8 7 Ha.
S. A R E A B Y T R IA N G L E S . Given In the accompanying t a b u la ­
tion are quan tities which were measured for a fiv e-sided field (Fig!
4 3 - 7 ) . If the length of AB is 2 6 8 . 7 0 m , determine the area of the
field In square me ters.

F ig . 43-7. TMaci divided into tiiM.ee tMiangteA,

ANGLE OBSERVED VALUE
-» l 96 *30'
•^2 30°30'
■^3 53° d 6 >
57*15'
*5 78*23'
44*22'
+7 64*40*
*8 87* 10'
*9 28* 10'

Solution:
<i) Determining Length of Sides by Sine Law.
_r
BE AB
Sin 0 -| Sin •0 -3
(AB) Sin -e-i 2 6 8 . 7 0 Sin (96°30*)
BE Sin-Os ~ Sin (53°00')
= 3 3 4 . 2 9 m ( L e n g t h of ttne B E ?
CE BE
Sin -d-4 Sin -O5
(BE) Sin -0-4 3 3 4 . 2 9 Sin (57° 15')
CE SinO's Sin (78°23’)
287.03 m ( L e n g t h of line C E )

PE. = CE
Sin 0-7 Sin -Os J
(CEl^inO-r 2 8 7 . 0 3 Sin ( 6 4 ° 4 0 ‘)
DE = Sin.e8 = Sin ( 8 7 ° ! 0 ’)
- 259.74 m (Length *of line DE)

b) Calculating Area by Triangles.

Aab«= ( l / 2 )(AB)(BE) Slne -2 = (l/2)(268.70)(33*4.29) Sin (3O°30‘)
3 2 2 , 7 9 4 . 4 9 sq .m . (Area of triangle ABE)
Ab0# - ( 1/ 7.)(BE)(CE) Sin-0-g - (1/2)( 334.29) ( 287.031 Sin (44°22*)
« 3 ^ , S 4 6 . ’8 4 sq. m. (Area of trlungle BCE)

67,
 Acde= (I/2)(CE)(DE) Slne9 » (1/2)(287.03)(259.74) Sin (28° ! 0 ‘)
« 17, 5 9 5 . 9 6 sq m (Ar*a of trlqnol* CDE)
c) Determining the Total Area. . N

Ay S ^al»* + ^bco + ^cd*

= 2 2 , 7 9 4 . 4 9 + 3 3 ,5 4 6 .8 4 + 17,595.96^
* 7 3 , 9 3 7 . 2 9 sq. m. (To»al aroa of tho flvo-sldod field ABODE)

4 . A R E A B Y C O O R D IN A TES . Given the following adjusted latitudes

and adjusted departures of a closed traverse, determine the area of the
traverse by the coordinate method. Assume that the origin of the coordi­
nate system passes thru station I.

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

LIN E
(+)N (-)S ( + )E ( -) W

1-2 490.71 4 7 .2 7
2 - 3 587.12 6 0 8 .8 9
3- 4 327.41 7 8 6 .7 8
4- 5 1002.76 2 1 8 .3 2
5- 6 122.67 III 6.6 2
6- 1 375.01 5 4 4 .6 4

«SUMS + 1452.84 - 14 5 2 . 8 4 +1661.26 - I 661.26

•4---------------------

So lu tio n :
a) Determining Coordinates of Each Station:
TOTAL L A T IT U D E S (V): TOTAL DEPARTURES (X ):

0.00 (Sta 1) 0.00 (Sta I)

+ 490.71 (Lat of Line 1 - 2 ) + 47.27 (Dep of Line 1 - 2)
490.71 (Sta 2) 47.2 7 (Sta 2)
+ 587. 12 (Lat of Line 2 - 3 ) + 6 08 .8 9 (Dep of Line 2 - 3 )
1077.83 (Sta 3) 656.1 6 (Sta 3)
- 327.41 (Lat of Line 3 - 4 ) + 786. 78 (Dep of Line 3 - 4 )
750.42 (Sta 4) 1 1442.94 (Sta 4)
-10 02.7 6 (Lat of Line 4 - 5) + 2 l 8.32 (Dep of Line 4 - 5 )
- 252.34 (Sta 5) 166 1.26 (Sta 5)
- 122.67 (Lat of Line 5 - 6 ) - I I I 6.62 (Dep of Line 5 - 6 )
- 375.0! (Sta 6) 544 .64 (Sta 6)
+ 375.0! (Lat of Line 6 - 1) - 544. 64 (Dep of Line'. 6 - | )
0.00 (Sta 1) 0.00 (Sta 1) *

Note: Since the final computed coordinates of station / are equal to

its initially assumed coordinates, the coordinates thus computed for
each station of the traverse are taken to be correct

4C-0-
b) Calculating the Double Areas:
PLUS DO UBLE A R E A S MINUS DOUBLE AREAS *

0 . 0 0 ( 490.71) =7 0.00 I 4 4 2 . 9 4 ( 252.34) = 364,1 I 1.48

4 7 . 2 7 (1 07 7. 83 ) = 50,949.02 1661 .26 ( 375 31) = 6 2 2 , 9 8 9 . 1 I
656. I 6 ( 750.42) = 492,395.59 0 . 0 0 ( 47.27) * 0 .0 0
5 4 4 .6 4 ( 0.00) = 0.00 490.71 ( 656.16)= 32 1,984.27
252 .34 ( 544.64) * 137,434.46 1077.83 (1442.94) = 1,555,244.02
750.42(1661.26) = l ,'246,642.73
37 5.01 ( 0.00)= 0.00
T o t a l Plu s Double Area6 = +6 8 0 , 7 7 9 . 0 7 Total Minus Double Areas =-4,1 I 0,971.61

c) Tabulated Solution:

C O O R D IN A TES DOUBLE AREAS

STA TOTAL L A T TO TA L DEP PLUS AREAS M IN U S A R E A S

(Y ) (X ) <+> (-)

1 0.00 0.00 0.00 ' 3 6 4 , I 1 1 .4 8

2 4 9 0 .7 1 4 7 .2 7 5 0 ,9 4 9 .0 2 6 2 2 ,9 8 9 .1 1
3 10 7 7 .8 3 6 5 6 . 16 4 9 2 ,3 9 5 .5 9 0.00
4 7 5 0 .4 2 14 4 2 . 9 4 0.00 3 2 1 ,9 8 4 .2 7
5 - 2 5 2 .3 4 I 661 .2 6 1 3 7 ,4 3 4 .4 6 1 ,5 3 5 ,2 4 4 .0 2
6 - 3 7 5 .0 1 5 4 4 .6 4 1 ,2 4 6 ,6 4 2 .7 3
. 0.00 0.00 ' 0 .0 0

SU MS + 6 8 0 ,7 7 9 .0 7 - 4 , 1 1 0 , 9 7 1 .61

d) Calculating the Area of the Traverse:

Sum of Double Areas = Total Plus Double Areas + Total Minus Double Area
= + 680,779.07 + (-4,1 10,971.61)
= - 3,430,192.54
Area = - 3,430,192.54/2
= - 1*7 1 5 , 0 9 6 .2 7 s q . m . {T h e n e g a t iv e s ig n Is
d isregarded)

5. A R E A B Y C O O RD IN A TES , Given the following notes for a closed

traverse. Determine the foliowing:
a) Coordinates of each traverse station if the known coordinates of sta­
tion A are 25 0 .0 0 m (total latitudes) and 300.00m (total departures)
b) Area of the traverse by the coordinate method.

A D JU STED L A T IT U D E A D JU STED d epartu re

(+)N (-)S (+ ) E MW

AB 3 5 2 .0 0 3 9 5 .6 0
BC 2 3 .4 0 591 .6 0
CD • 5 5 8 .2 0 7 8 .3 0
DE 10 2 . 5 0 7 4 6 .3 0
EA 2 8 5 .3 0 ’ 3 I 9 .2 0
>;u m s + 6 6 0 .7 0 - 6 6 0 .7 0 + 1 0 6 5 .5 0 - I 06 5 .3 0
 S
olu
tio
n:
a) D e te r m in in g C o o r d in a t e s of E a c h S t a t i o n :
TOTAL L A T I T U D E S ( Y ) : TOTAL DEPARTURES (X)l
250.00 (Sta A) 3 00 . 00 (Sta A)
+ 3 5 2. 0 0 (L.at of Line AB) + 3 95 .6 0 (Dep of Line AB)
602.00 (Sta B) 6 95 .6 0 (Sta B)
+ 23.40 (Lat of Line BC) + 5 91.60 (Dep of Line BC)
625.40 (Sta C) 1287.20 (Sta C)
- 558.20 (Lat of Line CD ) + 78.30 ( Dep of L ine CD)
67.20 (Sta D) 1365.50 (Sta D)
- 1 02 .5 0 (Lat of Line DE ) - 746.30 ( Dep of Line DE)
- 35.30 (Sta E) 61 9.20 (Sta E)
+ 285.30 (Lat of Line EA) - 3 19. 20 (Dep of Line EA)
250.00 (Sta A) 3 00 .0 0 (Sta A)

>: Since the final computed coordinates of station A are equal to

its Initially assumed coordinates, the coordinates thus computed for
each station of the traverse are taken to be correct.
b) Calculating the Double Areas.
PLUS DOUBLE AREAS MINUS DOUBLE AREAS

3 0 0 . Qp (6 0 2. 0 0) = 18 0 , 6 0 0 . 0 0
6 9 5 . 6 0 ( 6 2 5 . 4 0 ) = 4 3 5, 0 28 .2 4
1287.20( 67. 20) = 8 6, 4 99 . 84
6 1 9 . 2 0 ( 2 5 0 . 0 0 ) = 154,800.00
3 5 . 3 0 ( 3 0 0 . 0 0 ) *■ 10,590. 00
Total Plus Double Areas * t 867 ,5 I 8.08
1365.50 ( - 3 5 . 3 0 ) = 48,202.15
2 50. 00 ( 6 9 5 . 6 0 ) = I 73,900.00
6 02 .0 0 ( I 287..20) = 774,894.40
6 2 5 : 4 0 ( I 3 65.50) '= 85 3,983.70
67.20 ( 6 1 9 . 2 0 ) = 41,610. 24
Total Minus Double Areas = 1,^92,590.49

c) Tabulated Solution:

COORDINATES DOUBLE AREAS

STA TOTAL LAT TOTAL DEP PLUS AREAS MINUS AREAS
(Y) (X) (+) (-)
A 230.00 300.00
0 602.00 695.60 180,600.00 48,202.1 3
C 625.40 1287.20 435,028.24 173,900.00
D 67.20 1365.50 86,499.84 774,894.40
E - 35.30 61 9.20 154,800.00 833,983.70
A 230.09 300.00 (0,590.00 41,61 0.24
SUMS + 867,31 8.08 -1,892, 390.49

d) Calculating the Area of the Traverse:

Sum of Double Areas* Total Plus Double Areas + Total Minus Double Aretn
= + 867,51 8.08 + ( - 1 , 8 9 2 , 5 9 0 . 4 9 )
= - 1,025,072.4 !
* Area = - 1 , 02 5 , 0 7 2 . 4 I /2
= - 5 1 2 , 5 3 6 . 2 1 sq. m. (The negat i ve «lgn •» d i s ­
r egar ded)

4 7 .0 .,
AREA
COMPUTATIONS .

44-U DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE

44-1. DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE
44-3. AREA 8 / DUD METHOD
44-4. AREA BY DPD METHOD
44-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Atea By Double Meridian Distance Method
1. Kx.ea By Double PaAaJtZel Distance Method

Lesson 44
 44-1. DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE.

The mefidian distance of a line is defined as the shortest

distance from the midpoint of the.line to the reference
meridian. In Fig. 44-1 the meridian distances of courses
AB, BC/ CD, DE, and EA are GG ’, FF', HH', II', and JJ»
respectively. . J
Fig. 44-1. Ve.iXAmin.ing double, muidian. distance..

Meridian distances east of the reference meridian are con­

sidered to be positive, and those west of the meridian, ne­
gative. ' ,
The double meridian distance of a line is the meridian
distance of the line multiplied by two. Double* meridian
distances, which are abbreviated as DMD’s, are used in com­
puting the area of a field enclosed by a traverse. The
double merjdian distances for the above illustrated 'tra­
verse may be computed as follows: ,

DMD of AB = 2(GG1) = GG* + KL \■

(Note: This quantity is also the departure of line
AB .) ' • •'
• *

DMD of BC = 2(FF 1) = 2(GG *•) + 2(KL) + 2(LF')

(Note: These quantities are the double meridian
distance of AB, the departure of AB, and the

O ____ A H£A COM "

CLlJtmmmmmm futatioms
 d e pa r t u r e of BC, r e s p e c t i v e l y . )
... • . ' ’ ':' \ ' ’ ).
•
, DMD of CD = 2(HH *) = 2(HM) + 2(MN) - 2(NH*)
( N o te : These q u a n t i t i e s ar e the doubl e m e r i d i a n
distance of BC, the d e p a r t u r e of BC, arid the *
d e pa r t u r e of CD. The l a s t q u a n t i t y , b ei ng w e st ,
has the n e g a t i v e s i g n ; . )

Based on these i l l u s t r a t e d computations, the following

t h re e r u l e s should p r o v i d e a means of computi ng the DMD f o r
each course of a t r a v e r s e :

- RULE 1: The DMD of the first course is equal to

the departure of the course.

RULE 2: The DMD of any other course is equal to

the DMD of the preceding course, plus the depart- ’
ure of the preceding course, plus the departure of
the course itself. *

RULE 3: The DMD of the last course is numerical­

ly equal to the departure of that course, but with
the opposite sign.

A check on all computations is obtained if the DMD of

the last course, after computing around the traverse, is
also equal to the departure of the course but opposite in
sign. If there is a difference, the departure^ were not
correctly adjusted before starting or an error* has been
made in the computations. Since these rules are so commonly^
nmployed in the computation of areas, it is therefore
important to memorize them.
The double meridian distances of lines are computed in
a consecutive order going around the traverse in' clockwise
or counterclockwise direction from the point lying on the
reference meridian. Confusion will be avoided if the course
leading out of the most westerly point is designated as
the'first course, regardless of station number designation.

44-2. DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE.

By using the latitudes of the successive courses instead of

he departures, parallel distances can also be computed in
a manner similar to meridian distances. The parallel dis-
1 ance of a line is defined as the distance from the mid­
point of the line to the reference parallel or the east-
zest line. Similarly, 'the double parallel distance of a
line is equal to twice its parallel distance.
Correspondingly, the followinq rules also provide a
means of computing the DPD for each course of a traverse.
«
RULE I : The" DPD of the f i r s t cours e i s equal to
the I .it I l.ude of the c o u r s e .

A f it A c o y -
P U T A T tO Nt .4 7 3 ,
 RULE 2: The DPD of any other course is equal to
the DPD of the preceding course, plus the latitude
of the preceding course, plus the latitude of the
course itself*

RULE 3. The DPD of the last course is numerical^

ly equal to the latitude of that course but with
the opposite sign.

Determining DPD's is essentially the same as determi­

ning DMD's . The only difference is that in the DPD method
the lines are projected upon the reference parallel instead
of upon the reference meridian.

44-3. AREA BY DMD METHOD,

The use Of the double meridian distance (DMD) is to deter­

mine the area of a closed traverse. This method is an
adaptation of the method of determining areas by coordi­
nates. Thus, if the latitudes and departures of a traverse
are known and have been adjusted the area of the traverse
may be computed conveniently by the DMD method.
If a close look is made on Figure 44-1, it will be
noted that the area enclosed by the given traverse ABCDEA
is equal to B'BCC' + C'CDD’ - AB'B - DD'E *E - AEE•. The
quantities involved represent either triangles or trape­
zoids which are formed by projecting a given course upon
the reference meridian. To obtain the double area of such
figures, the DMD of the course is multiplied- by the corres­
ponding adjusted latitude of the course, or

Double Area = DMD(Adjusted Latitude)

Since the sign of the latitude must be used in the multi­

plications, some double areas will yield positive values
and some will have negative values. The double areas are in
turn recorded in plus (+) or minus (-) columns which cor­
respond to north double areas (NDA) or south double areas
(SDA). The traverse area is then equal to one-half the
algebraic sum. of the north double areas and the south
dtuible areas, or

AREA = (1/2)(5NDA + 2 SDA)

Where 5 NDA and 2SDA are the sums of the north double
areas and south double areas, respectively.
Strict attention to signs is absolutely necessary in
the computation of areas by this method If the total minus
double areas is lafger than the plus double areas,* it only
signifies that the double meridian distances were computed
by going around the traverse in a clockwise direction. The
negative sign in the result of computing an area may. be
avoided if a counterclockwise direction is taken instead.
In so doing, all the latitudes of the courses assume oppo­
site signs, thus reversing the sign in the final result.
However, it doe's not really matter if the final value is
either positive or negative. If a negative sign is encOuh-
tered, it is simply ignored,
A quick check of areas computed by the DMD method ntay
be made by moving the reference meridian to another corner
and repeating the calculations. Another c^heck could also be
made by computing the area by the double parallel distance
(DPD) method as explained in Article 44-4.
It should always be remembered that before the DMD
method can be applied properly, the latitudes and depart­
ures of the traverse should first be adjusted such that the
figure becomes a closed polygon. This means that the
algebraic sum of the north and south latitudes is exactly
zero, and the algebraic sum of the east and west departures
is also zero. When the.DMD method is employed, it is
important to tabulate the traverse data accordingly. A good
tabulation provides a systematic and a well-organized 'ap­
proach to the required calculations. The sample format
illustrated in Figure 44-2, which applies to the plotted
traverse in Figure 44-1, is usually adapted.
Fig. 44-2. Tabulation o{ tAavm&e. data. .

ADJ. L A T . A D J. D EP. D O U BLE AREA S

CO URSE DMD
+N -S + E - W + NDA — SDA
»
AB
BC
CD
DE ' •

EA •
SUMS SN L SSL SED ZWD 2ENDA S SDA

44-4. AREA BY DPD METHOD.

The double parallel distance method of area computation is
similar to the double meridian distance method. Dbiible
areas* can be determined by. multiplying the DPD of each
course by the corresponding adjusted departure of the
course, or
Double Area = DPD(Adjusted Departure) 1

Double areas are recorded in plus (+) or minus (-) cplumns

which correspond to east double areas (EDA) and west double
areas (WDA), respectively. Also, the traverse area is equal
to one-half the algebraic sum of both double*areas,. or

* ‘ AREA = (1/2)(5 EDA + 5 WDA)

Where > KI>A »nd 5jWDA are the sums of the east double areas
AmiA1o¥
rutAnomt ,4 7 5
and west double areas, respectively.
As in the DMD method, algebraic sigps should be given
due regard. For any.particular traverse, the area deter­
mined. by the DPD method should equal that computed by the
DMD method'. It is for this reason that the DPD method is
often used as a check on area computations when the adjust­
ed latitudes and departures are known or can be determined.

44-5. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

f. A R E A B Y D O U B L E MER IDI AN D IS TA NC E METHOD. In Fig 44-3
and the accompanying tabulation are given the adjusted latitu d es and
adjusted departures of a closed tra ve rse . C alculate the area by the DMD
method.

fig. 44-3. Adjusted latitude, and depaAtwoLi of, the. ttaveA^e.

 A D J L A T IT U D E ADJ D EPARTU RE •
L IN E
( +) N (-) 8 ( +) E (-.) w
AB 490.71 47.2 7
BC 5 8 7.12 6 0 8 .8 9
CD 327.4 1 7 8 6 .7 8
DE 1 ,002.76 2 1 8 .3 2 •

EF 122.67 1,11 6.62

FA 375.01 5 4 4 .6 4
SUM + 1 ,4 5 2 .8 4 - 1,4 52.84 + 1,661 .26 - 1,661 .26

o) Computation of DMD's ! (Refer to Rules for Computing DMD)

'DMD t = 47.27
ab
DMDK„ 4 7 .27 + 47.2-7 + S
DC = 608.89 703.43
DMD cd_ = 7 03. 43 + 6 08. 89 + 786.78 = 2,099. 10
DMD 06
. = 2,099. 10 + 786.78 t 2 18.32 or 3 , 1 04 .2 0

DMDef = 3,104.20 + 2 1 8 , 3 2 - 1,1 16.62 = 2,205.90

DMD,fa = 2,205.90 1, 1 1 6 . 6 2 - 544.64 = 5 44 .6 4

l>) Computation of Double Areas: D ouble A r^a = DMD x Adj. Lat.

DAa«, = 47.27 x 490.7 1 = + 23,195.86-

D\ c = 703.43 x 587. 12 = + 412,997.82

o
>

= 2,099.10 x (- 327.41) = - 687,266.33

Cl
o

DAd. = 3, 104.20 x (-1,002.76) = - 3,1 1 2 , 7 6 7 . 5 9

= - 270,5 97.7 5
a Q
< <r

= 2 , 205. 90 x (- 122.67)
«<
•D
- o

= 544.64 x 375.01 = + 204,245.45

■ SDA = - 3 , 4 3 0 , 192. 54
therefore:

2 x AREA = - 3., 4 3 0 , 1 9 2 . 5 4
• f AREA = - 1, 7 1 5 , 0 9 6 . 2 7 sq m (The negative sign Is disregarded)

T a b u la te d S o lu tio n :

D O UBLE A R E A S 2 (AREA) = 5 NDA + SSDA

l INE DM D ‘ = + 640, 4 3 9 . 1 3 ’
+ NDA , - SDA
+ (-4,070,631.67)
*
AB 4 7 .2 7 + 23, 19 5 .8 6 = - 3 ,430,192.54
BC 7 0 3 .4 3 + 4 12,997. 82
CD 2 , 0 9 9 . 10 6 87,2 66.33 ARE A = - 3,430,192.54/2
DE 3,1 0 4 .2 0 - 3,11 2 ,7 6 7 .5 9 = - 1,715,096.27
EF 2 ,2 0 5 .9 0 27 0,5 9 7 .7 5 ( T he n e g a t i v e sign
FA 544.64 + 204,245. 45 is dis re ga rd e d}

SUMS + 64 0,^4 39. 13 - 4 ,0 7 0 , 6 3 1 . 67

2. AREA HY D O U B L E P AR A L L E L DI ST AN CE M E T H O D . Using

, V , W , Z
A -----,477
 the given data in problem no. I, determine the area of the closed-traverse
by DPD method.
i
a) Computation of DPD's : (R e fe r to R ules fo r Computing DPD)

4 9 0 .7 I 1•

4 9 0 . 7 1 +. 4 9 0 .7 1 + 5 8 7 . 12 = 1,568.54
DPDbc =
1, 5 6 8 . 5 4 + 5 8 7 . 12 - 327.4 1 = 1,828.25
0PD* >
327.41 - 1,002.76
DPDd.= 1 , 8 2 8 . 2 5 = 498 .0 8
Dp Dtf = 498. 08 -• 1 , 0 0 2 . 7 6 - 122.6,7 =- 627.35

Dpo ,0 = - 6 2 7 .3 5 - 12 2 . 6 7 + 375.01 = - 375.01

b) Computation of Double A re a s: Double Area = DPD x AdJ. Dep.

4 9 0 .7 1 X 47 .2 7 s 23,1 9 5 .8 6
DAc
s 1,56 8 .5 4 X 6 0 8 .8 9 ' as + 9 5 5 ,0 6 8 .3 2
D\ c
a 1 ,8 2 8 .2 5 X 7 86.78 a + 1 ,438,430.54
DAc„
s 4 9 8 .0 8 X 2 1 8.32 * + 1 0 8 ,7 4 0 .8 3
DA*
DA , ■*». - 6 2 7 . 3 5 x ( - ‘1 , 1 1 6 . 6 2 ) a + 7 0 0 ,5 1 1 .5 6
of
DA, , = - 3 7 5 . 0 1 X (- 5 4 4 .6 4 ) = + 2 0 4 ,2 4 5 .4 5
fa
« = + 3 , 4 3 0 , 19 2 . 5 6
5DA

Therefore:
2 x AREA = + 3,430,192.56
AREA = + 1,7 I 5 , 0 9 6 . 2 8 sq m

T a b u la te d So lu tio n :

DOUBLE AREAS
LINE DPD
+ EDA + WD A

AB 490.71 2 3 ,19 5.86

BC 1,568.54 + 955,0 68.32
CD ! ,8 2 8 .2 5 1,438,430.5$
D'E 498. 08 + 108,740.83
EF - 627. 35 + 7 0 0 ,5 1 1.56
FA - 375.01 + 20 4,2 45.45

• SUMS + 3 ,4 3 0 , 192.56
AMEA
COMPUTATIONS
45-1. AREA BV OFFSETS FROM A'STRAIGHT LINE
45-2. TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
45-3. SIMPSON'S ONE-THIRD RULE
45-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. TAapzzoidal Ruiz
2. S'tmp^onU Onu-Thiid Ruiz.
3. lAA.zguIaA.lt/ Spaczd O^fazto

Lesson 45
A fik A C U M ’
PUTATIONA
 45-1. AREA BY OFFSETS PROM A STRAIGHT LINE.

Tracts of land are not always, bounded by straight lines and

it is often necessary to determine areas that are sometimes
bounded by irregular lines or curves. For instance, a pro­
perty boundary may be represented by the centerline of a
stream or it may be bounded by a winding road. It would not
be feasible for such cases to run a traverse along the
boundary lines. To plot the boundary it is often more
practical to establish a base line conveniently near the
irregular or curve boundary and measure offset distances
from the base line to the boundary.
Offsets are snort distances measured perpendicular to a
reference Or base line. They are usually taken at regular
intervals if the curved boundary does not vary significant-'
ly. However, when there are abrupt changes in the boundary,
it is advisable that offsets be taken at irregular inter­
vals. The measurement of offsets depends to a great extent
on existing conditions of the terrain. It will be noted
that when pffsets are taken sufficiently close together the
error in the measurement of area would be small as compared
with the inaccuracies of the measured offsets.
There are two common rules used in determining areas of
irregular or curved boundaries. One such rule is the Trape-»
zoidal Rule and the other is Sifripson's One-Third Rule. For
a particular area, when a large discrepancy in area is com­
puted by the two methods, it would be due to offsets which
may have been spaced too far apart.
Fig. 45-1. kuta by TAape.zoidal Kule., ■■. *

The assumption made in using the trapezoidal rule is that

the ends of the offsets in the boundary line are assumed to
be connected by straight lines, thereby forming a series of
trapezoids. When the offsets are taken fairly close t o g e ­
ther and when the curves are flat; no considerable error is

ARC) Rea
MVTM ROTATIONS
a com -
Introduced by this assumption. In each trapezoid (Fig. 45-
l) the adjacent offsets are taken as the .bases and the
rommon interval between offsets as the altitude.
The offsets are assumed to be spaced at regular inter­
vals and the area of the whole tract.equals the areas of
the enclosed trapezoids. Thus, in Figure 45-1, the area
hounded by the irregular boundary (from C to D )/> the base
line (AB), and the end offsets (h, and hn ) is determined
.is follows
h; + h. h „ + h, h .♦ h
»«•••• + — -)d Eq.(U
a = )d + <— ■2) d
{- L-r 2" +

In Eq. (1), it will be noted that the first and the last
offsets octrur only once and the other intermediate offsets
odcur twice; ‘also, the interval between offsets (d) occurs
a factor in every term. By factoring out d, and simpli­
fying the above equation, the area is obtained by the
tollowing equation

A = d ( jlL lh n + ^ + h3 + h4 ............................ ..... ... hn . f) • • • • E q .(2 )

W here:

A = sum m a tion of the areas of the trapezoids c om p risin g the

total area •

d = com m on spacing betw een o ffsets .

n = num ber of offsets

h ( = end (first) offset

hn = end (last) offset

h2 , h 3 , e tc = in te rm e d ia te offse ts

h n. , = last in te rm e d ia te offset

Eq. (2) applies to n consecutive offsets spaced a

distance d apart. The equation may be expressed convenient­
ly in the form of the following rule: Add the average of
1 he end offsets to the sum of the intermediate offset. The
product of the quantity thus determined and the common
interval between offsets is the required area. If. the inter­
val between offsets is not equal the following equation is
used * *

?.A = d, (h, + h2) t d2 (h2 + h3) + d3 ( h3 + h4 ) + . * • • • t d n.1(hn. , + hn) • • • Eq.(3)

For most areas bounded by irregular curves, -the trape­

zoidal rule i:, the simplest to apply and could provide
:,u£f Icii’iil Iv accurate results provided the measurements are
t.ikeri i»t••!>«•» I It must: bfe under?; t.ood, however, that: areas
computed by this rule are only approximate values.
The accuracy of the trapezoidal rule increases with a
corresponding increase in the number of offsets. However,
it is not practical to measure too many offsets as this
becomes time-consuming. Also, the accuracy varies with thi
shape of the curved boundary* Calculated areas will bi
slightly larger for trapezoids where the boundary line is
concave upward, and slightly smaller for trapezoids whers
the boundary line is conca-a downward. If the boundary lim
has about the same number of convex and concave arcs,, the
expected errors in the areas between the offsets may become
well compensated.. ■]

45-3. SIMPSON'S ONE-THIRD RULE.

Simpson's One-Third Rule is based on the assumption that

the curved boundary consists of a series of parabolic arcs,
where each arc is continuous over three adjacent offsets
that are equally spaced (Fief. 45—2). Because of this
Assumption, the rule is only applicable when there is an
odd number of offsets and if they are equally spaced. When
there is an, even number of offsets, the portion of all but
the part between the last two offsets may be determined by
using the rule. -The remaining portion is then determined
separately by assuming it to be a single trapezoid.

fi g . 45-2. AAea by S im eo n '& One.-ThiKd Rate.

4
• Last E v a n

.N “ *
The rule also -assumes that the series of parabolic-
curves will approximate the boundary line more closely
than a series of straight lines, and that it will also
yield an area which'will be more accurate. Simpson's one
third rule is derived by passing a parabola through the ex
tremities of any three- consecutive offsets. The area of th»*
parabolic segment formed by the chord and the curve in

tvTAnCoONMs
-
Fig, 45-5, Principle. o{ SiapAon'A Ont-Thikd ttU t,

taken as two-thirds the area of the circumscribed paralle­

logram bounded by the parallel tangent, the chord, and the
extension of the two outermost offsets (Fig. *45-3). The
area within the two strips is then determined by adding*
the area of the segment to the area of the trapezoid.formed
by the first and third offsets. Thus

A l,2 s Aabfg + 3 ^A fccef)

= 2d (-1 - ^ 3.) + -|- [2d (h2-
4d 2ho - h. - ha
= d(h, i h3) + — - — ~ ~ — -)

f — ( 3 hj + 3h 3 + ' 4h 2 - 2h, - 2h3)

* "3 (hj + 4 h2 + hg) ........... Eq.( 4)

Similarly for the* next two intervals

•3,4 3^3 + ^ ^4 + ^ Eg, (5)

If several such pairs of strips are combined, the

following equation is obtained

- f fth , * h„) * 2 ( 1 1 3 ' h 6 * • • ■+ » W + ‘» ( h 2 * h4 * ' • • + (!„ - ,)] Eq.(6 )

 W here:
A - area of the tract bounded by the curved boundary, the
base line, and the end o f f s e t s
d common spacing be twe en o f f s e t s
n = number of o f f s e t s N
h, * end (first) o f f s e t
hn = end (last) o f f s e t , ■>
h3 , hg , h? , e t c 3 odd-numbered intermediate o f f s e t s
h2 , h 4 , h 6 , e t c = e v e n - n um b e r ed i nt er me di at e o f f s e t s
hn.( = last e ven- numbered o f f s e t
h„n-z
_ = last o dd- num be r ed o f f s e t
».' • . .
In Eg. (6 ), it will be noted that all offsets with odd-
numbered subscripts, except the first and the last, are
multiplied by 2 , and all offsets with even-numbered sub­
scripts are multiplied by 4. The equation may also be
expressed conveniently as: The area is equal to one-third
of the common interval between offsets, multiplied by the
sum of the first and last offsets, plus two times the sum
of the other odd offsets, plus four times the sum of the
even offsets. .
When the curved boundary is predominantly convex or
concave, Simpson’s one-third rule is expected to give a
more accurate value of the area. Also, depending on the
type of curve, the results obtained by this rule are either
larger or smaller than those obtained by using the trape-
zoid •1 rule.
45-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
/. TRAPEZOIDAL RULE . A series of perpendicular offsets were taken
from a transit line to an irregular boundary. These offsets were taken 2.5
meters apart and wer.e measured in the following order ; 0 .0 , 2 .6 , 4 . 2 , 4.4,
3 . 8 , 2 . 5 , 4.5, 5. 2, 1. 6, and 5.0 meters. By the trapezoidal rule find the area
included between the transit line, the curve boundary, and the end offsets.

,184, 4 R EA COH -
P U T A T / O .S S
 hi + hl0
AREA = d( ■ + h2 * h3 + h4 ♦ h5 + hg ♦ h? ♦ hg + hg )

= 2.5 ( Q 0 * 5-0 . t 2 6 + 4 , 2 » 4 . 4 1 3.8 * 2.5 * 4.5 + 5.2 4 l, 6 )

= 78. 25 sq m *
2. S IM P S O N 'S ONE - T H IR D R U L E . From a transit line to the edge
of a river a series of perpendicular offsets are taken. These offsets are spa
ced 4.0 meters apart and were measured in the following order;, 0 . 5 , 1.4 ,
2 . 5 , 5 6 , 8 . 5 , 7 . 4 , 3 . 8 , 5 . 1, and 2.3 meters. By Simpson's One - Third Rule,
compute the area included between the transit line, the river's edge and
the line offsets.
Mg. 40-5. D^teAmining aneji o£ a curved boundcuiy.

3. IRREGULARLY SPACED OFFSETS. A surveyor needed to know

the area between the straight line AB and a meandering stream as
shown in Figure 4 5 - 6 . At irregular intervals along line A B , he m e a ­
sured offset distances from the line to one edge of the stream with thi
results as shown on the figure. Determine the required area.

Mg. 40-6. JAAZgulaAly 6pace-d

S
olu
tio
n.
2 (A R E A )
d, (h, + h2) + d2 (h2 ♦ h3 ) + d3 (h3 + h4 ) * d4 (h4 + h5 )
+ ds<h5 + heJ + de (h6 + M + d7 (h? + V + d8 (haV h Q)
+ d9 (h9 + V +dld(V V

1 + 12:3^ + 10.9 (12.3 V 14.5) + 6.6 (14.5 + I 6.0)

+ 4.3(16 .0 + 18.6) + 10.7 (18.6 + 18.5) .+ !2.5 (18.5 + 16 4*
l ^ O u t ' t V s T ) + 3,0 + <4.7) +11 . 8 ( 1 4 7 + 12.5)

,48 8 + 3 9 7 0 + 4 3 6 3 -45.4
2410.9
AREA 2410.9/2 = 1205.5 s q . m.
46-1. THE PLANTMETER
1. (Me of the Ptanimten
2. M e a by Planimetek
46-2. AREA BV GRAPHICAL HETHOV
46-3. AREA BV COORDINATE SQUARES
46-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS ’
1. An.ea by PlanimeteA
2. Amjl by Planimete*

Lesson
 46-1. THE PLANIMETER. .

The planimeter is a mechanical device used for determining

the area of any shape of figure plotted to a known scale
(Fig. 46-1). It consists essentially of two arms, one of
Which has a tracing point' at one end'.and the other has an
anchor weight. Among its major parts are a scale bar,
anchor arm, graduated drum, vernier, and disc. When the
device is used, only the anchor weight, drum, and tracing
point are in contact wich the plotted area or map.
There are two types of planimeters: mechanical and
electronic. An electronic plainimeter operates similarly-to
J■ ■ ■ . •■ /
fig . 46-1. The. planimeteA.

the mechanical type, except that tne measured data are

shown on a display console in digital form. Although there
are various(mode Is used, all these devices have a common
feature wherein a point of the planimeter is guided around
the boundary of the plotted area, and*the resulting dis­
placement of another part of the device allows the area
traversed by the tracing arm to be recorded. With a plani­
meter, areas can be measured in units of square inches or
square centimeters, and by setting an appropriate scale
factor, areas of plotted figures can be obtained directly
in hectares or square meters.
The precision obtained in using the planimeter depends
upon the skill of the operator, accuracy of the plotted
figure, type of paper used, and other factors. Correct

<468, 4A £ A COM -
r u T A T IONS
results can be obtained to within 1 / 2 to 1 per cent if the
device is carefully manipulated. The obtainable precision
is sufficient for such purposes as determining drainage
areas, cross section and contour areas for earthwork-compu­
tations, and reservoir areas and volumes. It is also
suitable for checking areas determined by more accurate
methods. Because of its precision and facility in opera­
tion, the planimeter is useful for determining plotted
areas of any shape whatsoever.

1. Use of the Planimeter. The use of the planimeter to

determine areas is quite simple. The procedure involves’
tracing the perimeter of any plotted figure and reading the
result from a scale. The design of the planimeter is based
on the principle that the amount the roller tprns is a
measure of the area included within the perimeter traced.
Before a planimetei is used, it is important that the ins­
trument must first be calibrated by measuring an area of
known value such as a square or a rectangle.
The anchor weight is usually positioned at a convenient
point outside the area to be planimetered, and the movable
pointer is positioned over any point on the perimeter. An
initial reading on the scale must first be made and record­
ed. Then, the perimeter is 'completely traversed until the
tracing point is brought back to its starting position, and
a final reading is taken.
It will be noted that as the tracing point is moved
around the given area, the wheel drags along,# sometimes
.slipping and sometimes rolling. The difference between the
initial and final scale readings is an indication -of the*
area within the boundary lines. Tracing with the planimeter
is normally done freehand. In some instances it may be
advisable to guide the tracing point with a straight edge
or a flexible curve. It is good practice to trace the
perimeter of the plotted* figure at least once clockwise and
once counterclockwise. Two or more determinations of each
area should provide a good check and will * give a more
accurate result.
When large areas are involved, it is usually preferable
to divide it into smaller portions by arbitrarily drawn
lines and determining the areas of the different portions
separately (Fig. 46-2). Another procedure is to draw a
large square (Fig. 46-3) or rectangle, triangle (Fig. /6-4)
or circles (Fig. 46-5) inside the area which can easily be
measured and its ar*ea computed^, and only use the planimeter
t:o determine the remaining areas which may be divided into
smaller portions.
in determining the area of a plotted fi-gure, the sheet
on which the figure is drawn should be stretched flat. It
should be smooth and free from wrinkles and l#irge enough
that the roller will not pass .across the edge of the Sheet.
Also, thi* bearings' of the planimeter should be adjusted so
.»:> to pi-rmlt free movement, but without any play. The
 Fig. 46-1. LaAgt cutta d iv id td F ig .. 46-3. Employing
in to omalltA iig u n tt . * oguaxt oa -tectangU..

needle tip of the anchor point 4s pressed into the paper in

a convenient location, such that? thp entire area can be
traversed, and held down by the anchor weight.

2. Area by Planimeter. Before a planimeter is employed

for determining areas of plotted figures, it should be
calibrated or adjusted. This is done by first drawing a
test figure such as a square or rectangle of specific size
on a sheet of paper. For example, a 2 cm by 2 cm square
(area of 4 sq cm) may be tried out* The test figure is then
traced using the planimeter and the difference between the
initial, and final reading is taken. If the difference
in readings is 400, the difference between scale readings
gives the area of the test figure in square centimeters if
a decimal is placed two digits to the leJEt (i.e., 4.00).
For any other difference between readings, a simple ratio
can be formulated to apply to subsequent differences in
readings to determine the area of any plotted figure. Thus
DIFF, DIFF,
and A> * DIFfs<-SiFF.

Where : A s area of a specific.figure,

DIFFS difference between planimeter readings f o r
A * ! A COM
n*iAno*$
 a specific figure
A t = computed area of the test figure
D I F F f = difference between planimeter readings
* taken on a specific figure •

Usually, an area traced twice with a planimeter will

not yield identical difference in readings. There will
always be a discrepancy which may be due t o 4the inability
of the operator to trace the boundary perfectly or there
may be error in the adjustment or calibration of the plani­
meter. It is good practice to trace a plotted area several
times and obtain an average value of the differences in
readings. The commonly, adapted procedure is to record the
Initial reading, completely trace the figure, and then make
the final reading. For the second tracing, the final read­
ing taken during the first tracing is recorded as the first
reading. The process is then repeated as many tihnes as
necessary to obtain readings for as many tracings as re­
quired. It is advisable to always trace the plotted figure
alternately in a clockwise and counterclockwise direction.

Fig. 46-6 . Gfiaphicat method dtteAwuning emiti.

' D

l V• *
Given ii> the accompanying scaled sketch (fig. 46-6) is a
hexagon (ABCDEFA) j</hose area is to be determined by first
converting it into a triangle^ of equal area. To produce a
triangle equivalent in area to the original figure, it is
necessary to eliminate three out of the six corners since a
triangle is formed by only three corners. ,In this example,
it will be shown how corners B, C, and E are eliminated.
Since AP is the longest line in the given figure, it is
designated as the. base line. It is preferable^ for conven­
ie n ce , In i.elect the longest line in the original figure as
the line, although it is not necessary nor required.
 Within the limits of the paper, line AF is extended to the
left of A and also to the right of F. To eliminate corner B
and still maintain an equivalent area, a line is drawn from
A to C and another line is also drawn parallel to it
through B. Where the line through B intersects the base
line, establish a point and call this B'. Connect points C
and B' with a straight line. Note that triangle A B 'C has
the same area as triangle ABC since' both triangles have the
same base and altitude. It will also be noted that the ori­
ginal hexagon is now reduced to a pentagon (B'CDEFB') but
still maintaining an equivalent area. The original figure
is now reduced bygone corner, B. . . .
To eiinunare another corner, such as E, a line is drawn
from D to F and another line is also drawn parallel to it
through E. Where the line through E intersects the base
line, a point is established and called E'. Points D and E'
are connected with a straight line. This time, the pentagon
(B'CDEFB') is now reduced to a rectangle (B 'CDE'B ') but
still maintaining an equal area. The previous figure is
thus reduced by another corner, E.
To finally form a triangle of equivalent area to the
original hexagon, corner C has to be eliminated. A line is
drawn connecting points D and B' and another line is also
drawn parallel to it through C where the line through- C
intersects the base line, establish a point and call this
C'. Connect points D and C' with a straight line. It can
now be seen that the original hexagon has been reduced to a
triangle formed by C r, D, and E*. The area of this triangle
should still be equal to the area of the original hexagon. ’
Through point D, construct a perpendicular to the base
line and where it intersects the base line establish point
D'. Using a scale, measure accurately the length of DD ' and
designate this as the altitude of triangle C 'DE '. Also mea­
sure the length of C'E' and designate this as the base of
triangle C 'DE', and since the base and altitude of the
triangle can be measured, the area is then easily computed
by the following formula

AREA = (1/2) (C'E 1) (DD')

The computed area of the triangle should be equal to the

area of the original hexagon. The process of figure conver­
sion is a graphical solution and only yields approximate
values. It should only be used to check areas determined by
more accurate methods. Accurate results can be obtained if
the figure is drawn carefully to scale. Accuracy also
depends^ on the survey data provided, the scale used in
plotting, and the effects of paper distortion.
As an alternate method, the area of a regular geometric
figure may be determined by dividing it into triangles or
trapezoids. The total area is the summation of the indivi
dual areas. Where a combination of regui.tr and irregular

492 , A » 4 A COkt-
r u t a t to A fi
figures are involved, the polar planimeter may be better
employed in determining 1areas.

46-3. AREA BY COORDINATE SQUARES.

The method of determining area by coordinate squares

Involves a graphical solution and is suited only for making
iough estimates. It involves plotting the traverse to scale
•ind marking off squares of unit area. The area of any
plotted figure can be roughly estimated since the area of
i‘ach unit square can be determined from the scale used.
The number of complete and partial unit squares inside
the traverse are counted. Incomplete squares are usually
estimated to one-fourth of a square. It is sometimes ap­
propriate enough to count portions greater than half as
whole squares and ignore portions less than half.
Another method makes use of a transparent sheet 'having
.» pattern of equal squares drawn on it. It is important
that the size of the unit square must be related to the
ncale of the plotted figure. By counting the number of
.squares inside the boundary of any figure, the area can
then be determined.
46-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.
t . A R E A B Y P L A N tM E T E R .
To check a planimeter, a 3cm by 3cm
•.quare was drawn on a piece of paper and planimefered ,• with a differ­
ence in reading of 5 8 1 . Later the planimeter was used to determine the
urea of a watershed portrayed in a map drawn to a scale of I cm = 50m.
If the difference in planimeter readings is 1 4 9 6 , determine tije area
of the watershed.

Given: DIFFj = 58 1 ( d i f f « r e n c e bet ween plani mef er r e a d i n g s during test)

At -- 9 cm2 ( a r e a of the t e s t f i gu r e ) {

DIFF, » 1496 ( d i f f e r e nee between plani met er r e a d i ng s for speci fi c

c ose )

SR = 1crn/50m (scale of map)

Solution:

A, = D I F F . (~ ~ h = ~ ) = 1 4 9 6 (% £ P r )
8 ' DI FF 58
= 2 3 . 1 7 cm ( a r e a of t h e s c a l e d f i g u r e for s pe c i f i c case)

A = — 5 = 23.17 ( 25 0 0 m2)
a (SR)2 (lcm/50m)2
= 5 7 , 9 2 5 m2* or 5 . 7 9 2 5 h a (a c t ua l a r e a of sp e c i fi c ca se )

2. AREA B Y P L A N tM E T E R . A draftsman drew a 10 cm square on d

piece of paper and traced it with a planimeter. The initial reading on
thu planimeter was 2070 and the following were the readirtgs for the
thiee trials mad#: 3 68 0, 5 289, and 6901. He then used this plan'ime-
toi to doteim'lnn the excavated area of a borrow pit marked off on a
 ™ PnitiftJ ? scai ! °.M ?m s * 0 0 m . De te rmi ne the area of the bor-
thls h m e the initial readi ng was 0 2 8 0 and the f ol l owi ng wet
the r e a d in gs for four trials: 1 0 6 5 , 1851, 2 6 3 4 , and 3 4 2 2 .

Solution:
a) Determining a verage reading on t est fi gure,
diff, = 3680 - 2 0 7 0 = 16 10
d iff2 = 5289 - 3 6 8 0 = |6 0 9
diff, 6901 - 5 2 8 9 = 16 12
Ave Difff = (diff^ + diff 2 + diff3)/3
= (1610 + 1 6 0 9 + I6 12) / 3
= 1610.33 ( a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e between readings during t e s t )

b) Determining average reading on s p e c i f i c c as e.

diff< = 1065 - 0280 = 785
d i f f2 = 185 1 - 1065 = 786
d iff 3 = 2 6 3 4 - 1851 = 783
diff4 - 3422 - 2634 = 788

Ave Diffs = (diff, t diff 2 ,+ dif f3 + diff4 )/4

= (785 + 7 8 6 + 783 + 7 8 8 ) / 4
3 785.5 (a v e r a g e d i f f e r e n c e b e t we e n r e a d i n g s for specific
case)

Determining actual area of specific case.

At = 10 cm x 10 cm
= t o o cm2 (area of the t e s t fi gur e )

A» = o i f f * ( dTf f ; ) = 7 8 5 -5 ( i ^ # )
= 4 8 . 7 8 cm2 (ar ea of the sc a l e d fi gure for spe c i f i c c a s e )

A„ =
0 (SR)2. ' 7'( rf c'^m f/ tnO'nO~m
2' T2
)2 = 4 8 7 , 8 0 0 m 2
= 4 8 . 7 8 ha ( act ual a r e a of speci fic case)

494. A P S A CO At -
P U T A T tO H S
 p a r t it io n
OF LAND ^
-- Lesson N
47 Thr
••
'>•:

.
PARTITION
OF JLANO

47-1. SUBDIVISION OF LAUD

47-2. DIVIDING AN AREA INTO W O PARTS BV A LINE BETWEEN TWO
POINTS
■17-3. DIVIDING AN AREA BV A LINE RUNNING THROUGH A POINT IN A
GIVEN DIRECTION
47-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Dividing a TAouet ol Land Into Two PaAt* by a Lim
• Between Two Point*
2. Dividing a TAouet o& Land By a Line Running in a Given
DiAection

JL&ssoit 47
..hinnon ,497.
Of L**0
 47-1. SUBDIVISION OF LAND.
ft
The subdivision of land is a usual task undertaken by sur­
veyors and engineers in property surveys. When tracts of
land .are sold or innerited it is often necessary to divide
it into smaller parcels or into areas having certain pro­
portions to each other.
There are numerous problems which may arise in the sub­
division of land. The process of subdivision may require
the application of the principles of geometry and trigono­
metry or the use of special techniques in computations.
Other cases are performed by trial-apd-error methods. This
usually involves an initial assumption such as the starting
point or the direction to be taken by a selected cut off
line which will separate a certain area from the main
parcel. Most of' the problems encountered are so common and
frequently involved in the working out of more complicated
cases.
In this lesson and the succeeding lesson, four of .the
most common cases encountered in the subdivision of land
will be explained. These cases are:

1. Dividing, an area into two parts by a line between

two points.
2. Dividing an area by a line running through a point
and in a given direction.
3. To cut off a required area by a line through a given
point.
4. To cut off a required area by a line running’ in a
given direction.

For any of the above mentioned cases, . a resurvey is

run, the latitudes and departures are determined, the sur­
veyed traverse i§ balanced, and the area of the entire
tract is computed. When computing the desired subdivision
scheme only the adjusted latitudes and departures are used.

47-2. DIVIDING AN AREA INTO TWO PARTS BY A LINE BETWEEN TWO

POINTS.

In Figure 47-1, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of

land to be divided into two parts (Tract ABCD .and Tract
DEFA) by a cut off line extending from D to A.
It is assumed that^the length and direction of each
course has been earlier determined, the latitudes and de­
partures computed ahd adjusted, and the area of the whole
tract computed.
The solution here is to determine the length and di­
rection of the dividing line DA by computations, and to
calculate the area of each of the two tracts info which the
parcel of -land is divided.
Either of the two tracts may be considered as a closed
traverse with the length and direction of side DA unknown.
P A R T IT IO N
4 9 8 , Of L^ D
Considering tract ABCD, the latitudes and departures of AB,
PC, and CD are known; hence the latitude, departure,
length, and bearing of DA can be determined.
Similarly, the same quantities could also be determined
by considering tract DEFA, since the latitudes and depar­
tures of DE, EF, and FA are known. The area of either tract
can then be found by any of the methods (DMD, DPD, Coordi­
nates, etc) used for determining areas.

Fig. 47-1. Dividing an axea in to two

p tu ti by a tine, between two point*.

A check is obtained by actually determining the length

and direction of the line DA and comparing these with the
calculated values. A further check may al-so be made by
noting that the sum of the areas of the two tracts, each
calculated independently, is equal to the calculated area
of the entire parcel of land.

47-3. DIVIDING AN AREA BY A LINE RUNNING THROUGH A POINT

IN A GIVEN DIRECTION.

In Figure 47-2, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of

Land to be subdivided into two parts by a cut'off line (BP)
running in a given direction (indicated by -0- ) wh;ch passes
through point B. Out of the desired division,tract BCDEP is
formed on one side of the dividing line and tract FABP on
the other side.
It is assumed that the length and direction of each
course are known, the latitudes and departures computed and
adjusted, and the area of the whole tract computed. The
solution will require the calculation of the lengths BP and
FP and tho .non of each of the two tracts.
 Either of the two tracts may. be considered as a closed
traverse for which the lengths of two sides are unknown. I
trial line BP is first established'. Since the latitude and
departure of FA and AB are known, from these the length and
bearing of the trial line BF are computed. Then, in the
triangle. BFP the lengths of the sides BP and FP are easily
determined by applying the sine law, and their latitudes
and departures are also computed. The area of tract FABP is
calculated by any of the methods used for determining
areas. , m
In the field,' the length and direction of the dividing
line ate laid off from B, and a check on fieldwork and com­
putations is obtained if point P thus established lies on
line* EF, and if the computed-distance FP agrees with 1 the
observed distance.
.1 • . '’.. '. ■ ’ •
Fig. 47-2. Dividing an atea by a tine, tunning .
through a point and in a given directio n .'

The computations are further checked by determining if

the algebraic sums of the latitudes and of the departures
of AB, BP,* PF, and FA are equal to zero.
The length of EP can b e 'determined by subtracting the
computed length of FP from the known length of EF, also,
its latitude and departure are computed.
The areas of the’two tracts are calculated independent­
ly based on the given and calculated latitudes and depar­
tures of their respective "courses. As a check, the sum of
the areas of the two tracts should equal tjie area of the
entire parcel of land.
A srrall amount of error may result in the above ' compu
tations which, however, is negligible. The error* may appear
, in the summation’of latitudes and departures. This error is
attributed to the rounding off of' value:; and in determining

RAA RARItTlOR
o f LA ND *
the values computed from the sine or cosine of angles.
It is obvious that the solution of this .type of problem
Is greatly facilitated -by first plotting the traverse
before working out the rjecessary computations.

47-4. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

DIVIDING A TRACT OF LAND fNTO TWO P A R T S BY A LINE B E T ­
/.
WEEN TWO POINTS. <?iven the following data of a tract of land, d’ eter-
mine the area east, of a line running from F to C and calculate the length
and bearing of FC.

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

AB 490.71 m 47.27
BC S87. 12 608.69
CD - 327.41 786.78 Fig. 47-3. Pa)iztl oi land to bz
divided by a lint bttuztn too point-6.
DE - 1002.76 218.32
EF - 122.67 -1116.62
FA 375,01 - 544. 64
0.00
O
O

SUMS
o

S o lu tio n :
a.) Determining Area of Tract ABCDEF
(Area of whole traverse):

COURSE DM D DOUBLE AftEA.

AB 47.27 '23, 195.86
BC 703.431 412,997.82
CD 2099.10 687,266.33
DE 3104.20 -3,1 12,767.59
EF 2205.90 - .270,597.75
FA 544.64 204,245.45
SUM -3,430,192.54

2 X AREA = - 3 , 4 3 0 , 1 9 2 . 5 4
AREA - - 1, 715 , 0 9 6 . 2 7 sqm or
- 1 7 1 . 5 0 9 6 Hectares (Area of Tract ABCDEF with netfo t|v<
llgn disregarded)

b) Considering Tract CDEF (Area east of the dividing line).

2Lat - 2NL * 2 S L => Latcd + Latde + Latef + Latfc = 0 . 0
- 3 2 7 . 4 I - 1 0 0 2 . 7 6 - 1 2 2 . 6 7 + Latfc s 0.0
Latfc s 1 4 5 2 . 8 4 m (Latitude of line FC)
2 D ep= 2ED + 2WD = Depcd + Depde + Depef + Depffc =
786.78 + 21 8 .3 2 ' - I 116.62 + Depfc = 0.0
Qepf) ■ III .52 m (Departure of line FC)

Lf
l Vr/ a
tfc
r+(Depfc f
501.
 L fc * l [ ( 1 4 5 2 . 8 4 )2 + ( I H . S 2 J 2 '
* 1 4 5 7 .1 1 m v (Length of line FC):

. Dep,- 1 11.52
0 .0 7 6 7 6
1 4 5 2 .8 4
^fc, = 040231 ( B e a r i n g of l i n e F C is N 04*23‘ E )

TABU LATIO N FO R T R A C T C D EF.

COURSE LAT OEP DM0 double Ar e a

CD - 327 .4 1 7 6 6 .7 8 7 8 ’6 ? 78 - 2 5 7 ,5 9 9 .6 4 .
DE - 1 0 0 2 .7 6 2 1 8 .32 1 7 9 1 .8 8 - 1 , 7 § 6 ,8 2 5 . 5 9
EF - 122.67 - 1 1 i 6 .6 2 893. 58 - 1 0 9 ,6 1 5 .4 6
FC 1 452. 84 1 I I ,52 - i 1 f, 5 2 - 1 6 2 ,0 2 5 .7 2
SUMS " 0 . 00 0 .0 0 ,-2 ,3 2 6 ,0 6 1 .4 1
■ v __

2 x AREA = - 2 , 3 2 6 , 0 6 1 . 4 !
AREA = - i , 16 3 ,0 3 0 .7 1 sqm or -
-» I I 6 . 3030 Hectares* { A r e a of T r a c t C O E F w i t h n e g a t iv e
■, ; sig n d i s r e g a r d e d )

So lu tio n C h e c k :
a) Considering Tract FABC (A re a w est of the d i v i d i n g l i n e ) .

j . L P t '* 3PNL *• S S L = Latffl + Latob '♦ Latfac+ Latcf = 0.0

375.014 .490.71 + 587. 2 + Latc, = 0.0
Latcf . - - 1 4 5 2 .8 4 m ( L a t i t u d e of l i n e qF)
I D e p * 3 E D . + IW D = Depf0 + Depab + Depbc +' Depcf = 0.0
-544.64 + 47.27 + 608.89 + Depcf - 0.0 • "
Dep - I ( I 52 m (D e p artu re of line C F )
cf

~T T
L c/ r ^l<Lqtc f ) 2 t CDepcf/ ' = i ( - ! 4 5 2 84)2 V (- IU .52)5
4 5 7 . i m ( L e n g t h of l i n e CF)

| Jg e iL =*0.07676
cf
e-cf *; 04° 2 3* (B e a r i n g of li n e C F is S 0 4 ° 2 3 l Wi)

: TABULATION FO R T R A C T FABC.

COURSE . LAT DEP DM D DOUBLE AREA

FA 375.01 - 5 4 4 ,6 4 - 544. 64 204-,245.45
AB »' 490. 71 47 . 27 - 104 2! 01 - ' 51 1,324; 73
BC , 5 87. 12 6 0 8 .6 9 - 385. 65 ♦ 7 2 2 6 ,5 4 0 .2 5
‘ CF n 1 45 2 .8 4 - 1 I I .52 1 j 1.52 1 6 2 ,0 2 0 .7 2
m'
O

O
O

SUMS 0 . 00 - h, 104, 131. 15

.*

2 x AREA = - I, 104, I 31.15

AREA = - 5 5 2 ,0 6 5 ,5 7 sq m or

5 0 2 _ _ - P A R T IT IO N
——. r t M n m O/r . AMO
 A R EA * - 5 5 .2 0 6 6 H ectares ( A r e a of T r a c t FABC with n e g a t iv e
sig n d i s r e g a r d e d )

b) Comparing calculated values.

Area ABCDEF = Area CDEF + Area FABC

1 7 1 .5 0 9 .6Ha = M 6 . 3 0 3 0 Ha + 5 5 . 2 0 6 6 Ha
17 1 . 5 0 9 6 Ha = 1 7 1 . 5 0 9 6 Ha (Checks)

Note: A small amount of error may result in the above.computations

which, however, is negligible. The error is attributed to the rounding off
of values and in determining the values computed from the sine or co­
sine of angles.
2 . D IV ID IN G A T R A C T O F LA N D B Y A L I N E RUNNING IN A G IVEN
D IR E C T IO N . Given the following data of a tract of land , find the area
of each of the two parts into which the tract is divided by a line through
A with a bearing of N 75°30‘ E.

COURSE ADJ LAT A D J DEP

AB 49 0.71 m 47 . 2 7 m
Pig. 47-4. PaAcel oh land to be
BC 5 8 7 .1 2 6 0 8 .8 9 divided by a line. Running in a given
CD - 3 2 7 .4 1 78 6 .7 8 dictation.
DE - 1 0 0 2 .7 6 2 1 8 .3 2
EF 12 2 .6 7 - 1 1 1 6 .6 2
FA 37 5.01 - 544. 64

SUMS 0 .0 0 0. 00
\

Solution:
a) Determining Area of Tract ABCDEF.

COURSE DMD DOUBLE AREA

AB 4 7 .2 7 2 3 ,1 9 5 .8 6
8C 7 0 3 .4 3 412 - 9 9 7 . 8 2
CD 2 0 9 9 . 10 - 6 8 7 .2 6 6 ,3 3
DE 3 10 4 . 2 0 - 3,1 1 2 , 7 6 7 . 5 9
EF 2 2 0 5 .9 0 - 2 7 0 ,5 9 7 .7 5
FA 5 4 4 .6 4 2 0 4 ,2 4 5 .4 5

2 x AREA = - 3,430,192.54
AREA = - I ,7 I 5 .09 6. 27 sq m or
= - 17 1. 510 Hectares (A re a of T r a c t A B C D E F with negotjve
* sig n disregarded)
b) Considering Tract EFA

ZLat = ZNL * J S L = Latef t Latfa t Latae = 0.0

- 122.67 + 375.01 + Latoe = 0 . 0
L a f ae = -.2 5 2 3 4 m (Latitude of trial line A E )

ZDop = ZED + I W D = Depef + Depfa + Depae = 0.0

III (> (.;* 544.64 + Depae = 0 0
Dwp(|# I 66 1 ,2 6 m (D e p a r tu re of t r i a l lin e AE)

>>'IAkMiIn'
 = 1680.32 m (Length of trial line AE)
I661.26
ron'^ - = * 6.5834192
- 2 5 2 .3 4
■0-ae = 81° 22' (B e a r i n g of tr ia l line A E Is S 8 I ° 2 2 ' E )

c) Analyzing Triangle APE.

- TflmA x _ DePde _ 218,32

Tan l-Ope) ~ Tam-ede) - L a t^ " -1002.76 = -0.217719

-0-n„ = I 2 ° l 7 ' (Bearing of line P E Is S I 2 ° I 7 ' E )

< A = 180° - (75° 30' + 8 I°22' ) = 23°08'

< E = 8I°22' - I 2® I 7' = 69°05'
< P = 75°30' t 12 ° 17' = 87t 4 7 ‘
Check; <?A + <E + <p = |80°
' 2 3 ° 0 8 ’ + 6 9 °0 5 , + 8 7 °4 7 ,= 1 8 0 °
180 = 180 (Checks)

B y S in e L a w :
PE AE
Sin A Sin P
AP = (AE) Sin E = 1680.32 Sin ( ^ O S 1) _
1570.76 m (Length of dividing
Sin P " Sin (87°47') line AP)
PE = (AE) Sin A = i680.-32S.in (23°08l)
660.65 m (Distance of point P
Sin P “ Slrr(87°47') from station E )
d) Considering Tract PEFA.

TABULATION FOR TRACT P E F A .

^COURSE LAT DEP L A T CORR D E P CORR ADJ LA T ADJ DEP
PE - 6 4 5 .5 3 1 4 0 .5 5 0. 0 5 0 .0 1 - 6 4 5 .5 8 14 0 .5 4
EF - 1 2 2 .6 / - I I I 6 .6 2 0. 0 0 0 .0 0 - 12 2 . 6 7 - 11 1 6 . 6 2
FA 3 7 5 .0 1 - 544. 64 ' 0.00 0 .0 0 3 7 5 .0 1 - 5 4 4 .6 4
AP 3 9 3 .2 9 1520. 73 0 .0 5 0.01 3 9 3 .2 4 1 5 2 0 . 72
SU MS + 0 . 10 + 0. 02 + 0.10 + 0 .0 2 0. 00 0 .0 0

LaiQp = . (AP)Cos (75°30') 570.76 Cos (75°30 ) = 393.29

504, PARTITION
O F L A NO
 Depap - (AP)Sin (75o30')
. = 1570.76 Sin (7 5 °3 0 ‘) = 1520.73
Lat = (PE) Cos ( 12° I 7*) = 660.65 Cos{ 12° 171) = - 645.53
r fJV (PE)Sin (12° (7 ‘) = 660.65 Sin u 2° 17') = 140.55 .
Depno=

COURSE DMD DOUBLE AREA 2 x AREA = - 1,522,567.02

PE 140.54 - 90,729.8! AREA = - 761 ,283.51 sq m or
EF - 835.54 102,495.69 - 76.128 Hectares (Area
FA -2496.80 - 936,3 24.97 of Tract PEFA with negative
AP -1520.72 - 598,007.93 •Ign disregarded)
SUMS - 1,522,567.02

N ote: Since the latitude ana departure o f lines EF and FA are known and
adjusted, only the latitude and departure o f tines PE and AP are adjusted
Also, considering that the error In latitude and departure are negligible,
arbitrary adjustment Is performed to balance both latitudes and departures
prior to determining DMD and Double Areas.
e) Considering Tract ABCDP.

A* - ’J c L a t jj* 1(Depd, i 2 = i< -l0 0 2 .7 6 )2 + (2I8.32)2'

= 1 0 2 6 .2 5 m (L en ath of line DE)
DP .= DE - PE = 1026.25 • 660.65 = 365.60 m (L e n g th of line DP )

Latdp= (DP) Cos (12° 17') = 365.60 Cos ( 12° 17') = - 357.23 m
Dep = (DP) Sin (12° 17*) = 365.60 Si n (12° 17') = 77.78m
dp
L_atpa = - Latop = -(+ 3 9 3 .2 9 )= - 393.29 m
•Dep = - Depn = -( +1520.73) = -1520.73 m *
pa

TABULATIO N FOR T R A C T AB.CDP.

COURSE LAT DEP LAT CORR DEP CORR ADJ LAT ADJ DEP
AB 490.7 1 47.27 0.00 0.00 490.7 ' 47.27
BC 587. 12 608.89 0.00 0.00 587.12 608.89
CD - 327.41 786.78 0.00 0. 00 - 327.41 7 86 78
DP - 357.23 7 7 . 78 0.05 0. 00 - 357.18 77. 78
PA - 393.29 - 1520.73 0.05 0.01 - 393.24 - 1520.72
SUMS 0.10 0.01 -0.10 - 0.01 0.00 CL00

COURSE DMD DOU8LE AREA

AB 47.27 23, 195. 86
BC 703.43 4 12,997. 82
CD 2099. 10 - 687,266. 33
DP 2963.66 -1,058,560. 08
PA 1520.72 - 598,007.93
SUMS -1,907,640. 66

2X AREA = - 1 , 9 0 7 , 6 4 0 . 6 6
ARI A * “ 9 5 3 ,8 2 0 .3 3 sqm or - 9 5 . 3 8 2 Hectares (Area of Tract
AB CDP with negative sign d i s r e g a r d e d )

FA N 1 I1 IO N
iV < A N l) ,505,
 N ote: Since the latitu de and departure o f lines A B , B C , and CD are known
and a d ju sted , only the latitude and departure o f lines DP and PA are ad­
ju ste d A lso , considering that The e rro r in la titu d e and departure are neg­
lig ib le , arbitrary adjustm ent Is perform ed to oa/ancq both latitudes and
departures p rio r to determining DMD and Double Areas.
Solution C h eck:
AREA ABCDEF = AREA PE FA + AREA ABCDP
1 7 1 .5 1 0 Ha = 76.128 Ha + 95.38‘2 Ha
I 71 . 510 Ha = I 71.510 Ha (Ch«ck«) .

.50$, PARTITION
0 / LAPP
PARTITION
OF JLAND

48-1. TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA BV A LINE THROUGH A GIVEN POINT

48-2. TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA BV A LINE RUNNING IN A GIVEN
DIRECTION
48-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEUS
1. To Cut 0 && a RzquiAzd AAza by a Linz Through a Givzn
Po'nt 1
2. To Cut oii a. Re.quiA.zd Aazol by a. Linz Running in a
Givzn DiAZction

Lesson 48
 48-1. TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA BY A LIME THROUGH A GIVEN
POINT.
In Figure 48-1, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of
land with courses of known lengths and directions,, with
computed and adjusted latitudes and departures, aiid. its to­
tal area already determined. ''
A -dividing line is to pass through point F cutting a
required area from the tract. The traverse may be subdivi­
ded into tracts of equal areas or into*any desired propor­
tional parts.
Before the length and direction of tfie dividing line
can be determined, a trial line BF is drawn to that corner
of the traverse which, from inspection of the sketch, will
'come nearest to the required line of division. In the
traverse ABF the latitudes and departures of FA and AB are
known except those of BF. This is a simple case of omitted
measurements where the latitude, departure, length, and
bearing of BF are easily determined. By the DMD or ' DPD
method, the area of ABF is calculated and the difference
between this area and that required for tract FABQ is
found.

Fig. 48-1. To c u t oil a. A i q u i t t d oaccl

by a Line through a given point.

In the figure it is assumed that ABF has an area lesser

than the desired size, FQ being the correct position of the
dividing line. Triangle BFQ represents the difference in
these two areas. In this triangle, angle FBQ may be c om­
puted from known bearings of the trial line and course BC.
Since one side BF, one angle FBQ, and the area of BFQ are
known, .the‘length of BQ is computed as follow:.:

.508,
 2(Area BFQ)
Area BFQ = {I/2)(BF)(BQ) Sin(<FBQ) and BQ CBF) Sin (<FBQ)
Where: - included angle
<FBQ
= triangle formed by the trial line, dividing line,
BFQ
j
and side BQ
:
v■ ’
BF = known side (trial line)
The triangle is then solved for the length of the dividing
line FQ by applying the cosine law. Also, by applying the
sine law, angle BFQ is determined and the bearing o f F Q is
Computed. The latitudes and departures of lines FQ, BQ, and
QC are also computed.
As a check, the areas of the two tracts are calculated
independently based on the given and calculated latitudes
and departures. The sum of the areas of the two tracts
should equal the area of the entire parcel.
In the field, the length FQ is laid off in the required
direction, and a check on fieldwork and computations is ob­
tained if point Q thus established falls on line BC and if
the computed distances BQ and QC agrees with the measured
distances.
Sometimes, the tract will be of such shape that a line
drawn from the given point in the boundary to any corner
will cut off an area nowhere near that required. Under
these circumstances or when the, traverse has a large number
of sides, it is advisable to first plot the traverse to
scale and to establish a trial line of subdivision.
• As a rough check the planimeter may be used to advan­
tage for determining the area cut off by a trial line. The
line may be shifted until the area cut off agrees closely
with that required. '
4 8 - 2 . TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA BY A L IN E RUNNING IN A
GIVEN D IR ECTIO N.

In Figure 48-2, ABCDEF represents an irregular parcel of

land with courses of known lengths and bearings, the lati­
tudes and departures computed and adjusted, and the total
area of the tract calculated. The parcel of land is to be
divided into two parts, each of a required area, by a line
MN running in a given direction. The subdivision scheme may
require the division of the whole parcel into equal areas
or into any other desired proportional parts. Out of the
desired division, tract BCDNM is formed on one side of the
dividing line and tract EFAMN on the other side.
The solution will require the calculation of the length
of the dividing line, and the distances of points M and N
frofn corners B and D, respectively. A required step of the
solution calls for the drawing of a trial line.QE parallel
to the’dividing line and running through corner E. This
corner is selected since it seems likely tq be nearest the
line cutting off the required area. Then in the closed
traverse F.FAQ the latitudes and departures of EF and FA and
the bearings of AQ and QE are known, and the lengths of

P A H t I T ION
or LAND .509,

_________ _ _______
 ' *•
F ig . 4 t-2 . To cut o&$ a -AcguiAzd anca
by a tine, stunning in a given diAe^tion

line ( P a r a l l e l to MN)
lin e

sides. AQ and QE are unknown. These unknown quantities are

easily determined by*considering traverse EFAQ as one with
two omitted quantities. A closing line AE is established
and its latitude, departure, length, and bearing calculated
48-3. TKapczoid QMNE.

"®ab = bearing dngle.of side AB or

II
e

* side QM
■®ne = ^de 8: bearing angle of side DE or
dividing line side NE
•e = 90° - ^qm '= 90° - -e-a5
V = 90° - ^ne = 90° - e de
t r i a l line d = PQ = ER
i -e- = MP i M P - d Tan &
d «
Hr * NR i NR * d Tan Iff
d
e- = QMd QM * d / C o s &
»
d
Cos TJT =
NE

r A n r 'T io m
before the, lengths 6£ AQ and QE ate determined /from
triangle AEQ. Since the laititudes' and cfWj^attures of the
traverse EFAQ>are either known o* Can be calculated, the
area ciit off by the trial line may then be determined by
the DMD or DPD method. The difference between this $rea and
that required to^bies cut off, is represented ir\ the figure by
the trapezoid MNEQ (see' Figures; 4$~2 and 48“-3) in; which •
side QE is known. . The angles ■©■ and .can be computed from
the known bearings of adjacent sides.
The area of the trapezoid MNEQ is:.calculated by the
following equation t ' 1
- ’\ ■ ' '' ■;'J
■ A re a MN£Q = Area GPRE - Area ENR + Area QMP m .;
= (QE) d -<I/£)<NR)(ER) + (l/2)(MP)(PQ)
i = (QE)d - M / 2 ) ( d Tan y ) d + (l/2)(d Tan>e)d
« (QE)d - (da/ 2)(Tan t - T a n -9-)
;\r-, - •!.. ; ■
.' i -.
The altitude of the trapezoid (d) represents the distance
of the dividing line from the trial line. Its value is
found by solving the above equation since it is the only
unknown in the equation. The length of the dividing line is
then’determined as follows:
% MINT = QE - NR + MP
, v . = QE - d Tan i j r + d Tan
= QE - d(Tanijr - Tan-9-)
In the field, the points M and N are established on
lines AB and DE, at the calculated distances from 'the
adjacent corners. The length MN is then measured. If this
measured value agrees with the computed value, a check is
provided. A further check- is made on the computations by
calculating the area of tract BCDNM and comparing it with
the# required area.

48-3. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS.

l , •
/. TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA B Y A LIN E THROUGH A GIVEN
POINT. A tract of la n d , with ad juste d latitudes and d e p artu re s given be­
low, is t a be subdivided into two lots of equal a r e a . . F in d the length and
d ire c tio n o,f the d iv id in g line w hich is to pass through corner B.

COURSE ADJ LAT ADJ DEP

’ ’ AB 490.71 m 47.27 m
BC 587.12 608. 89
CD * - 327.41 786. 78
DE - 1002.76 * 218.32
EF - 12 2.67 - 1 116.62
FA 375.01 - 543. 64
SUMS 0 .0 0 0 . 00

PARTITION
IN l ANI> 511
 f i g . 46-4. Teact o < land, to be.,cut o ^
by a tine, through a given point.
S o lu tio n :
a) Determining Area of Tract* ABCDEF

Tract COURSE DMD DOUBLE AREA

BCDP AB 47.27 . 23,195.86
BC 703.43 412,997.82
-dividing line CD 2099. 10 - 68?,266.33
DE 3 104.20 -3, 112,767.59
Tract EF 2 205. 90 - 270,397.75
PEFAB FA 544.64 204,245.45
SUM -3,430,1 92.54

2 x AREA = - 3 ,4 3 0 ,1 9 2 .5 4
AREA = - 1,71 5 ,0 9 6 .2 7 sq m or
= - 17 1.510 Hectares (Area of Tract' ABCDEF with negative
sign disregarded)
b) Determining the area of each tract.
Area BCDP + Area PEFAB = Area ABCDEF
Since: Area BCDP must be equal to Area PEFAB ,
Area PEFAB = Ariq-ABCDEF _ .1,7 .15,096.27
= 8 5 7 ,5 4 8 .1 4 sqm or 85.75 Ha
c) Determining length and direction of trial line.
2 L a t = SN L t S S L = Lat.be + Latca. + Lat..
db = 0.0
587.12 - 327.41 + Latdo. = 0.0
Latdb = -2 5 9 .7 1 m (Latitude of trial line DB)
SD ep - J E D +■IW D - Depbct Depcd+ Depdb = 0.0
608.89 + 7 8 6 .7 8 + Depdb = 0.0
Dep^b = -1,395.67 m (Departure of trial line D8)
•
____________ ____________________—— *
— -— ?n
L d b = V('L a tdb) 2 + (Depdb) 2 = 1 ( - 2 5 9 .7 1)2 + (-1395.67)
= 1419.63 m (Length of trial line DB)

Tan(0-db)(* D eP db _ -1,395.67 -0-. = 79°28' (B e a rin g of trial line

La^ “ -259.71 do db Is S 79 28 Wt

d) Determining area of tract BCD.

COURSU LAT DEP DMD DOUBLE AREA_
BC 587.12 608.89 608.89 + 357,49 1 .50
CD - 327.41 786.78 2004.56 - 656,312.99
DB - 259.71 -1395.67 1395.67 - 3G2,469.,46_
SUMS O'.00' G.00 - 66 1,290.9S_

512 lAN0V
 ?. x AREA = - 6 6 1, 2 9 0 . 9 5
AREA 3 - 3 3 0 , 6 4 5 . 4 7 s q m or
3 - 3 3 . 0 6 5 Ha (Area of Tract BCD with negative sign disregarded}
e) Determining area and parts of t ract BDP.
Area BDP 3 Area BCDP - Area BCD 3 8 5 7 , 5 4 8 . 1 4 - 3 3 0 ,6 4 5 .4 7
3 5 2 6 9 0 2 .6 7 sq m or 5 2 .6 9 0 Ha
\v •
/ DePd6
Tan(^dp) 3 T a n t e j = £ 5^
218.32
' -1002.76
= -0.217719
■0-. '3 12° 17' (Bearing of
dp line DP =SI2°I7'E)

<0 3 79°28‘ + 12° 171 3 91°45'

. Area BDP 3 l/2(BD)(DP) Sin D 3 526,902.67
3 1/2(1419.63)(DP) Sin(91°45')
DP 3 7 4 2 .6 6 m (Length of line DP)
By Cosine L a w :
' (BP)2 3 (BD)2 + (DP)2 - 2 (BD) (DP) Cos D
(BP)2 3 (1419.63)2 + (742.66)2 - 2 (1419.63) (742.66) Cos(9!°45')
BP « 3 1622.12 m (Length of dividing line BP)
By Sin e L a w :
BP = BD DP 1622. 12 1419:63 742.66
Sin D Sin P Sin B Sin 9 1°45' Sin P " Sin B
1419.63 Sin (9l°45') 742.66 Sin (9i°45')
Sin P = Sin B 3 1622.12
6 22 . 12
P 3 6 1°0 1 B 3 27° 14'
Solution Check. Isolating point B in A BDP
<rB + <ID + < P 3 180°00 above. „ ,
27°!4, + 91°45'+ 6l°0l' 3 180°00' -9- = 180 -(27 14'+ 79°28 )
I 8 0 ° 0 0 ' 3 18 0 ° 0 0 ' (Checks) •©• = 73°18' (Bearing of d1vi—
dlna line BP Is S 73° 18'E >
2. TO CUT OFF A REQUIRED AREA B Y A LINE RUNNING IN A GI­
VEN DIRECTION. Given the f ollowing data of a tract of land which is
to be divided into two equal parts by an e a s t - w e s t l i n e , compute the length
of the dividing l i n e , and determine the d i s t a nc e s from the line to the ad­
jacent traverse stations.
COURSE ADJ LAT ADd DEP
AB 490.71m 47.27 m
BC 587.12 608.89
CD - 327.41 786. 78
DE -1002.76 2 18. 32
EF - 12 2.67 - 11 16.62
FA 375.01 - 544. 64
SUMS 0. 00 0.00

fAurmoN
<v l a ho
513,
Fig. 48-6. TKact oA land to be cut
by a.'U ni tunning in a given direction,

Solution.

a) Determining Area of Tract ABCDEF

Tract * \
MBCDN 1 COURSE DM D DOUBLE AREA
dividing (ln« (running oast -Iwest) A8 V 47.27 23,195.86
BC 703.43 * 412,997.82
Tract CD 2099. 10 - 687,266.33
NEFAM DE 3 104.20 -3, 1It,767.59
EF 22 05.90 - 270,597.75
FA 544.64 204,245.45
'— trial lino S.UM -3,430,192.54
(paraliol to MN)

2 x AREA = - 3 , 4 3 0 , 1 9 2 . 5 4
AREA = - 1 , 7 1 5 , 0 9 6 . 2 7 sq m or
— 17 1.510 Hectares (Area o’f Tract ABCDEF with negative
sign disregarded)
D) Determining Area of Tracts MBCDN and NEFAM.
Since: Area MBCDN = Area NEFAM , 2 (Area MBCDN) = Area ABCDEF
Area MBCDN = Areq ABCDEF a ' 1 ,7 1 5 ,0 9 6 .2 7
2
= 8 5 7 ,5 4 8 .1 4 sq m or 85.75 Ha
c) Determining lengths of DP and PA.
ft
JL a t- JN L + I S L = Latab + Latbc + Latcd+ Latda = 0.0
490.71 + 587.12 - 327.41 + Latda = 0.0
L a t d(J = - 7 5 0 . 4 2 f;i (Latitude of closing line DA)
JD e p - J E D *■JW D - Depab+ Depbc + Depcd + Depda 3 0.0
4 7 . 2 7 + 608.89 + 786.78 + Gep„QQ = 0.0

OePda . - - 1 4 4 2 .9 4 m (Departure of closing lino DA)

Tan(&dJ Bearing of closing line DA is S 62°3l' W

atdar + (Depda)'

+ .(-1442.94)
(Length of closing
line DA)

Fig. 48-7. The ttial line

P A R T IT IO N
O f LA N D
I < g , 48-8. Triangle. ADP.

Analyzing. Triangle- ADP.

Depde
Ton(V = T °nKW " Lotde
218.32
-1002.76
•e-dp 12 ° 17* (B e arin g
of DP Is S I 2 ° I 7 ' E )

SUM = I 80 00 (C hec k s)

By Sin e L a w : DP PA DA
Sin A Sin D Sin P
(DA) Sin A _• 1626.41 Sin 27 °29 768. I6 m
DP = Sin P Sin 7 7 ° 4 3 ‘ "co
a

(DA) Sin D 1626.41 Sin 74 I 606.28 m

• PA =
Sin P * Sin 7 7 ° 4 3 '
Determining Latitude and Departure of lines DP and pa;

’ La,dP = (DP) Cos (-©-^dp) = 7 6 8 . 16 Cos I 2° I7' - - 750.57 m

= (DP) Sin(0- dp ) = 768. I6 Sin I 2° I7 ' « + I 63. 42 m
■ DepdP.
La,po = (PA) Cos (-9pa -) = I 606.28 Cos 90° ■0. 00 m

D% d = (PA) Sin (-6pa ) = I606.28 Sin 90° = - I 606. 28 m

d) Determining Area of Tract ABCDP.

COURSE LAT DEP LAT CORR DEP CORR ADJ LAT ADJ. DEP

AB ' 4 9 0 .7 1 4 7 .2 7 0 .0 0 0 ,0 0 490.71 4 7 .2 7
BC 5 87. 12 6 0 8 .8 9 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 587.12 6 0 8 .8 9
CD - 327.41 786. 76 0 .0 0 0 .0 0 - 327.41 7 8 6 .7 8
DP - 750.57 163. 42 0. 15 0.04 - 750.42 163 38
PA 0 , 00 - 1 6 0 6 .2 8 0 .0 0 0 .0 4 0.0 0 -1606.32
SUMS 0. 15 ,+• 0.0 8 0 . 15 0 .0 8 0 .0 0 0 .0 0

COURSE DMD DOUBLE AREA

AB 4 7 .2 7 23, 1 9 5 .8 6 2 x AREA = - 2 ,5 3 9 , 2 9 9 .6 6 •
BC 7 0 3 .4 3 4 1 2 ,9 9 7 .8 2 AREA = - 1,269,649 63 sq m or^
CD 2 0 9 9 .1 0 - 6 8 7 ,2 6 6 . 3 3 —I 26.965 Ha (Area of •
DP 3049.2*6 -2 ,2 88 , 2 2 5 .6 9 T ra c t AB CDP with n e g a t i v e '
PA 1606.32 0 . 00 sign d is r e g a r d e d )
SUM - 2,539, 299. 6 6

r**rmoN
o r LA M * ,5 1 pi.
e) Determining area and parts of Tract AMNP.
F-tg, 46-9. T*ape.zo<d AMNP.
*
— d ivid in g l l n e ( E - W line)
RM = d Tan -9 ' d v
R 1m r N,:q AM Cos ■&
5*3qjl her 4 i y d
ll NQ = d Tan
'• v MP
Cos ijr
I 1 6 0 6 .2 6 m A
fP
•

AT
t r i a l line ( E - W lin e)
.«

Area AMNP - Area ABCDP.-Area MBCDN •

= 1,269,649.83 -857*548.14
= 412,1 0 1 . 4 3 -sq m '• ,
Also* Area AMNP = Area ARQP - Area ARM - Area PQN
= (PA) d - l/2(RM) d - I/2 (NQ) d
= (PA) d - I /2 d2 Tan -9- - I /2 d2 Tan if

412.101.43 = 1606.28 d - d2/2 (Tan 5° 3 0 1 + Tan 12° 17 ‘)

412.101.43 = 1 6 0 6 .2 8 d - O .I6 d 2
0 .I6 d2- 1606.28 d +- 4I 2,101 .43 = 0
Using the quadratic formula:

-b - ~Nb - 4ac
2a __________ *

1 6 0 6 .2 8 i 1 (-1 6 0 6 .2 8 )2 - 4 (0 .1 6 ) (41 2 ,1 01 . 4 3 )
2 (0 .16 )
The Roo.'s a re : d[ = 9775.78 m and ,d2 = 2 6 3 .4 7 m
(L o g ic a l answer)
MN = AP - RM - NQ,
= 16 0 6 . 2 8 - 2 6 3 . 4 7 Tan 5 ° 3 0 ' - 2 6 3 . 4 7 Tan I2 ° I7*
= I 5 2 3 .5 5 m ( L e n g t h of dividing line)

f) Determining distances of points M and N from adjacent stations.

MB =. AB - AM = ^ ( L a t . J 2 + ~ (Dep )2> d
ab
ab. Cos -0-
= '.i(490.7 I')2 + ( 4 7 . 27)2 263.47
Cos 5° 30
= 228.29 m (D ista n ce of point M fro m sta tio n B)

DN DP - NP = 768.16 - ---- -----

Cos nr

7 6 8 ,1 6 -
263.47 <
Cos 12 ° 17r
4 9 8 . 5 2 * m' (D ista n ce of point N fro m sta tio n D)
 PROBLEM
SETS
P. S. Numbers 1 Thru 10
 PROBLEM
SETS
In the succeeding pages are different problem sets
which are intended to be worked out by students in this
course of study. Each problem set corresponds to a specific
group of lesson modules. They are arranged in a particular
order of presentation and are properly titled to facilitate
easy .cross-referencing. These problem sets are aimed at
helping students attain enough mastery of the theories and
principles discussed in this book.

The problems given have varying degrees of difficulty

and are designed to provid'e a good balance between theory
and applications. Some problems involve extensions of to­
pics presented in the lesson modules which could not be
treated because of space limitations. An attempt should be
made by the student to solve these problems immediately
after a group of lesson modules has been completely read
and understood. It must not be put aside arid done at a,
latter time. He should only proceed to the next group of
lesson modules after he is able to solve the corresponding
problem set. . ■,
(
A number of problems given in some sets -require solu­
tions that are relatively long. By constant practice #in
solving these problems the student develops a feeling of
mastery in this course of study. He will conscientiously
develop within himself a feeling of preparedness and self-
confidence in taking examinations. His solutions tend to
become orderly and thoroughly presented, and skill in the
use of an electronic calculator is also developed.

It is suggested to the instructor that the students be

required to submit their solutions for each problem set
after a group of lessons have been completed, preferably
during a quiz or a major unit examination. Submitted solu­
tions should be given a .corresponding grade which should in
turn form part of the final grade of the student in the
course. *

Where difficulty arises, the student should feel free

to consult his instructor or classmates, or preferably read
back the particular lesson concerned in order to' • have ' a
better grasp and understanding of the required solution.
The student should, however, be cautioned and made- to
understand that he will only be depriving himself of the
correct. learning process by not working out the .assigned
problem;. or by just copying the completed work o£ others.
It 1 :. extremely important for the. student to be .honest with
h imsf 1 I

,519,
 PROBLEM SETS
PS NO, 1 :

(LESSON NOS. I THRU 5)

PS NO. 2 : S3BM PBBSM ® ®B B®BH°

.m mmw&wmm
(LESSON NOS.. 6 THRU II)

PS NO.
@&a wmmm
(LESSON NOS. 12 THRU 16)

PS NO. 4 : aM ansg® m ™ ® ® g '

(LESSON NOS. 17 THRU 23)

PS NO. 5 : IfflBflSWBiEifflBffJS ®B &EI®a@g

m ® ®ns@®Bn®ffig
(LESSON NOS. 24 THRU 28).

PS NO. 6 :. M SE3© ni«B "g BBMSffff

m ® ™®®®ac®@
(LESSON NOS. 29 THRU 33)

PS NO. 7: mmmmm » siaMsss

@ ®M?M®0®S3g
(LESSON NOS. 34 THRU 39)

PS NO.
(LESSON NOS. 40 THRU 42)

PS NO.
(LESSON NOS. 43 THRU 46)

]f
PS NO. i o: m m m W m (tt? ^
(LESSON NOS. 47 THRU 48!)
f
E L E M E N T A R Y S U R V E Y IN G L E S S O N N U M BERS 1 TH R U 5

IN T R O D U C T IO N TO S U R V E Y IN G "A "

Note: Upon completion of the' different lessons listed und&r

this part of your course of study, you will be required to
solve all the problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain froih copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this reguirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted during the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.
1. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS. The measured .length, of airport
runways in five major cities in the Philippines are:
1250.00, 1375.50, 1410.75, 1550.25, and 1750.00 meters.
Determine the equivalent length of each runway in kilome­
ters, decimeters, and centimeters. Tabulate values accor­
dingly.

2. AREA MEASUREMENTS. Given the dimensions of- the following

tracts of land:

a) 108.75 m by 76.82 m
b) 940.08 m by 1296.73 m
c) 13.36 m by 50.08 m
d) 1258.30 m by 624.03 m
. e) 8476.55 m by 121.79 m

Determine the area of each tract in square meters, square

kilometers, ares, and hectares.

3. AREA MEASUREMENTS. Given the area and width of the

following rectangular-shaped pieces of property:

a) 2.575 ha and 195.42 m

b) 125.42 sq m and 545.0 cm
c) 0.85 sq km and '925.09, m
d) 50.0 ares and 1 0 0 . 0 m
e) .4.254 5.19 sq m and 346.72 m

Determine the length of each property in meters.

4. VOLUME MEASUREMENTS. Following are the dimensions for

length, width, and depth of five excavated borrow pits for

Problem S et No: 1

_
a highway project:
a) 113.26 m, 35.48 m, and 18.60 m
b) 50.08 m, 39.25 m, and 7.14 m
c) 243.55 m, 76.19 m, and 24.66 m ..
d) 42.05.5 m, 8.60,5 m, and 12.332 m >
e) 9.5 m, 6.3 m, and 4.9 m

Determine the volume of each pit in cubic meters.

5 . VOLUME MEASUREMENTS. Given the approximate flat area a.nd

depth of excavation' of the following borrow pits:

a) 3750.0 sq m and 758.0 cm

b) 0.035 sq km and 180.0 m
c) 15.6 ares and 495.0 m '
d) 9.250 ha and 250.0 m '■ '
e) 46750 sq m and 195.0 m

Determine the volume of earth removed from each pit in

cubic meters.
t

6 . SIGNIFICANT FIGURES. Given the following numbers: 45.63,

5.700, 4010, 0.00037, 0.000940, 6.0090, 7.00, 9.5 X 108,
4.00 X 107 , 2.604 X 1018 and 3.00 X 10"6 . For each number,
identify the significant figures and state the number of
significant figures. Tabulate values accordingly.

7. ROUNDING *OFF NUMBERS. Given the following numbers:

0.333333,. 0.412342, . 50.2155, 48.5455, and 16.3545. Round
off each number to three, four, and five figures. Tabulate
values accordingly.

8 . MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The three angles of a.triangle were

measured with the following results: A=42° 05', B=115°
38',and C=22°08'. Determine the most probable value of each
angle.

9. MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The angles about a point have the

following observed values: 87o07,50,'/ 125°17 120 '',and 147°
35*20* ’. Determine the most probable value of the three
angles .

10. MOST PROBABLE VALUE. The interior angles of a quadrila­

teral were observed to be: A=100°35'40'', B=118°44'15'',
C =80°54'35' ', and D=59°45'50' '. Determine the most probable
value of each of these angles.1 *

11. PROBABLE ERROR. A quantity was measured ten times with

the following results: 34.630, 34.626, 34.634, 34.620,
34.629, 34.626, 34.627, 34.633, 34.625, and 34.624 meters.
Determine the probable error of the mean and tin- relative
precision of the mean.
12. PROBABLE ERROR. A surveying instructor sent all the
40 students in his class out to measure a distance between
two points marked on a runway. The students working in
groups of four came up with 10 different measurements as
follows: 920.45, 921.05, 921.65, 920.25,'920.15,<921.85,
921.95, 920.45, 921.15, and 921.35 meters. Assuming these
values are equally reliable and that variations result only
from accidental errors, determine the relative precision of
a single measurement and the relative precision of the
mean. , •
13. PROBABLE ERROR. The following values were determined in
a series of rod readings made under identicalv conditions:
3.312, 3.307, 3.304 , 3.306,., 3,309, 3.301, 3.311, 3.308,
3.312, 3.306, and 3.313 meters, Determine the following:
most probable value of the -observed rod readings, probable
error of a single measurement and of the mean, and the
relative precision of a single measurement and of the mean.

14. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. A line is measured ori a windy

day as 338.65 m. The same line measured 338.37 m on a calm
day. If the latter measurement is given four times the
reliability of the first, determine the most probable value
of the measured line.

15. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. A distance AB is measured five

times as 610.03, 610.01, 610.05, 610.04, and 610.02 meters.
The measurements were given weights of 3, . 2, 1, 2, and 3,
respectively, by the head tapeman. Determine the weighted
mean for distance AB. Also, determine what difference re­
sults if later judgment revises the weights to 2, 3, 1, 3,
and2. ,

16. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. An angle ABC is measured at

different times using various instruments and procedures.
The results, which are assigned certain weights-, are as
follows: 75° 09126 *1, weight of 4; 75°09'25'', weight of 3;
and 75°09'27*', weight of 1 . Determine the most probable
value of the angle measured.

17. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. In this problem the weight of

an angle is assumed to be proportional to the number of
times it has been measured by repetition. Five angles irf a
pentagon, were measured with the following results: .134°
44*35'', 167° 02'0 5' ', 86°15 ’20' ', *.75° 48'50'', and 76°
D8'50' 1 . If the number of repetitions for each measurement
were 2, '6 , 6 , 8 , and 4, respectively, determine the adjus­
ted values of the angles.1 8

18. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. Two sides and the included angle

of .i It i.ingle were measured and the probable error of each
va 1 u<- w e r e computed as follows: a =267.55 m ± 0.05 m, b =
564.7') m i fy.06m, and angle C: 57° 15 '45 ' '. Determine the
 area of the triangle and the probable error of the area.

19. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. Three sides of a triangle were

measured with the following results: a=1431.20 m ± 0 . 0 2 m,
b=570.77 m ±0.03 m, and c p 1767.15 m ± 0.04 m. Deter­
mine the angles in the triangle together with the probable
errors of the angles.

20. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. A line AE is divided into

segments for measurement with a tape. The results were
AB=134.10 m ± 0.040 m, BC=320.63 m ± 0.055, CD=173.73 m
± 0.'Q56 m, and DE=160.85m ± 0.050 m. Determine the length
of the line and the probable error of the measured length.

21. WEIGHTED MEASUREMENTS. The difference in elevation

between two ground points was measured by each of three
field parties using different kinds o.f leveling instru­
ments. The results are as follows: 1st Party, DE*-18.45 m
±0.05 m; 2nd Party, DE=18.40 m ±0.04 m;' 3rd Party,
DE=18.48 m ± 0.05m. Determine the most probable difference
in elevation between the two ground points.

. 22. SUMMATION OF ERRORS. The four approximately equal sides

of a tract of land were measured and 1 the measurements
included the following errors: -+0.085 m, +0.014 m, ±0.175
, m, and ± 0.205 m, respectively. Determine the probable
error for the total length (or perimeter) of.the tract.

23. SUMMATION OF ERRORS. The dimensions of a five-sided

tract of land are given by the following measurements and
corresponding probable errors: 221.63 m ± 0.004 m.,
235.70 m + 0.002 m, 196.05 m ±.0.005 m, 296 .‘13 m ± 0.012 m,
and 303.18 m t 0.015 m. Determine the probable error of the
sum of the five measurements and the most probable value of
the perimeter.
•..• ’ - . 1 v I
24. PRODUCT OF ERRORS. Two sides of a rectangle.were mea­
sured as being 226.25 m ± 0.03 m and 307.28 m ± 0.04 m..
Determine the area of. the figure and the probable error of
the area.

25. PRODUCT.OF ERRORS. The base and altitude of triangular­

shaped figure were measured with certain estimated’ probable
errors as follows: b=425.67 m ± 0.07 m and h=138.63 m
± 0.06 m. Determine the area of the figure and the
probable error in the resulting calculation.

£24, PROBLEM
S t TS
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING L E S S O N N U M B E R S 6 T H R U 11

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES S E T "A "

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons ,1isted under

this part of your course of study, you will be required to
solve all the problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, ail solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted during the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.

1. PACING. In walking along a 75-m course, the pacer of a

field party counted 43.50, 44.00, 43.50, 43.75, 44.50, and
43.25 strides. Then 105.50, 106.00, 105.75, and 106.’25
strides were counted in walking from one marker to another
established along a straight and level course. Determine
the distance between the two markers.

2. PACING. A student paces a 50-m length five times with

the following results: 57.00, 56.75, 56.50, 58.00, and
56.25 paces. Determine how many paces must he step off in
order to establish a distance of 450 meters on level
ground.

3. PACING. Determine the length of a line negotiated in 208

paces by a person whose pace is 0.76 meters long.

4. DISTANCE BY SUBTENSE BAR. With the use of a 1-sec theo­

dolite positioned at the center of a six-sided lot, the
following readings were taken on a 2 -m subtense bar set up
at each corner: 0o26*16*', 0*12 *35*’, 0°15'05", 0°22'29", 0°
30*45", and 0°09*50". Determine the distance of each corner
from the instrument position.

5. DISTANCE BY SUBTENSE BAR. A 2-m long subtense bar was

first set up at A and subsequently at B, and the subtended
angles to the bar, as read from a theodolite positioned
somewhere £long the middle of line AB, were recorded as 0°
24*15'* and 0°20*30'*, respectively. Determine the length
of AB.

6 . SLOPE MEASUREMENT. A traverse line was measured in three

sections: 295.85 m at slope’ 8°45', 149.58 m at slope 4°

P ro b lem S e t No. 2
29 ', and 373.48 m at' slope 4°25'. Determine the horizontal
length of the line.
7. SLOPE MEASUREMENT. A slope measurement of 545.38 m is
made between points A and B. The elevation of A is 424.25 m
and that of B is 459.06 m. Determine the horizontal di.s*?'
tance between the two points.

8 . MEASUREMENTS WITH TAPE. The sides of a rectangular

parcel of property were measured and recorded as 249.50 m
and 496.85 m. It was determined, however, that the 30-m
tape used in measuring was actually 30.05 m long. Determine
the correct area of the rectangle in hectares. :

9. MEASUREMENTS-WITH TAPE. A 30-m steel tape when compared'

with a standard is actually 29.95 m long. Determine the
correct length.of a line measured with this tape and found
to be 466.55 m.

10. LAYING OUT DISTANCES. A track and field coach wishes to

lay out for his team a 200-m straightaway course. If he
uses a 50-m tape known to be 50.20 m long, determine' the
measurements .to be made so that the course will have the
correct length.

11. LAYING OUT DISTANCES. It is required to lay out a

building 80 m by 100 m with a 30-m long metallic tape which
was found to be 0.15 m too short. Determine the correct
dimensions to be used in order that the building shall have
the adesired measurements.

12. LAYING OUT DISTANCES. A steel tape whose nominal length

is supposed to be 30 m long was found 'to be 30.02 m long
when compared with an invar tape during standardization. If
the tape is to be used in laying out a 520 m by 850 m
rectangular parking lot, determine the actual dimensions to
be laid out.

13. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE. A 30-m steel tape is of

standard length at 20°C. If the coefficient of thermal
expansion of steel is 0.0000116/1°C, determine the distance
to be laid out using this tape to establish two points
exactly 1235.65 m apart when the temperature is 33°C.

14. CORRECTION DUE TO TEMPERATURE. A steel tape having a

correct length at 22°C was used to measure a base line and
the recorded readings gave the total of 856.815 m. If the
average terperature during the measurement was 18°C, deter­
mine the correct length of the line.

15. CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION. A heavy 30-m tape having a

cross-sectional area of 0.05 cm2 has been standardized at a
tension of 5 kg. If E =2.10 X 106 kg/cm2 , calculate the

,526,
i t

___
elongation of the tape for an increase in tension from 5 . 5
kg to 20 kg.
16. CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION. A steel tape is 30.0-m long
under a pull of 6.0 kg when supported throughout. It has a
cross-sectional area of 0.035 cm2 .and is applied fully
supported with a 1 2 -kg pull to measure a line whose re­
corded length is 308.32 m. Determine the correct length of
the line if E=2.1 X 106 kg/cm2 .

17. CORRECTION DUE TO TENSION. A 30-m steel tape weighing

1.75 kg is of standard length under a pull * of 4.55 kg,
supported for full length. This tape was used in measuring
a line (found to be 1371.50 m) on smooth level ground under
a steady pull of 8 kg. Assuming E=2.05 X-106 ky/cm2and that
the unit weight of steel is- 7.9 X 10“ 3 kg/cm3 , determine
the following: cross-sectional area of the tape, correction
for increase in tension for the. whole length measured, an,d
the correct length of the measured line.

18. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG. A 30-m steel tape weighs 1.5 kg

and is supported at its end points and at the 5 and 15-
meter marks. If a pull of 8 kg is applied, determine the
correction due to sag between supports and for one tape
length.

19. CORRECTION DUE TO SAG. A 30-m steel tape weighing 0.04

kg/m is constantly supported only at its end points, and
used to measure a line with a steady pull of 8.5 kg. If the
measured length of the line is 2465.18 m, determine the
correct length of the line. *

20. NORMAL TENSION. Determine the normal tension required

to make a tape exactly 30.0 m between its ends when used in
an unsupported mode, if the tape has a cross-sectional area
of 0.045 cm2 and weighs 0.90 kg. Assume that the tape is
exactly 30.0 m when supported throughout its length under a
standard pull of 6 . 0 kg, and its modulus of elasticity is
2.10 X 106 kg/cm2 .

21. NORMAL TENSION. A 30-m steel tape supported at its ends

weighs 0.03 kg/m and is of standard length under a pull of
6.5 kg. If the elastic modulus of steel is 2.0 X 106 kg/cm2
and its weight density is .7.9 X 10~3 kg/cm3, determine *the
tension at which the effect of sag will be eliminated by
the elongation of the tape due to increased tension.2

22. COMBINED CORRECTIONS. A 30-^m tape weighs 12.5 g/m and

has a cross section of 0.022 cm2 . It measures correctly
when supported throughout under a tension of 8. 0 kg and at
a temperature of 20 ° C . When used in the field, the tape is
only supported at its ends, under a pull of 9.0 kg, and at
an av<-t,tqe temperature of 28°C. Determine the distance
 between the zero and 30-m marks.
2‘ 23* COMBINED CORRECTIONS. A line was found to be 2865.35 m
1< long when measured with a 30-m tape under a steady pull of
6.5 kg at a mean temperature of 30°C. Determine the correct
length of the line if the tape used is of standard length
at 20°C under a pull of 5.5 kg. Assume the cross-sectional
area of tape to be 0.025 cm2, elastic modulus as 2.10 X 106
kg/cm2 , and coefficient of thermal expansion to be
0.0000116/1°C.

24. MEASURING ANGLES WITH TAPE. The sides of a triangle

measure 1063.55, ^840.33, and 1325.05 m. Determine- the
three angles in the triangle.

25. OBSTRUCTED DISTANCES. In the accompanying sketch it is

required to determine the distance between points A and B
which spans a wide and deep'river. Lines BD and CE, which
measure 385.75 m and 529.05 m, respectively, are estab­
lished perpendicular to line ABC. If points D and E are
lined up with A and the.length of BC=210.38 m, determine
the required distance.

,528, P O O flL L *
se rs
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING LESSON NUMBERS 12 THRU 16

MEASUREMENT OF VERTICAL DISTANCES SET "A "

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons* listed under
this part of your course of study, you will be required to
solve all the problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
I the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted during the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only. t

1. TWO-PEG TEST. In the two-peg test cf a dumpy level the

following observations were taken: with level setup near A,
observed readings are a=1.855 m and b=1.434 m; with level
setup near B, c=1.790 m and d=2.211 m. Determine the cor­
rect reading on the rod held at A with the instrument still
in the same position at B for a horizontal line of sight.

2. TWO-PEG TEST. The two-peg test is used to determine if

the line of sight of the telescope is parallel to the axis
of the bubble tube. A tilting level is set up halfway
between points A and B and rod readings on both points are
1.969 m and 2.161 m, respectively. The .level is then set up
3.50 m away from A along the extension of line AB and 53.50
from B. Then rod readings on A and B were recorded as 1.554
m and 1.728 m, respectively. Determine if the line of sight
is inclined downward or upward and the amount by which the
horizontal cross hair should be moved to adjust-the line of
sight,

3. DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION. A dumpy level is set up and

leveled, approximately halfway between two points, C and D.
The elevation .of point C is 135.00 m above mean sea levei
and the reading on a rod held at this point is 1.52 m.- If
the reading on ,the rod held at point D is 2.74 m, determine
the difference in elevation between the two points. Also,
determine the elevation of point D.

4. DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION. The backsight reading on a

point is 2.25 m and the foresight reading on a second point
is 0.86 m. If the elevation of the first point is 460.96 m,
determine the elevation of the second point.

P ro b lem S e t No. 3
ANOAlfM
St IS ,529
 5. DIFFERENCE IN ELEVATION. Readings on a rod held at two
points A and B, 75 in apart, are 2.965 m and 1.215 m,
respectively. Determine the rod reading at points on line
AB which are 25 m and 45 m from A. Assume that there is a
uniform gradient along line AB.
6. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Determine the combined «effect
' of curvature and refraction on level sights of 30, 50, 100r
250, 300, 500, 1000, and 2000 m.

7. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. A backsight of 3.055 m is

taken on a point 75 m from a level station and a foresight
of 1,258 m from the same station. Determine the difference
in elevation between the two points, taking into account
the combined effect, of curvature and refraction.

8. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Determine the backsight or

foresight distance for, an instrument set up which will
cause an error due to the earth's curvature and atmo­
sphere's refraction equal to 0.0015 m, 0.0575 m, 0.0986 m, :
0.2935 m, and 0.8750 m.

$. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. An observer standing on shore

can just see the top of a lighthouse 16.5 km away. If the
eye height of the observer above sea level is 1.735 m,
determine the 'height of the lighthouse above sea level.
Neglect the effect of the waves.

10. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Determine how far (in km) out
1
from shore an inter-island vessel will be when a red light
on its deck, 9.45 m above the water, disappears ffom the
sight of a child standing on shore and whose eye level is
1.32 m above the water. *

11. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. By taking a sight across a

lake 24 km wide through a pair of binoculars, determine the
height of the shortest tree on the opposite shore whose tip
the observer can see. Assume that the eyes of the observer
are 1.675 m above the shore line on which he stands.

12. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. Two towers, A and >B, are lo­
cated on level ground and their bases have equal elevations
above sea level. Determine the distance between the two
towers if a person standing on tc" of tower A can just see
the top of tower B. His eyes are 15.50 m above the ground.13

13. CURVATURE AND REFRACTION. A lifeguard is standing on a

watchtower at the edge.of the water such that his eye level
is 3.50 m above sea level. If a life raft starts floating
out to sea, determine how. far out it could go before it
disappears from the sight of the lifeguard. Assume that the’
sea is calm and a pair of binoculars is available to tract
the movement of the raft.

,530u_« 7e°rr M
 E L E M E N T A R Y S U R VEYING L E S S O N N U M B E R S 17 T H R U 23

L E V E L I N G M E THODS S E T "A"

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons listed under

this part of your course of studyr you will be required to
solve all the problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references Opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this.will -only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must,, however, be submitted during the
scheduled' examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. -All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.

1. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING. Complete the differential level

notes shown below and perform the customary arithmetic
check.

STA BS Hi Fs ELEVATION
. /• BM 10 2.0 85 13 7 . 4 5 0 m
TPI 2 .0 15 0 .9 8 2
* TP2 1.864 1.428
TP3 0 .57 9 1.527
BM II 0.423 2 .4 2 3 1
TP 4 1.446 1.807 .
TP5 1.778 1.725 :
TP 6 2.05 1 2 .3 39 •
TP 7 2.9 20 1.005
BM 12 •3. 186 2 .3 5 8
TP 8
1
2.805 0 .9 9 5
TP9 0.774 1.206 •
BM 13 0 .6 03 '

2. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING . In running a line of differential

levels from BM1 to BM2, the following rod readings were
taken in the order given : 2.40, 1.30, 1.43, 0.98, 1.25,
0.87, 1. 85, 1.05 , 2.94, 2.08, 1 .69, 2.50, 1.61, 2 i 71, 0.75,
and 2.11 meters. If the elevation of BM1 is 445.25 m,
complete the level notes and show the customary check on
the computations •

3. DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING. Prepare and complete the diffe-.

rent ia1 level notes for the information shown in-,the accom-
panyinq ' illustration. Include the customary arithmetic
check.

P roblem S e t No. 4
f*NOSliw
• / r»
 2.79
(FS)

TP-5

4. DIFFERENTIAL l e v e l i n g Th« a
rangement of lines portray a ^ *ccomPany in9 schematic ar-
values Indicated represent L c k s i a h T ^ V " * 1 rot,te' The
taken at different points as t foresic?ht readings*
level notes for the inform’+-• beled* PrePare and complete
tomary arithmetic check. atl°n shown an<3 Perform the cus-

TP-4
,L-3

"/i V
\
/ Sj' \.
^.\o»
<mu&
\
// TP- {
A -1
8M-2
TP-2
Mi '>W V^\<S\•
*s
5s
/\ /
/
L-2

-Vs1
BM-L.-
o-*
5. DOUBLE-RODDED LEVELING. Set up and complete the level
notes for a double-rodded line from BM45 to BM46. In, the
following rod readings H refers to stations along the high
route and L to stations along the low route: BS on
BM45=2.238, FS on TP1(H )=0.703, FS on TP1(L )-1.252, BS on
TP1 (H )=2.855, BS on TP1(L)=3.402, FS on TP-2 (H )=1.173, FS on
TP2(L )=1.5 58, BS on TP2(H )=2.542, BS on TP2(L)=2.932, FS on
TP3(H)=1.339, FS on TP3 (L)=1.660, BS on TP3(H )=2.390, BS on
TP3(L )=2.711, and FS on BM46=1.Q15 meters. Assume that the
elevation of BM45 is 524.550 m. Perform the customary
arithmetic check.

6 . LOCATING STATIONS. Determine the distance from station, 4

+ 38.85 to the following stations: 8 + 68.42, 16 + 50.56, 2
+ 73.05, 0 + 69.08, and 36 + 10.14.

7. PROFILE LEVELING. Complete the following set of pro­

file level notes and show the customary arithmetic check,
STA BS HI F$ IFS ELEV
BM - a 1.24 2 3 4 .5 1 m
TP - 1 (.ft 3.4 0
1+ 00 4.6
+ 25 2.8
+ 50 t 3.6
+ 75 2.4
TP - 2 3.21 2.4 6
2+00 1.2
+ 25 3.2
+ 50 2.8
TP - 3 3.06 2 .7 4
BM - b 2.40

8 . RISE AND FALL METHOD. Using the rise and fall method,
complete the level notes given below and show the customary
arithmetic check.
ROD READINGS DIFFERENCE IN ELEV REDUCED
STA
• BS IFS FS, RISE FALL LEVEL
1.73 766.45m BM-13
2.05 o+oo
1.88 +35
1.75 +60
2.39 +80
3.25 1+00
' 2.44 1 + 15
1.86 ' +40
1.09 „. +90
2. 15 2+00
1.84 2 .63 ) TP ~l
0.77 2 +45
1.19 +68
* 1.08 3+00 .
2.52 +50 '
* 2.14 BM <4
—...-•----------

,b Vi

_
 I
9. RISE AND FALL METHOD. Given below is the schematic ar­
rangement of lines for a revel route run from BM-l to BM-2
in which intermediate foresights,to a number of points have
been observed. It is desired to determine the elevation of
BM-2 and also.the elevations of the 'intervening points.
Prepare and complete an appropriate format of level notes
for the portrayed information using the rise and fall
method of leveling. Also show the customary arithmetic
check.

10. RECIPROCAL LEVELING. Reciprocal leveling between points

A and B, located on opposite banks of a wide river gives
the following readings in meters. From the first setup near
A: ,on A, 0.993; on B, 2.076, 2.077, and 2.078. For the set­
up near B the readings are: on B, 2.549; on A. 1.463,
1.462, and 1.463. If the elevation of A is 925.28 meters
determine the true difference in elevation between the two*
points and the elevation of B.
11. RECIPROCAL LEVELING. In reciprocal leveling across a
deep ravine the following sets of rod readings were takerf:

, Instr Near A: BS on A=1.719 m, Average FS on B=2.578 m

Instr Near B: Average BS on A=1.335 m, FS '•'n B=2.176 m

Point A is on one side of the ravine and has a known ele­

vation of 197.428 m. Point B is on the other side. Deter­
mine the elevation of point B.

12. TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING. Two points, A & B, are 3,134.50

meters apart. From a third point, C,. on the line between A
and B, and 1,992.25 meters from A, the measured vertical
angle to A is +35*28' and that to B is -15*i4'. Determin*
the difference in elevation between A and B making due
allowance for the effects of curvature and atmospheric re­
fraction.

13. TRIGONOMETRIC LEVELING. In problem 12, and still consi­

dering the effects of curvature and refraction, determine
the difference in elevation between the same two points if
the measured vertical, angles to A and B are instead +28°30'
and + 6 *1 0 ', respectively.

14. ALTI’lETER SURVEYS. Given the following data gathered

from an altimeter survey: Elevation of the high base, 818
m; elevation of the low base, 422 m; altimeter reading at
the high base 6579; and altimeter reading at the low base
3333. If the altimeter reading at a field station is 4775,
determine its corresponding elevation.

15. INVERSE LEVELING. A line of inverse levels was run into

a shaft for a copper mine. All of the stations in the
accompanying tabulation were located in the shaft's ceiling
and readings were taken by inverting the leveling rod.
Complete the given level notes and perform the customary
arithmetic check.

S TA BS HI FS ELEV

BM 66 2 .6 4 1 0 4 .3 0 m
TP-H 2 .4 3 1 .6 5
TP- 2 • 2 .7 6 2 .4 8
TP -3 2 .1 9 077 0
B M 67 3 .0 5 0. 95 '
TP- 4 1 .4 5 1.66
TP-5 0 .9 6 2. 08
BM 66 3 .0 6

16. INVERSE LEVELING, ‘it. is desired to determine the eleva­

tion of the bottom of a protruding concrete beam. In so
doiriq, the instrumentman observes a backsight reading of
1.25 m on a rod held in a normal position on a bench mark

.535
 whos^ known elevation is 225.26 m. The rod is next held
upside down against the bottom of the beam and a foresight
reading of 2.23 m is observed. Determine the required
elevation.
17. INVERSE LEVELING. A backsight of 1.47 m is read on a
rod held upside down against BM-1 '(elev=315.15 m) on the
ceiling.of a mine. Then a foresight of 1.52 m is taken on
TP-1 on the floor with the rod in normal position. The
instrument is next transferred and setup at another station
and a backsight of 1.45 m is read on TP-1. Determine the
elevation of BM-2 set on the ceiling if a foresight of 2.12
m is read on it with the rod again held upside down.

18. LEVELS OVER ONE ROUTE. Starting at BM-42 whose known

elevation is 810.15 m 7 a closed level circuit was run to
set the elevations of several bench marks as shown in the
accompanying tabulation. Adjust these observed elevations.

DISTANCE OBSERVED D IS TA N C E OBSERVED

STA STA
FROM BM42 E L E V A T IO N FROM BM42 ELEVATION
BM 42 0 . 0 0 0 km 8 1 0 .1 5 m BM 46 1 0 .0 0 5 km 8 0 5 .2 2 m
BM 43 2 .5 2 5 8 4 3 .2 9 BM 47 16.1 12 8 15. 14
BM 44 6 .2 4 8 8 7 6 .4 0 BM 48 1 8 .2 3 4 8 1 3 . 75
BM 45 8 .0 5 0 7 9 3 .8 5 BM 42 2 0 .5 0 0 8 0 9 .9 0

19. LEVELS OVER DIFFERENT ROUTES. Six lines of levels are

run over different routes to establish the elevation of BM-
X as shown in the accompanying tabulation. Determine the
most probable elevation of the bench mark.

0 B S .E L E V . OBS. E L E V .
ROUTE LENGTH ROUTE LENGTH
OF BM - X OF BM -X
a 4 . 1 5 km 2 4 6 .8 5 m d 5 . 8 2 km 2 4 6 .7 5 m
b 5 .2 0 2 4 6 .6 3 e 6 .0 3 2 4 6 .5 6
c 4 .7 6 2 4 6 .7 0 f 4 .9 8 2 4 6 .6 9

20. LEVELS OVER DIFFERENT ROUTES. By route 1 (3.0 km long)

point B is 21.200 meters higher than pbint A. By route 2
(4.0 km.long) B is 20.972 meters above A and by route 3
(6.0 km long) B is 21.261 meters above A. Determine the
following:

a. The most probable value of the difference in eleva­

tion.
b. The elevation of point B, if the elevation of point
A is 532.462 meters above mean sea level.

.536, fv
hi r4
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING LESSON NUMBERS 24 THRU 28

MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS SET "A"

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons listed under

this part of your course of study, you will be required to
solve all the problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books,' notes, and other references opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this will.only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, aid solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted during the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper a_nd write on one side only. ■
1. CONVERSION OP ANGULAR UNITS. Convert the following an­
gles into their equivalents in decimal degrees:

a ) 5 35'44" d) 192 .10'40.5"

b) 24 °18'30" e) 209' 55'12.5".
c ) 86°45'15" f) 336' 08'48"

2. CONVERSION OF ANGULAR UNITS. Convert the following an­

gles into their equivalent values in grads, mils, and ra­
dians:

a) 29 53'54" d) 233 30'56"

b) 1 1 0 °0 3'46" e) 341°43'05"
c) 278°55'55.5" f) 12°16'15"
3. CONVERSION OF ANGULAR UNITS. Convert the following an­
gles into their equivalent values in degrees, mils, and
radians:

a) 234.336419 grads d) 127.0 grads

b) 33.2206 grads e> 96.40432 grads
c) 379.728 grads f) 200 grads

4. CONVERSION OF ANGULAR UNITS. Convert the following an­

gles,into their equivalents in grads, degrees, and radians:
a) ’420 mils d) 4400 mils
b) 1885.50 'mils e) 5632.158 mils
c) 2908.75 mils f ) 3200 mi Is
5. CONVERSION OF ANGULAR UNITS. The interior angles of a
quadrilateral are: 122.32, 95.39 ,• 84.70, and 97.59 grads..
Convert the given angles into, their equivalents in degrees

Problem Set No. S

and show a c o m p u ta tio n a l c h e c k .

6> CONVERSION OP ANGULAR U N IT S . Convert the adjusted angles

of the following triangles into their equivalents in grads.
Show a computational check for each conversion made.
a) 1st Triangle: 50*20*5$”,46*27'17", and 81* 11 •48”
b) 2nd T r i a n g l e : \ 6 5 ° 3 2 * 00” , 28 o58'0.4", and 8 5°2 9' 56”
c) 3rd Triangle: 44°08,35»/79°33'02”, and 56°18'23”
d) 4th Triangle: 83°16'29”,24°20'25”/ and 72°23’06”
e) 5th Triangle: 29°55,08"/52°24’25", artel 97° 40 *27”

7. CONVERSION OP ANGULAR U N ITS . In problem 6, convert the

given angles of each triangle into their equivalents in
radians and also show a computational check.

8 . ANGLES FROM BEARINGS. Determine the angles APB, CPD,

EPF, GPH, IPJ, and KPL from the given magnetic- bearings:
T
a) PA, N32° 2.5 *E d) PG, S41° 30 •E
PB, N73° 40'E PH, S 44°15'1W
b) PC, N82#05•E e ) PI/ S59° 48 •w
p U, S 46 °23 'E *> ■ PJ, S77° 691 1W
<> PE, S78°10'E f ) PK, N13° 53 'W '
PF, S18° 35’E PL, S 8 8 °04 ',E
9 . DETERMINING BEARINGS AND AZIMUTHS. In the accompanying
sketch the bearing of line AB is N52°33,E. Determine the
bearing and the azimuth from south of lines BC, BD, BE, and
BF. i

10. DETERMINING BEARINGS. The bearing of one side of a

field in the shape ,of a regular pentagon is N20°30'W pro­
ceeding around1 the field in a clockwise direction. Deter­
mine the bearings of the other sides taken around the field

rM t u u t h
itrt
 in the order given.

11. DETERMINING BEARINGS. Side AB of an equilateral tri­

angle (see accompanying sketch) has a bearing of Nb83° 40 *E.
If the vertex C lies somewhere north of side AB, deter­
mine the bearings df sides BC and CA.

12. DETERMINING AZIMUTHS. In the accompanying figure, de­

termine the azimuth from north of lines BC, CD, DE, and EF
if the azimuth from south of line AB is 325°22'.

13. DETERMINING AZIMUTHS. In problem 12, determine the azi-^

rauth .from south of the same four lines if the direction of
'side AB is chahged to S36o20’E.

14. CONVERTING BEARINGS TO AZ|MUTHS. Convert the following

bearings to azimuths (reckoned'from south): #

a ) N17° 43 1E d) N12°19 *W
b) Due West , e ) S57Q30 ’W
c) fl2r>° 31 'E f ) N77°13'W

rmuu t * ,53$
i4ti
15. CONVERTING AZIMUTHS TO BEARINGS. The following six
lines have their azimuths reckoned from north:

a) AB, 52°21' d) DE, 219°56’ '

b) BC, 180°001 ' e) EF, 5° 23 '
c) CD, 337°15' £) FG, 134°295

Determine their bearings..

16. MAGNETIC DECLINATION. At a given place the magnetic

bearings of six lines radiating from a common point are:

a) AB, N4 3° 2 4 •E d) AE, S88°52,W

b) AC, N7 8 *53 1'W e) AF, N76 °05'E
c) AD, S64° 42 'E f ) AG> Due South

Determine the true bearing of each line if the magnetig

declination at the time of the observation was 3°25' west.

17. MAGNETIC DECLINATION. The following magnetic azimuths

of an open compass traverse are reckoned from north:

a) Line AB, 182°07* d) Line DE, 314°24*'

b) Line BC, 277°43' e) Line EF, 00o26f
6 ) Line CD,320°00< f) Line FG, 325°15'

Determine the corresponding true bearings if the 'magnetic

declination within the locality is 04°30’ east.
1 8 . MAGNETIC DECLINATION. A field is in the^ form of a
regular pentagon. It is required to determine the direc­
tions of bounding sides which are referenced from an as­
sumed meridian 05°30’ to the right (easterly) of the true
meridian*. If the assumed bearing of side AB is N33" 20'W,
determine the true azimuths (from south) of the following
sides of the field: AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA. Assume that the.
corners are labeled in a counterclockwise direction. Tabu­
late answers in a convenient format.

19. MAGNETIC DECLINATION. In 1960 a line had a magnetic

bearing of N80P23'E. At that time the magnetic declination
was 3° 45' west. In a new survey performed in 1987, .the
declination in the same locality changed to 2°50' east. De-
.termine the magnetic bearing and true bearing of the line
based on the new survey.

.20. MAGNETIC DECLINATION. The magnetic azimuth from north

of a line was i35o40* in 1968 when the magnetic declination
was 5° 15* east. -If the magnetic declination, at the same**
site is now 7°05' 'east, determine the true azimuth ftom
south of the line and its magnetic azimuth today. *
l
21. MAGNETIC *DECLINATION. When a compa:.;. .survey was run in

RAH r n tm u u
............ \r r 0
1950, the magnetic declination was -LOUIS' east. The magne­
tic bearings of several lines observed then were recorded
as follows:
*
a) AB,. N25°15'W d) DE, S50°00,E
b) BC, S14#381E e) EF, N86°29’W
c) CD, NO5* 20'E f) FG, S15w30'W
If these lines are to be retraced using a compass when the
declination is 15°12* west, determine the ne" magnetic
bearings to be set off on the compass.
22. OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE. The following are the observed
data for, an open compass traverse^ Adjust the observed
directions and tabulate -values accordingly.

OBSERVED BEARING
LIN E LENGTH
FORWARD- BACK •
AB 452.50m S 4 0 <>25IW N 40°30' E
BC 405.65 S55*40'W N 55*50' E
CO 495.08 N36° 15*W S 35*55 E
DE 284. 15 N73* lO'W S 7 3*30 E
EF 367.29 S44*45'W N 44*45 E
FG 217,73 S20°30'E N 2 1*00 W

23. OPEN COMPASS TRAVERSE. Given in the accompanying sketch

are the observed forward and back bearings of an open com­
pass traverse. Adjust the observed directions and tabulate
values accordingly.

24. CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE. Given in the accompanying

sketch are the observed forward and back bearings ^of a
closed compass traverse. Adjust the observed directions and
tabulate values accordingly.

541,
25. CLOSED COMPASS TRAVERSE. The following are the observed
lengths and magnetic bearings of a closed compass traverse:

OBSERVED BEARING
- LINE LENGTH
FORWARD BACK

AP 3 3 0 .7 5 m N 3 4 * 5 5 ‘E S 35*00'W
BC - 3 0 5 .4 3 N 5 6 * 3 0 ’W S 56*45'E
CD 3 2 5 .2 8 S75 * 4 5'W N 76*00*E
DE 2 0 1 .1 0 S 4 2 * 15'W N 42* 15'E
EF 2 2 5 .2 5 S 3 8 * 4 5 'E N 39*00'W
FA 3 7 5 .5 5 S 8 5 * I5'E N 85*30'W

.Adjust the observed directions of each line and tabulate

values accordingly.

KAO ____ rtfo/nr*

IW T V M M M M M i
W t V

i
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING L E S S O N N U M B E R S 29 T H R U 33
.1
THE ENGINEER'S TRANSIT AND THEODOLITE S E T "A"

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons listed under

this part of your courise of study, you will be required to
solve all the' problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references opened.
You may consult your,instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted during the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.

1. VERNIERS. Determine the least count of a direct vernier

on a scale which is graduated to 1/4 degrees if 30 divi­
sions on the vernier are equal to 29 on the main scale.
2. VERNIERS. The least division on the horizontal scale of
an instrument reads 1/6 of a degree. Determine the least
count of the vernier if 30 divisions on it covers 29 divi­
sions on £he main scale.
3. VERNIERS. The value of the smallest division on the main
scale of a horizontal circle is graduated to J./4 of a
degree. If 45 divisions on the vernier are equal to .44 on
the main scale, determine the fineness of reading.

4. VERNIERS. Thirty spaces on a transit vernier are equal

to 29 spaces on the graduated circle. If one space on the
circle is 15 minutes, determine the least count o f ’ the
vernier.

5. VERNIERS. The smallest division on the scale of an

instrument is 1/3 of a degree. Determine the number of
divisions the vernier should have in order to allow .the
instrumentman to read to the nearest 30 seconds.

6 . TRANSIT VERNIERS. Different settings of a vernier on the

horizontal circle of a transit are illustrated in Figures 1
through 8 . The coincidences for angles read clockwise and
counterclockwise are indicated by the dashed lines. For
each figure shown, determine the least count of the ver­
nier, the reading*on the inner circle, and the reading on
the outer circle.

Problem S et No. 6
 Vernier

Main S c a l e — '

F/ga*e 1
Vernier

Main S c a l e -----'

Figuxe. 2

Vernier

Main Scale

F ig twe 3
Vernier

Main Soale — • —'

Fig u re. 4
 F<gu*e 6
Vernier

Main Scale — s
F<gu*e 7
Vern ier

**0an
*1tM
.5 4 $
7. CLOSING - THE HORIZON. The horizontal angles about an
instrument station were measured and recorded as follows:
86°42', 39°06 ',15°25', 118°47,/ and 99*50’. Determine the
horizon misclosure and adjust the measured angles by as­
suming that the error is the same for each angle.

8 . CLOSING THE HORIZON. Given in the accompanying sketch

and tabulation are the measured horizontal* angles about
each.' corner of the quadrilateral ABCD. Determine the mis­
closure in the measurement of the angles about each corner
and the error in the measured interior angles of the quad­
rilateral. Also determine the most probable value of each
angle measured.

MEASURED MEASURED
STA ANGLE STA ANGLE
VALUE VALUE
l 236°! 7' 5 284°34'
A C
2 123°451 6 75 °3 0 l
3 274°4 3 l~ 7 283°48'
B D
9
N

8
O

4 85* I 5 1

9. INDEX CORRECTION. To determine the possibility of error-

in angular measurement with a transit, the following verti­
cal circle readings were recorded-for sightings made on a
distant point P: -19°34' (telescope" direct) and -19°38'
(telescope reversed). Determine the index error and the
index correction. Using the same instrument, also determine
the adjusted value of a vertical angle to a point Q which
reads -29°14' witji telescope in direct position.1
0

10. INDEX CORRECTION'. A vertical angle is measured to a

signal mounted on top of a t a l l building. With the tele­
scope in the normal position, the reading on the circle is
+36°22’. Also, the reading on the same circle is + 36° 27’
with the telescope in the inverted position. Determine the
following: c < ' f.
r
a) index error
b) index correction
c) corrected vertical angle

11. INDEX CORRECTION. In laying off a vertical angle, the

instrumentman sights the transit in the direction of a
point to be established or. top of a hill. He brings the
telescope horizontal, centers the telescope bubble and
reads +0°04 ' on the vertical circle. Determine the correct
reading to be set on the vertical circle in order to estab­
lish a vertical angle equal to -25°46’.

12-^ INDEX CORRECTION. A vertical angle measured by a single

observation with a transit is recorded as -16°05’. If the
index error is +0°03’, determine the correct value of the
angle.

13. DOUBLE CENTERING. A horizontal angle is measured at P

from A to B by the method of double centering. A backsight
on A gives a circle reading of 90°52'22", and a foresight
on B gives a circle reading of 145°18'12". After the teles­
cope is plunged, a backsight is made to A then, a foresight
is made to B. If the final reading on the circle is 199°43'
42", determine the value of the angle.

1.4* ANGLES BY REPETITION. A horizontal angle was measured

by repetition six times with an engineer’s 'transit. After
the angle was measured once the reading on the scale was
350421. If the fina1 reading was 214°06’, determine the
value of the angle measured.

15. ANGLES BY REPETITION. An interior angle Theta, and its

explement Beta were turned to close the horizon. Ear^ angle
was measured once direct and once reversed using the re­
petition method. Starting with an initial backsight setting
of 0° 0 0 1 for each angle, the readings after the first and
second turnings of angle Theta were 53°15.8* and 106°
31.2’. If the readings after the first and second turnings
of angle Beta were 306°43.8’ and 253°27.5’, determine the
value of each angle and the horizon misclosure.

16. ANGLES BY REPETITION. A 30-sec transit was used to

measure a horizontal angle by repetition eight times with
telescope in direct positior and six times reversed. Thd
initrai backsight reading was 0°05’30" and the reading *nn
the circle after the first measurement was 15° 20 *’00 ’*.
Determine the value of the angle measured if after the

PnOULLM
vV ,547
 eisghth repetition the final reading on the circle was 12 2
02*00". ! 1

17. ANGLES. BY REPETITION. An angle is measured by repeti­

tion with a 20-sec transit. The mean of the A and B ver­
niers on the initial backsight is 102Ot50'20" .* i^fter the
first repetition, the reading on the A vernier . is 262°
18140"., If after the sixth repetition, the mean of the two
vernier readings is 338°36'00", determine the value of the
measured angle.

18. ANGLES BY REPETITION. An angle Alpha is measured by re­

petition using a 30" transit. The initial mea(ii .backsight
reading Is 3°05'00" on the clockwise circle. After the
first repetition, the A vernier of the clockwise circle
reads 120°18'00". If after the fourth repetition, the mean
of A and B verniers of the clockwise circle is 1110 57*30",
determine the value of the angle Alpha.

19. ANGLES PROM MEASURED DIRECTIONS. The following di­

rections were observed using a direction theodolite, that
reads in grads. Compute the three angles for each position
and the mean of each of the three angles. Also show check.

STA STA MEAN VALUE OF ANGLE READ WITH TELESCOPE DIRECT a REVERSED
OCC OBS 1ST POSITION 2ND POSITION 3RD POSITION
K 150.39 68 200.3964 250.3978
L 192.2056 242.2057 292.2077
M 225,. 7590 275.7588 325.76 08
N 2 7 2 .8 6 6 5 322.8656 372.8 6 89

20. ANGLES PROM MEASURED DIRECTIONS. A theodolite was used

in observing the following tabulated directions in which
three positions of the circle were used:

STA STA MEAN VALUE OF ANGLE REA0 WITH TELESCO PE DIRECT 8 REVERSED
OCC OBS 1ST POSITION • 2ND POSITION 3RD POSITION
A 1 8*06* 12 . 6 " 63*06 06.1" I 0 8 e0 6'02 .9"
B 30*50'27.0" 75*50' 15.3" 120*50* 13.0"
C 119*41 '07.5" 164* 40'55.0" 209* 40'48.0"
0 229*54'12.0" 274*53'58.0" 3 I9 * 5 3 ' 4 9 .0 "

Determine the three angles for each position and also com­
pute the mean of each of the angles.

,54i Pe
sNt
Os
BLiM
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING L E S S O N N U M B E R S 34 T H R U 39

TRAVERSING AND TRAVERSE COMPUTATIONS S E T "A"

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons listed under

this part of your course of study, you will L- required to
solve all the problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must, however, he submitted during the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. All solutions must he done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.
1. INTERIOR ANGLE TRAVERSE. Determine the interior angles
for each of the four accompanying traverse sketches.

Problem Set No. 7

** Ft >549
35', B=59° 52*, C=85# 05', D=70°20', and E=213°53'. Determine
the error of closure and adjust the measured angles. Assume
that the error,of closure was primarily due to accidental
errors. Tabulate values accordingly.

3. DEELECTION ANCLES TRAVERSE. Given the following traverse

4. DEFLECTION' ANGLE TRAVERSE. The following are the mea­

sured deflection angles for a closed traverse: 97°05'R,
152°18'R, 96°13'R, 22°15'L, and 36°44'R. Determine the
error of closure and adjust the measured angles by assuming
that the error is. the same for each angle. Tabulate -values
accordingly.
5. ANGLE TO THE RIGHT TRAVERSE. A five-sided closed tra-'
verse proceeds in a clockwise direction and the angle to
the right at each station were observed as follows:
A=27 0° 45', B= 26 8 ° 4 3', C=203°22', D =256 °20', and E=260°25'.
Determine the error in the sum of the angles. Adjust the
angular >values observed on the assumption that the err'or is
the same ft or each angle. Tabulate all observed and adjusted
values accordingly.

£50.
—
6 . LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES. Given in the accompanying;;
tabulations are the observed data pertaining to-four dif^eV
rent traverses; Compute and tabulate the latitudes and
departures of each course.

LENGTH AZIMUTH
LINE BEARING LINE DISTANCE
FROM SOUTH
AB 732.72m N00*42'E JK 4 3 0.05 m 242° 30'
BC 324.78 S 85*57' E KL 425.18 353°151
CD 477.2-4 S03*04'W LM 357.20 99*45'
DA 388.08 ' S 52*611W MJ 183.18 154*00'

AZIMUTH
COURSE LENGTH COURSE LENGTH BEARING
FROM NORTH
1-2 16 1.46 m 228°20' 1-2 427.00m N59*33' E
2-3 160.49 267*43' 2-3 301,95 S 39* 18 'E •
3-4 17 1.83 352*011 3-4 445.66 S06*35'W
4-5 229.70 82*12’ 4 -5 326.73 N 17"48‘W
5-1 130.55 131*48' * 5- 1 434.50 N70*59'W

7. ERROR OF CLOSURE. Given the following tabulated data foi

two transit-tape surveys: , *

LATITUDE DEPARTURE
LINE LENGTH BEARING
+N -s +E -W
1 -2 ’ . 4 4 5 .6 6 m S 0 6 * 3 5 'W 4 4 2 .7 2 5 1.09
2-3 3 2 6 .7 3 N 17*4 8 ' W 3 II .09 99.88
3-4 4 3 4 .5 0 N 70*5 9 'W 141 .S 8 t 41 0.79
4-5 427. 00 N 59 *3 3 'E 2 16.40 368. 10
5-1 3 p l .95 S 39° 18 'E 2 33 .66 1 91.25
Sums 1935. 84 m + 669.07 - 6 7 6 .3 8 +559*35 - 5 6 1.76
(D) * (SNL) (SSL) CSED) tSWD)
> *
• LATITUDE DEPARTURE
COURSE LENGTH AZIMUTH
FROM NORTH +N -S -- +E -w
AB 2 2 9 .7 0 m r 82*12' 31.17 227.57
BC 13 0 .5 5 1 31*48' 87 .02 97.32
CD 1 6 1 . 46 228*20' 107.34 120.61
DE 18 0 .4 9 2 6 7*43' 7.1 9 180.35
EA 17 1.83 352*01' 170.1 6 23.86
Sums 8 7 4 .0 3 m +201 .33 -20 1 .55 +324.89 - 3 2 4 .8 2 ,
(D) (SNL) (SSL), (SED) (SWD)

For each traverse determine the linear error of closure,

the direction of the side of error,4 and the precision of
the measurements made.# Tabulate all observed and computed
values .

fttOMIIU
»4 r
V >51,
 ,8 . ERROR OP CLOSURE. Ip a given closed traverse the sum of
the' south -latitudes exceeds the sum of the north latitudes
by “3.55 m and the sum of the east departures exceeds the
sum of the west departures by 2.83 m. If the perimeter of
the traverse is 945.7$ m, determine the linear error of
closure, bearing of the side of,error, and the precision of
the survey performed. ' * *

9. COMPASS RULE. Given in the accompanying tabulations are

the observed and calculated data for two different transit-
tape surveys:

LATITUDE DEPARTURE
LINE DISTANCE BEARING
+N -S +E -W
1-2 • 38 8 .0 8 m S 52*5 I'W 2 3 4 .3 6 309.32
2-3 7 3 2 ,7 2 . N 00 *4 2'E 732.67 8.95
3-4 3 2 4 .7 8 S 8 5 °5 7 'E . 2 2 .9 4 323.97
4 - 1" 4 7 7 :2 4 S 03*04'W 4 7 6 ,5 6 25.53
| Sums 1922.8 2m + 732 .6 7 -7 3 3 .8 6 + 332.92 - 3 3 4 .8 5
(D) (2ND (2SL) (2ED) (2WD)

. AZIMUTH LATITUDE DEPARTURE

COURSE DISTANCE FROM SOUTH +N -S +E -W
1 -2 4 7 5 ,4 8 m 180*50' 4 7 5 ,4 3 6.92
2-3 6 4 9 .1 3 116°06' 2 8 5 .5 8 5 8 2 .9 4
3-4 8 6 7 .3 4 25* 54' 780.22 3 78.8 6
4-5 5 2 2 .4 8 31 5 *2 0 ' 37 1.59 3 6 7 .2 9
5-6 5 0 4 .9 0 2 13* 27' 42 1.27 2 7 8 .3 1
6- 1 3 1 1.25 • 275* 39' 3 0 .64 3 0 9 .7 4
Sums 3 3 3 0 .5 8 m +1182.28 -1 182.45 + 9 6 2 .2 6 - 9 6 1 .8 0
(D) (2ND (2SL) (2ED) (2WD)
For each set of survey data, determine the linear mis-
closure, direction of the side of error, and precision, of
the survey after the latitudes and departures are balanced
by the compass rule. Tabulate values acicorSiingly and draw
to a. suitable scale the adjusted traverse.

10. TRANSIT RULE. Given in the accompanying tabulations are

observed and calculated data for two different traverses.

AZIMUTH LATITUDE DEPARTURE

LINE DISTANCE
FROM SOUTH +N -S +E -w
AS’ 3 5 7 .2 0 m 99*4 5' 60.49 352.04
BC 183. 16 154*00^ 164.64 80.30
CD 4 3 0 .0 5 242*307 198.57 38 1.46
. DA 4 2 5 .1 8 353* 15' 42 2 .2 3 49.97
Sums 1395. 6 1m + 423.70 - 4 2 2 .2 3 + 43 1 43 - 4 3 2 .3 4
(D) (2ND (SSL) (2ED) <>WI»

5.52,
 AZIMUTH LATITUDE DEPARTURE
COURSE LENGTH FROM NORTH +N - s - +E .. -W j
CD 380. 38 m 0°50' 380.34 5.53
DE 51 9 .30 296*06' 228.46 4 6 6.35
EF 6 9 3 .8 7 205*54' 624.18 303.08
FG 41 7 .98 1 35*2 O' 297.27 2 9 3.83
GH 4 0 3 .9 3 33*27' 337.03 2 2 2.65 ;- \ ,
HC 2 4 9 .0 0 95*39' 24.51 247.79
Sums 2664.4 6 m +945.83 - 9 4 5 .9 6 +769.80 - 7 6 9 .4 3
<D ) C SN L) (S S L ) GEED ) (3 E W D )

For each set of traverse data, balance the latitudes 'ahd

departures by the transit rule. Also determine the linea\r
error of closure, bearing of the side of error, and the
precision of the measurements made. 'Tabulate all observeq
and calculated values into a convenient format, and prepare
a sketch of the adjusted traverse. Use a convenient scale.
11. ADJUSTMENT. OF LENGTHS AND^ BEARINGS. Given in the accom­
panying tabulation are the adjusted latitudes and depar­
tures -for a property survey. Determine the adjusted length5
and adjusted bearing of each course. Tabulate all given and
computed values accordingly.

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

COURSE .
+N -S +E -W
<0 1 - 2 103.82 1 17.09
2- 3 3 .67 176.83
3- 4 166.64 20.34
4- 5 27.65 224.05
5- ! , 86.80 90.21
Sums + 194.29 - 1 9 4 .2 9 + 31 4.26 - 3 14.26
G£NL) (SSL) (5 ED) (2EWD)
12. ADJUSTMENT OF LENGTHS AND AZIMUTHS. The adjusted lati­
tudes and departures corresponding to a transit-tape survey
are given in the accompanying tabulation. Determine the
adjusted length and adjusted azimuth from south of each
course. Tabulate all given and computed values into a
convenient format. '
ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE
LINE
+N -S +E -W
AB 2 3 0 .6 2 4 3 0 .83
BC 2.1 0.48 46 0 .4 4
CD * 802.59 26 5 .3 5
OE 2 6 0 .2 5 4 6 5 .5 2
EA 5 2 2 .2 0 16 0 .4 0
Sums +10 13.07 -1013.07 +891.27 -8 9 1 .2 7
(2ND GSSL) (35ED) ( 2 WD)
13. i^d¥lk|^€^AR COORDINATES. Given in the accompanying tab­
ulation are the adjusted latitudes and adjusted departures
of a property'survey. Determine the following:

a) Rectangular coordinates of all other stations in the

i traverse if the X and Y coordinates of station A are
2500.00 m and 5250.00 m, respectively.
b) Rectangular coordinates of all other stations in the
same traverse if the X and Y coordinates of station D are
1195.25 m and .1053.70 m, respectively.

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

LINE
+N -s +E -w
AB 3 7 5 .0 4 3S 9.30
BC 4 2 5 .3 0 ' 2 7 7 .4 1
CO 3 2 .4 5 31 0 . 4 5
DE 4 7 6 .4 4 12 . 2 9
EF 2 9 0 .6 5 „ 5 8 5 .4 0
FA 7 8 4 .9 0 3 8 4 .0 5
Sum? + H 9 2 .3 9 1 9 2 .3 9 + 9 6 9 .4 5 -9 6 9 .4 5
GENL) (SSL) (ZED) QEWD)
14. RECTANGULAR COORDINATES. Determine the lengths and
bearings of the sides of a tract of land whose corners have
the following X and Y coordinates: A(-105.45 m, -127.96 m);
B(-289.63 m, -9.05 m); C(+512.50.m, +404.23 m); D(436.70 ra,
-59.92 m); and E(-5.52 m, +7.34 m) . Tabulate values accor­
dingly. ■ .
5
1

15. GRAPHICAL ADJUSTMENT. Trace accurately the traverse

plotted below and perform the required graphical adjustment
to close the traverse. The correction triangle must also be
portrayed. ■
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING L E S S O N N U M B E R S 40 I V R U ^ B

OMITTED M E A S U R E M E N T S SET " A * '

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons listed under

this part of your course of study, you will be required* to
solve all the problems given in this set. The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references opened. ;
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain frotn copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the,purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted during the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
modules. .All solutions must be dohe on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.
1. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. For each of the four traverses
given in the accompanying tabulations, the length and d/i-
pection of one side are unknown. Compute the latitudes and
departures of the given sides and determine the length and
bearing (or azimuth) of the omitted side.

DISTANCE LENGTH AZIMUTH

LINE BEARING SIDE .
(m) (m) FROM NORTH
AB 297.66 S 4 0 ° 5 8 ‘E 1-2 45 3.73 I I 2 ° 06*
BC 286.60 S 15 ° 4 5 ‘W 2- 3486.08 17 8 ° 5 0 1
CD Unknown Unknown 3- 4398.27 290 *30'
DE 386.25 N 2 1° 0 5 ’W 4- Unknown
5 Unknown
EA 258.37 N 4 8 ° l 3 ‘E 5- 1 400.15 75*42' '

LENGTH AZIMUTH DISTANCE

COURSE (m) FROM SOUTH LINE BEARING
(m)
JK Unknown Unknown AB 4 15.50 N 70* 15'E
KL 38 1.92 270*00' BC 220.32 N 82* 2 3 'E
LM 203.94 29*15' CD 230.06 N7 9 * 5 0 ‘ W
• MJ 135.30 90*00' DA Unknown Unknown

2. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. Given the following two traverse

sketches: •
 F -igwte l

3. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. For each of the four traverses

given in the' accompanying tabulations, the length of one
side and the bearing (or azimuth) of an adjoining side are
unknown. Determine these unknown quantities.

DISTANCE AZIMUTH SIDE LENGTH BEARING

COURSE
(m) FROM SOUTH (m)
1 -2 2 6 9 .9 0 Unknown AB 382.50 Due East
2-3 Unknown 75°00‘ BC 248.78 S 8 9 ° 25'E
3-4 19 9 .8 8 14 1° I 8 * CD Unknown S 2 7* 45' W
4-5 2 7 4 .7 6 2-25°24' DE 220.42 Unknown
5-1 2 4 5 .8 4 297°2 6' EA 443.49 N40°08'W

LENGTH DISTANCE AZIMUTH

S ID E BEARING LINE
(m) (m) FROM NORTH
AB 4 1 3 .6 0 N09#30‘W 1- 2 Unknown 334° 27'
BC 3 0 4 .3 8 N55 °06'W 2 - 3955.85 Unknown
CD 4 0 7 .2 1 S57°35'W 3 - 4
594.72 105° 3 0 1
DE Unknown S 0 4 ° 0 5 ‘E 4 - 5874.23 193° 4 4 1
EA 6 4 9 .6 3 Unknown 5 - 17 1 1.50 250° 0 5 1

4. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. In the accompanying tabulations

are the' observed data of four traverses in which the
lengths of two adjoining sides are unknown. Determine these
unknown quantities.

,556, M 9 0 S I l At
%trs
 AZ1 MUTH
LINE LENGTH BEARING COURSE DISTANCE
(m) (m) FROM NORTH
1-2 Unknown S55°53'W AB Unknown 106°15*
2 -3 5 7 0 .5 3 ! S 0 2 ° 0 5 'E BC Unknown 195°15 1
3-4 1082.71 Due East CD 9 0 5 .6 0 247*07' ,
4 -5 6 3 9 .3 2 N I0°35'W DE 17 5 4 .8 6 3 3 2 8a*2‘
5- 1 Unknown N 57°00'W EA 1 2 1 6 .5 9 86*07'

AZIMUTH
COURSE DISTANCE LINE LEN G TH • BEARING
(m) FROM SOUTH (m)
AB 867.46 284*12' 1 -2 639.32 N 09° 30 *W
BC 1272.4 1 15*18' 2-3 507.30 N 56*55 ‘W,
CD Unknown 6 8*06' 3-4 678.69 S 56* 13 'W
DE Unknown 151*21' 4-5 Unknown S 02*02 'E
. EA 139 1.17 264*5 1' 5-1 Unknown S 89*3 1 'E

5. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. The traverse data indicated in

Figures 3 and 4 are those of two closed traverses in which
the bearings of two adjoining sides are unknown. Determine
these unknown quantities.
6 . OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. The plots of two closed traverses
are given in Figures 5 and 6 in which the length of one
side and the bearing of a non-adjoining side are unknown.
Transform graphically each figure into one wherein the
sides with unknown quantities are made adjoining then,
determine the unknown quantities in the usual manner.

7. OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. In the accompanying tabulations

are the observed data of two traverses in which the lengths
of two non-adjoining -sides are unknown. Plot each traverse
to scale and transform graphically each figure into one
wherein the sides with unknown quantities are made adjoin­
ing. Determine the unknown lengths in each traverse.

DISTANCE LENGTH AZI MUTH

LINE BEARING COURSE
(m) (m) FROM NORTH
AB 249.18 S 1 9* 32 'E
BC Unknown N 7 4 * 0 9 'E AB Unknown 57*55'
CD 445.1 0 S 3 6 *4 0 'E BC 373.06 320*00'
DE 6 6 8 .2 7 S 5 I* !4'W CD 952.75 256*46'
DE Unknown 317*45'
EF 866 .7 9 N7 3 * 2 5 'W
FG Unknown N 2 6 *0 0 'W EF 423.46- 2 0 7 ‘ 30'
GA 5 6 0.15 FA 94 1.97 120* 13'
N6 4 *3 2 'E

8 . OMITTED MEASUREMENTS. The plots of two closed traverses

are given in Figures l and 8 in which the bearings of two
non-adjoining sides are unknown. Transform graphically each
figure into one wherein the sides with unknown quantities
are made adjoining and determine the unknown quantities.
•
raom
Hify
rs ,557,
558,f&vxfyarctKft phoblch
scrs
 PRO BLEM
5 6 0 .
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING L E S S O N N U M B E R S 43 T H R U 46

AREA COMPUTATIONS S E T "A"

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons listed under

this part of your course of study, you will be required to
solve all the problems given in this set. • The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other refSrehces opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted during the
scheduled examinatioh date for the same group of lesson
modules. All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.

1. AREA BY TRIANGLES. In the quadrilateral ABCD the Ejides

were measured as follows: AB, 535.98 m; BC, 351.60 m; CD,
631.33 m; and DA, 297.20 m. If the diagonal BD measures
675.68 m, determine the area of the quadrilateral.

2. AREA BY TRIANGLES. The following distances and direct­

ions were measured from an instrument position in a child­
ren’s playground to eight corners on the boundary.

DISTANCE DIRECTION DISTANCE DIRECTION

POINT POINT
(m) (CIRCLE RDG) (m) • (CIRCLE RDG)
A 6 7 .2 5 o o° o o' E 104.54 229°50'
B 9 7 .0 0 I I 9*2 1 '■ F 65.81 30 l°23'
C 10 4 .7 5 173° 5 6 1 6 1 2 6 .0 8 335*14' -
D 5 6 .7 0 206° 4 1' H 7 6 .9 2 3 59*26.'

Assuming the boundary to be consisting of straight* lines

joining* the corners sighted, determine,the area of the
playground in.square meters as well as in hectares.

Problem S e t 9
PNOrn i a/
16 1
 3. AREA BY COORDINATES. In the following tabulations are
the adjusted latitudes and adjusted departures of two
closed traverses. Determine the area of each traverse by
the coordinate method. For the first traverse assume that
the origin (0 .0 m, 0 . 0 m) of the coordinate system passes
through station A, and through station M for the second
traverse J . •■ ) i

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

LINE
+N -s +E -W
AB 55 2 .4 5 2 1 2 .6 3
BC 232 .0 6 ' 3 9 6 .5 0
CD 35 9 .7 0 2 8 3 . 15
DE 2 0 9 .3 7 36 6 .8 9
EA 21 5 .4 4 5 25.3 9
Sums + 784.51 m - 7 8 4 . 5 Im + 8 9 2 . 28m - 8 9 2 .2 8 m
(2ND (SSL) (2 ED) (2WD)

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

LINE *
+N -S +E -w

JK 3 5 2 .0 5 395.66
KL 2 3 .4 4 591.08
LM 558.26 78.39
MN 102.58 ' 746.30
NJ 2 8 5 .3 5 318.83

Sums +66 0 . 84 - 6 6 0 .8 4 +1065. 13 -1065.1 3

(2ND (2SL) (2 ED) . (2WD)

4. AREA BY COORDINATES. Determine the area in sq. m. by the

met’.od of coordinates for each of the traverses whose
corners have the coordinates given in the accompanying
tabulations.

COORDINATES COORDINATES
POINT STA
X(m) Y (m) X(m) Y(m)
1 0.00 0. 00 A 500.00 7 5 0 .0 0
2 1 10.53 270 .6 9 B 54 7 .2 7 1240.71
3 - 2 0 7 .3 0 666.08 C 1 156. 17 1827. 12
4 7 8 0.2 5 853.77 D 1 942.95 1500.41
5 9 5 4 .3 6 353.49 E 2 16 1.27 ‘ 4 9 7 .6 5
6 6 3 8 .6 1 - 427.55 F 1044.65 37 4 .9 9

5. AREA BY’DMD. For the given sets of adjusted latitudes

and adjusted departures shown in the accompanying tabula­
tions, determine the area of each traverse .(in sq. m. and
ha.) using the double meridian distance method.

PR O BLC M
,5 6 2 , sirs
 -ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTEO DEPARTURE
LINE
+N | -S +E -w :
AB 7 1 5 .2Q 1200.53
ec 4.2 9 401 .78 •*
CD 1735.5 8 41 9/8 8»
DE 2G 0.70 1606.43
EF 6 17 .5 9 456.66
F6 8 4 9 .9 1 20 2 .8 3
GA 2 3 3 .5 3 6 7 7 .8 3
Sum*' +2383.40 -2383.40 +2482.97 -2482.97

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

COURSE
+N - S +E -W
1 -2 281 .28 281 .06
2- 3i 6 8 .75 449.32
3- 4 3 3 7 .5 6 281.22
4- 5 1 1 2.5Q 4 5 0 .6 6
5- 6 4 5 0 .0 3 2 2 5 .08
'6- 1 450.06 3 3 5 .8 6
Sums + 9 0 0 .09m - 9 0 0 .0 9 m +10 1 1 .60m -10 1 1 .60m

6 . AREA BY DPD. -In the accompanying tabulations are the

adjusted "latitudes and adjusted departures of two tra-
verses.

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

LINE
+N -S +E -w *
t
AB 4 2 0 .7 5 71 3 .84
8C 2 9 6 .0 8 693.05
CD 8 9 4 .3 7 405.36
DE 50 1.25 9 2 6 .5 4
EF 3 8 6 .42# 69 5 .0 4
FA 884.53* 19 0 .6 7
Sums +1691 .70 -169 1.70 *1812.25 ■18 12.25

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

COURSE
+N -s +E -w
: 1-2 299.30 295.58
2-3 338. 05 223.56
3-4 24.52 245.77
4-5 3 8 1 .3 6 8.05
5-6 2 3 0 .5 2 ' 463.09
6 - .1 • 626. 1 1 309. 87
Sums + 9 4 9 .9 3 - 949.93 +772.96 - 7 7 2 .9 6

By employing the double parallel distance method, determine

rttovUki ____ 5 C3
the area (in so. m. and h a . ) of e a c h traverse.

7. TRAPEZOIDAL RULE. A series of perpendicular offsets were

taken from a base line to a curved boundary line. These
offsets were taken.3.5 meters apart and were, measured in
the following order: 0.8, 3.6, 4.7, 5.3, 3.9, 2.7, 4.6,
5.5, 4.9, 7.6, 8 .8 , 5.4, and 6.0 meters. Using the trape­
zoidal rule, determine the area included between the base
line, the curved boundary, and the end offsets.

8 . SIMPSON'S ONE-THIRD RULE. Using the same data given in

Problem 7, determine the required area this time using
Simpson's one-third rule.
9. TRAPEZOIDAL RULE, in the accompanying sketch, it is
desired to determine the area of the sand bar by the
indicated short offsets which were measured on both sides
of a base line AB. Using the trapezoidal rule, determine
the area of the sand bar. Also determine the same area by

lations are the measured offsets (taken at irregular inter­

vals) from a straight line to the edge of a lake. Determine
the area for each given set of data.

O F F S E T P O I NT P< P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9

Dj S T A N C E FROM P^ 14.83 16.75 18 .6 7

0.0 1.6 2 4 .2 6 6 .0 0 9 .8 3 11.40 •
(m )
M EASURED O F F S E T 5 .1 0 2 .5 5 3 .8 3 2 .6 9 4 .3 5 2 .0 5
2 .7 2 1 .9 5 4 .0 0
(m )

O FFSET P O IN T A B . C D E F G H 1 J K

D IS T FROM A 1.2 5 3 .2 5 4 . 7 5 1 2.6 5 2 1 .0 8 2 2 .7 3 2*4.90 28.6 3 3 0 . 0 0 35.2 7

0 .0
; m)

M EA SU RE D O F F S E T 6 .6 0 2*45 8 .3 8 3.1 0
(m) •
0.0 6 .4 3 6 .7 8 7 .7 2 2 .3 0 2 .7 9 0 .7 0

J
 11. AREA BY PLANIMETER. A draftsman drew a 10-cm square on
a piece of paper and traced it with a planimeter three
times and obtained the following readings: 1985, 3612, 5241,
and 6869. Then the planimeter was used to determine the
area of a ricefield marked off on a map. The boundary of
the ricefield was traced three times and readings were
recorded as follows: 0105, 2705, 5307, and 7911. If the
scale of the map is, 1 cm = 60 m, determine the area of the
ricefield in square meters.
12. IRREGULARLY SPACED OFFSETS. Vertical measurements were
taken at varying distances along a section of a stream as
illustrated in the accompanying figure. Determine the area
(in sq. m.) of the cross section.

13. IRREGULARLY SPACED OFFSETS. In the accompanying sketch

determine the area included between the base line and the
irregular boundary.

traverse plots. Determine the area (in sq. cm. ) of each tra­
verse by the graphical method. If the scale used in drawing
the given plots is 1 :1 0 0 , also determine the area of each
traverse In square meters.
sers
E L E M E N T A R Y S U R V E Y IN G LESSON N U M B ER S 47 TH R U 48
'
■ % .•?.* • • ' ■ ‘ V ....
P A R T IT IO N O F LA N D SET "A “

Note: Upon completion of the different lessons listed under

this part of your course of study, you will t required to
solve all the problems given in this set; The problems may
be solved with books, notes, and other references opened.
You may consult your instructors, classmates, and* others
whom you feel could help you better understand and solve
the problems. You should, however, refrain from copying
previously prepared solutions since this will only defeat
the purpose and objectives of this requirement. Although no
time limit is specified to solve each problem, all solu­
tions and answers must, however, be submitted enuring the
scheduled examination date for the same group of lesson
jnodules. All solutions must be done on short size bond
paper and write on one side only.

1. PARTITION OF LAND. Given the adjusted latitudes and ad­

justed departures of a closed traverse. Determine the
length and direction of the line FC which will divide the
traverse into two parts.

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

COURSE
+N -s +E -w
, AB 4 4 9 .8 6 3 3 4 .8 5
BC 2 8 2 .4 8 282.86
CD 16 7 .9 5 449.52
DE 336.91 2 8 0 .3 1
EF 1 13.55 45 1.86
FA 4 4 9 .8 3 2 2 5 .9 8
Sums + 9 0 0 .2 9 -9 0 0 .2 9 +1012.69 -10 i 2 .6 9

2. PARTITION OF LAND. A portion of a large tract of land

intended for employee residential housing is to be sub­
divided into four lots as shown in the accompanying sketch.
Determine the lengths and hearings of the following di­
viding lines: BI, CH, and DG.

Problem S et No. 10
3. PARTITION 'OP LAND. Given the accompanying plot for a
surveyed tract of land. Determine the length and bearing of
line DA which will divide the tract into’two parts.

4. PARTITION OF LAND. Given the data of Problem 3. It is

required to divide the tract into two parts by a line EG
originating from station E and whose bearing is due north.
Determine the length of the dividing line and t’he distance
of point G from the adjacent station B. Point G falls some­
where .along line AB.

5. PARTITION OP LAND. Using the same data given in Problem

1, determine the length and bearing of a line XY which will
divide the traverse into two parts. Point X, which is
located along line AB, is 140.20 m from B, and point Y
falls midway between traverse stations D and E.

6. PARTITION OF LAND. Using the same data given'in Problem

3, determine the length and direction of a line that runs
through F and divides the tract into two equal parts.

7. PARTITION OF LAND. The adjusted closed traverse shown in

the accompanying sketch is to be divided into two equpil
parts by a north-south line. Determine the length of the
dividing line and the area of each part.

PH O B LC *
55a
8 . PARTITION OP LAND. For the traverse giveQ in Problem 7
it is desired to cut off 20 hectares above a dividing line
QR which runs in an east-west direction. If points Q and R
are located somewhere along lines DA and BC, respectively,
determine the length of the dividing line. Also determine
the distance from A to Q and from B to R.

9. PARTITION OF LAND. Given in the accompanying tabulation

are the adjusted latitudes and adjusted departures of a
parcel of land whose area is tro be divided equally into two
parts. The dividing line is to pass t'hrough a point midway
between corners A and E, and through a point along the
boundary of line BC. Determine the length and bearing of
the required line.

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

LINE
+N -s +E . ~ W

AB 1 15.64 32.0 7
8C 19 .27 144.10
CD 8 5 .5 9 26.70
DE 3 7 .5 0 106.50
EA 26.72 96.37
Sums •<•142.36m - 142.36m +2 0 2 . 87m - 2 0 2 .8 7 m

10. PARTITION OF LAND. Tjie adjusted latitudes and- adjusted

departures of a parcel of land are:

Course 1-2: Lat = -902.48, Dep = +19-6.49

Course 2-3: Lat =■ -110.40, Dep = -1004.96
Course 3-4: Lat = +337.50, Dep = -490.18
Course 4-5: Lat = +441.64, Dep = +42.55
Course 5-^6: Lat = +528.41, Dep = +548.00
Course 6-1: Lat - -29 4;67, Dfep = +708.10

If this parce 1 is to be subdivided into two lots of equal

area, determine the length and.bearing of the dividing line
which is to pass through porner 6 .

rn o m / *
8 \r 1 1 56SI
11. PARTITION OF LAND. Using the data given in Problem 10,
determine the length of a line parallel to course 2-3 which
will cut off 50 hectares below the line. Also determine the
distance of each terminal point of the cutting line from an
established corner of the traverse nearest these points.

12. PARTITION OF LAND. In the following field notes are the

adjusted latitudes and adjusted departures of a closed
traverse. Determine the area of the two parts into ‘ which
the tract is divided by a meridian line through station A. '

Line AB: Lat = -270.31, Dep = +436.25

Line BC: Lat = -181.21, Dep = +430.. 74
Line CD: Lat = -1183.02, Dep = -201.17
Line DE: Lat = -122.30, Dep =' -1239.98
Line EF: Lat = +940.94, Dep = +106.05
Line FA: Lat = +815.90, Dep = +468.11

13. PARTITION OF LAND. Given the accompanying adjusted plot

for a parcel of land. It is desired to divide the parcel
into two parts by the dashed line shown. This line is to
begin at R on side DE e*nd must be 400.00 m from D. It is to
run parallel to side CD until it intersects side BC at S.
Determine the length of RS and the’ distance of S from C,

+1000.20m

570. mm r g «
 ILLUSTRATIVE
E X A M I N A T IO N S
Unit Exam Numbers 1 Thru 10
 ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMINATIONS
Illustrated in the following pages are ten different
sets of questions which are referred to as unit examina­
tions or UEs. Each examination covers a specific group of
lesson modules. For example, the first unit examination
(U.E. No.l) should be tried out by the student upon comple­
tion of lesson modules 1 thru 5. Similarly, the second,
third, fourth, and up to the tenth unit examination should
also be tried when the student has completed the correspon­
ding lesson coverages.
The examinations are provided to allow students to de­
termine their respective levels of comprehension in this
particular course of study. It is one way of determining if
they have fully absorbed and learned the different lesson
modules or not. The series of unit examinations may be used
to signal an advancement to another group of lesson modules
if the result is satisfactory. These examinations are also
designed to serve as practice questions and problems in
preparation for one planning to take a professional board
examination or any other equivalent examination. For the
instructor it is given as a sample from which he can
pattern his own examinations. The student will notice that
the illustrated examinations are "computer-formatted" - a
type of examination now widely used in professional and
non-professional government examinations. It can be correc­
ted and graded with the use of a computer, and is taken by
using a specially designed answer sheet.
Each examination contains questions which ' have been
carefully selected, tried out, and are believed to be rep­
resentative of the more important and relevant principles
and theories taken up in each lesson module. The questions
asked are reasonable ones, and are neither too difficult
nor too easy. A definite answer is always required for each
question. Also, the questions asked covers definitions,
enumerations, discussions, as well as numerical and graphi­
cal solutions to problems ihvolving the theory and practice
of surveying. Questions regarding new terms,, inventions,
and discoveries which have not as yet been widely treated
in textbooks have been avoided. Unless explicitly specified
in the question, no specific approach to a solution is re­
quired when solving problems. A calculator should be used
when taking any of the examinations, however, all portions
of the examination should be taken with books, notes, and
all other references closed.
An examination, which is designed to be taken in not
more than one hour, contains 20 questions which are equal­
ly weighted with a maximum possible score of 1 0 0 %’ for a
correct set of solutions or answers.' The suggested passing
mark for any of the illustrative examinations is 70%, or
obtaining 14 correct answers out of the 20 questions asked.

fXAMlNAUONS vtwv.'.*on0/3
ti.lOM h ATWI
 ILLUSTRATIVE
EXAMINATIONS
U E NO. i : S1® MM@W‘
> (LESSON NOS. I THRU 5)

U E NO. z: KlSSSSWBBKHSM ®® BMM1

(LESSON NOS. 6 THRU II).

U E NO. 3: BB@a§iBaEKf3@Sflf ®®
(LESSON ’ NOS. 12 . THRU 16)

U E NO. 4: aswsassj®K
(LESSON
2@TFffl@
NOS.
®§
17 THRU 2 3 )

U E NO. 5: ®®msm
(LESSON NOS. 24 THRU 2 8 )

U E NO. 6*. ■see[MBBsasssfls w h s

M 3®ffBS®
(LESSON
®® ®®
NOS.
?®"29 THRU 33)

U E NO. 7:
■ 'l ®
®SM
JWM
?H®
S38
(LESSON NOS. 34 THRU 39)

U E NO. 8:
(LESSON NOS. 40 THRU 42)

U E NO. 9: mmmmmmm®
(LESSON NOS. 43 THRU 4 6 )

U E NO. 10: mmmm ?mb®

(LESSON NOS.
0
47 THRU 4 8 )

5.7-
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING LESSON NUMBERS 1 THRU 5

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING SET "A"

Note: Read and understand each statement carefully. Five

words, phrases, or figures follow each statement and only
one of which may be the correct answer. If, however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the given choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the questionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.

1. Surveying is defined as the art and science of deter­

mining angular and linear measurements to establish the
form, extent, and relative position of points, lines, and
areas on or near the surface of the earth or on other extra
terrestrial bodies through

a) pure mathematics and the social sciences

b) applied mathematics and the use of specialized equip­
ment and techniques
c) field observations and measurements
d) cartographic, geodetic, and photogrammetric methods
e) principles of algebra and geometry

2. Plane surveying is that type of surveying in which the

earth is considered to be a flat surface. Distances and
areas involved are of limited extent and the

a) approximate shape of the earth is considered

b) theoretical shape of the geoid is evaluated
c) exact shape of the earth is disregarded
d) spheroidal shape of the earth is considered
e) shape of- the earth is considered a geoid

3. A type of survey which is of wide extent and takes into

account the spheroidal shape of the earth is known as

a) geodetic surveying d) earth surveying

b) plane surveying e) terrestrial surveying
c) geoid surveying
4. A photogrammetric survey makes use of photographs taken
with specially designed cameras either from

a) a ship or an elevated ground•stat ion

b) the ground surface or underwater

>575,
 c) a field or a ^abotatory environment
d ) ta'roap br a scaled drawing
e) airplanes or ground stations

5. An early, surveying instrument having an A-frame with a

plumb line suspended from its apex and was used to ’deter­
mine the horizontal is the

a) merchet , a d) libella
b) charobates e) diOptra
c) astrolabe

6. The meter is now defined as a length equal to

a) 1 /1 0 ,0.00, 000 of the earth’s meridional quadrant

b) 650,736.37 wavelengths of the bright-red light pro­
duced by burning silver electrodes
c ) 39.37 inches
d) 0 . 0 0 1 kilometers
e) 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red light pro­
duced by burning krypton at a speeified energy level
in the spectrum

7. * The International System of Units or SI was promulgated

by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in

a) 1960 ■" . d) 1875

b) 1978 e) 1799 '
c) 1983 .• ' ,

8. The sexagesimal units of angular measurement are the

a) grad, centesimal minute, and centesimal second

b) degree, minute, and second
c) radian,and steradian
d) mil, grad, and.radian
e) hours, minutes, and seconds

9. The number of significant figures in the value 300.00

is
a ) one d ) five
b ) * three e) six
c) two

10. When rounded off to the nearest hundredth, ■ 36.24445

becomes

a) ‘^6.25 dT 36.3
b) 36 i26 e) 36.24 '
c) 36 ..2

11. An error is defined as the -difference between the

/LLusr/fArtvir
iX A M IN A riO N S
 a) true value and the approximate value of a quantity
b) most probable value and the true value
c) true value and the measured value of a quantity
d) two measured values of the same quantity
e) estimated value and the most^ ‘probable value of a
quantity

12. A line, known to be 150.000 m long, is measured .five

times with a steel tape in the following order: 150.004,
149.998, 149.997, 150.005, and 149.996 meters, respect­
ively. The more accurate of the five measurements is the
t
a) 1st measurement d) 4th measurement
b) 2nd measurement e) 5th measurement
c) 3rd measrrement

13. The most probable value of several measurements of a

line is 546.75 m. If ±0.15 represents the probable error of
the mean value, the chances are .even that the true value
a) is equal*to 546.60 m
b) is equal to 546.90 m
c) lies between 546.60 m and 546.75 m
d) lies between 546.75 m and 546.90 m, as it is also
probable that the true value lies outside of these
limiting values '
e ) lies between 546.60 m a n d 1 546.90 m, as it is also
probable that the true value lies outside of ‘ these
limiting values
1
14. If for a particular measurement the probable error 'of
the mean is 0.09 m and the most probable value of the
measurement is 362.70 m, the relative precision would be
•expressed as

a) 1/4030 d) 1:0.09 ,
b) 0.000248 ' e) 1/363
c) -1:362.70

15. Five separate measurements were made of a line and

their ‘degrees of precision computed as follpws: 1st Trial,
1/5000; 2nd Trial, 1/2500; 3rd Trial, 1/6500-; 4th Trial,
3/7000; 5th Trial, 1/10000. The measurement which is of a
higher degree of precision yas the one done in the

a) 1 st trial d) r4th trisJL,

b) ,2nd trial e) 5th tr*al
c) 3rd trial
*
16. The interior angles of a hexagon were observed and re­
corded' as follows: A = 12 2° 31102", B = 123°26'17", C = 130°
05'07", D = 120*15*47", E = 160° 50*35", and *F = 62*53,07»*.
The discrepancy of the measurement is

///u s t N A T IV I
IAAUINA1HW 5t ;
 a) 0*30" d) 2*50"
b) 2*30" e ) 1*30"
c) l*00 *
/
17. In Question 16, the sum of the most probable‘values of
angles A, B, and C is (

a) 376° Oi'46" d) 376® 02*36"

b) 376°03*01" e) 376°04'56"
c) 376#01'21"

♦18. Five measurements were made to determine the length of

a line and Recorded ’as follows: 350.33, 350.22, 3J50.3^0,
350.27, and 350.30 meters. If these measurements were given
weights of 4, 5, 1, 4, and 6 , respectively, the most pro­
bable value of the length measured is

a) 350.26 m i d) 350.27 m
b) 350.29 m e) 350.28 m
c) 350.30 m

19. The base and altitude of a triangular lot were measured

with certain estimated probable errors as follows: b =
215.50 ± 0.18 m and h = 69.40 ±0.16 m. The probable error
in the resulting calculation is

a ) ,±36.67 sq m d) ±0.17 sq m
b) ±0.34 sq m . e) ±7477.85 sq m
c ) ± 0.0288 s q m

20. in Question 19, the true area of the lot probably

4
a) is equal to 7514.52 sq m
}) is equal to 7441.18 sq m
c) falls between 7441.18 and 7477.85 sq m
d) falls between 7477.85 and 7514.52 sq m
e) falls between 7441.18 and 7514.52 sq m

579, IL L U S T R A T IV E
E X A M IN A T IO N S
E L E M E N T A R Y S U R V E Y IN G L E S S O N N U M B ER S 6 TH R U 1 1

M E A SU R E M E N T O F H O R IZ O N T A L D IS T A N C E S SET "A m

Note: Read and understand each statement*carefully. Five

words, phrases, or figures follow each statement and only
one of which may be the correct answdr. If, however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the given choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied, by fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the guestionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.

1. A pace'is defined as the length of a step in walking.

It may be measured from
r
a) heel to toe .d) mid-heel to mid-toe
b) toe to heel . e) tip of toe to tip of heel
c) heel to heel

2. The method of measuring or laying out horizontal dis­

tances by stretching a calibrated tape between two points
and reading the distance indicated on the tape is referred
to as

a) taping d) stadia measurement

b) pacing e) range findi/ig
c) tacheometry »
3. The subtense bar is a convenient and practical deVice
used for quick and accurate measurement of horizontal dis­
tances. It consists of a rounded steel tube through which
runs a thin invar rod and at each end ofi the frame the
target marks are house exactly
•
aj 1 . 0 0 m apart d) 2. 00 m apart
b) 1.50 m apart e) 4.00 m apart
c ) 3.00 m apart

4. The first electronic distance measuring instrument was

the geodetic distance meter (geodimeter) which was deve
loped’in 1948 by a Swedish physicist named
9

a} Dr. T. L. Wadley d) Pierre Vernier

b) Erik Rergstrand e) Hipparchus
c) Sir Edmund Gunter
1 >
5. A special tape made of an alloy •-•of nickel (35%) and
steel (65%) with a very low coefficient of thermal expan-

Unit Exnm No, 2

I t l OX TRA TIVIC
E X A M IN A T IO N S
,5791
 sion, and used only for precise measurements in gfeodetic
work as well as for checking the lengths of other kinds 'of
tape i|ftthe

a) engineer's tape d ) nylon-coated tape

b) fiberglass tape e) builder's tape
c ) invar tape ,.

6. The standard practice of measuring short distances on

uneven and sloping ground to accumulate a full tape length
wherein the tape is held horizontally above ground and
plumbed at one or both ends is referred to as

a) slope taping d) breaking tape

b) horizontal taping e) partial taping
c) incremental taping

*7. Normal. -tension is defined as the applied pull which

will lengthen the tape to equal the

a) decrease in standard pull

b) shortening due to temperature
c) increase in length due to the absence of inter-
mediate supports
d) shortening Caused by sag
e) increase in gravitational forces

8 . A surveyor counted 50, 52, 53, 51, 53, and 51 paces in

walking along a 45-m course laid out oil a concrete pave­
ment. He then took 768, 771, 772, 770, 769, and 770 paces
in walking an unknown distance XY. His pace factor should
be equal to
I
a) 1.148 m/pace d) 0.067 m/pace
b) 0 . 0 0 1 m/pace e) 0.871 m/pace
c) 14 .*904 m/pace
4
9. In Question 8 , the length of XY based on the-pace fac­
tor of the surveyor is equal to

a) 670.67 m d) 51.59 m
b) 883.96 m e ) 715.67 m
c) 11476.08 m

10. Two points, A and B, are established along the same di­
rection from-a theodolite station. If the subtended angle
read on a subtense bar held at A and B are 0°55'20" and 0°
23'44", respectively, the horizontal distance between the
two points is

a) 82.73 m d) 289.70 m
b) 165.45 m e) 124.25 m
c) 206.98 m

l l.L U S T N A T I V e
IMAGINATIONS
 XX. A slope distance of 465.82 m is measured between two
points with a slope angle of 12° 35’. The corresponding
horizontal distance between the points is

a) 101.48 m d) 358.70 m
b) 454.63 m e) 207.14 m
c) 103.98 m

12. A line measured with a 30-m steel tape was recorded as

'325*70 m. If the tape is found to be 30.05 m long during
standardization, the correct length of the line is

a) 325.16 m d) 325‘
.44 m
b) 325.70 m e) 326.24 m
c) 327.45 m

13. A rectangular building 250.00 m by 130.00 m is to be

laid out with a 30-m long steel tape. If during standard­
ization the tape is found to be 30.03 m, the correct length
and width to be laid out should be

' a) 249.75 m by 129.87 m d) 250.00 m by 130.00 m

b) 250.25 m by 130.13 m e) 249.97 m by 129.97 m
c) 249.87 m by 129.75 m

14. A line measured with a 50-mlong steel tape was deter­

mined wO be 645.22 m when .the average temperature during
taping , was 15.75°C. If the tape is of standard .length at
20°C and the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel is
0.0000116/1°C, the correct length of the measured line is

a) 645.23 m , dj .645.19 m
b) 645.22 m e) 645.21 m
c) 645.24 m :
5
1

15. A steel tape with a cross-sectional area of 0.03 cm 2 is

30.00 m long under a pull of 5kg when supported through­
out. It is used in measuring a line 875.63 m long under a
steady pull of 10 kg. Assuming E = 2.0 X 106 kg/cm2, the
elongation of the tape due to increase in tension is

a) 0.0730 m d ) 0.043 m
b) 0.730 m e ) 0.0025 m
c ) 0.50 m

16. In question 15, the correct length of the measured line

is .v
, a ) 875.56 m d) 875.60m
b) 875.63 m e) 875.70 m . \
c ) -875.68 m /
17. 30-m steel tape weighs l-.05 kg and is supported at

a i u sth ah vi
0 X A U IN A U O N H 581,
 its end points and at the 10-m and 2,5-m marks. If"a pull of
6.0 kg is applied at the ends of the tape, the correction
due to sag for a full tape length is

a) 0.038 m d) 0.45 m
b) 0.006 m e) 0.06 ra
c ) 0.050 m

18. In a triangular-shaped lot ABC, the two sides and the

included angle are: CA = 90.95 m, BC = 73.80 m, and angle C
= 43°15’. The length of the remaining side AB is

a) 62.77 m d) 82.38 m
b) 117.13 m e) 81.93 m
c) 153.28 m

19. In Question 18, the relationship between angle C and

the two remaining angles, A and B, of the triangle could be
expressed correctly as

a) A < C >B d )C = A + B
b) A > C >B e )A > C < B
C) C = A -B

20. In the accompanying sketch it is desired to determine

the length of AB across a wide and deep river.

Line AC, which measures 471.48 m, is established perpendi-

cular to AB; CD is similarly established perpendicular to
BC with point D on the prolongation of line AB . If the
length of AD is 322.35 m, the length Of AB is equal to

a) 689.60 m d) 453.40 m
b) 220.39- m e) 517.23 m
c) 389.85 m

illustrative
58id EXAMINATIONS
E L E M E N T A R Y S U R V E Y IN G L E S S O N N U M B ER S 1 2 TH R U 1 6

M EA SU R E M E N T O F V E R T IC A L SET "A"
D IS T A N C E S
*
Note: Read and understand each statement carefully. Five
words, phrases, or figures follow each statement and only
one of which may be the correct answer. If, however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the given choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the questionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.
1. Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly
measuring vertical distances to determine the elevation of
points or their

a) differences in elevation
b) clearances above mean sea level
c) horizontal distances from each other
d) relationship to natural and man-made features
e) respective positions with respect to the true meri­
dian
2. Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which

a) is below the level of natural lakes and reservoirs

b) comes very close to high tide *
c) is usually found midway between high and low tides
d) deviates by about 0.5 m to 1.0 m from the lowest
tide level
e) is determined by averaging the height of the sea's
surface for all its tide stages over a period of one
month
3. The elevation of a point is the vertical distance

a) below,mean sea level

b) above or below the level line
c) measured from the lowest point on the ground
d) above mean sea level or any other selected datum
e) above or below mean sea' level or any other selected
datum
4. Direct leveling is the commonly employed method of
determining the elevation of points some distance apart by
a series of setups of a leveling instrument along a se­
lected route. It is said to be the most precise method of
leveling and is used when

Unit Exam No. 3

IL L U S T R A T IV E
E X A M IN A T IO N S ,583,
 a) a high degree of accuracy is required
b) quick measurements are needed
c) it is necessary to obtain a profile of the existing
ground surface
d) vertical angles apd three intercepts on. a rod can be
obtained
e) leveling across a wide river or a deep ravine

5. If in a given locality the elevation of points A and B

are 247.50 m and 200.00 nt, respectively, the value 47.50 m
represents their

a) datum difference d) vertical clearance

bj elevation factor e) .difference in elevation
c) datum correction

6. Reciprocal leveling is commonl-y employed when leveling

across a wide river, a deep ravine, or across canyons and
gullies where it would be difficult or impossible to

a) locate a reference bench mark

b) determine the north-south line
c) set up an advantageous instrument station
d) read vertical angles and differences in elevation
e) maintain a foresight and a backsight distance of
nearly equal lengths

7. Any surveying instrument may be employed i n . stadia

leveling as long as it can be used to measure vertical
angles and Is ^quipped with the standard cross hairs apd
.
a) an inverting eyepiece d ). stadia hairs *
b) a compensator e) an erecting eyepietre
c) a Roelof’s prism
8. The dumpy level is very identical to the wye level. The
only distinct difference between these two instruments is
in the manner by which

a) they are used in the field

b) their telescopes are attached to the supporting le­
vel bar
c) the image sighted appears on -the eyepiece
d) the instruments are set up and leveled
e) their level vials are positioned9*

9. This small device is attached to the leveling rod when

extremely long sights make direct reading of the rod dif­
ficult or impossible. It may be moved up or down the rod
under the direction of the instrumentman. The device refer­
red to is called a ,

a) rod ribbon d) hand level

15 8‘ IL L U S T H A T IV C
f X A M IN A T IO N S
 b) target e) laser system
c) rod level

10- The cross hairs consists of a pair of lines whi*ch are

perpendicular to each other. They are used to

a) determine stadia intercept

b) project the center of the instrument
c) define the instrument’s line of sight
d) check for effects of parallax arid refraction
e) determine the effect of the earth’s curvature
11- A backsight reading of 2.73 m is taken on point A and
subsequently a foresight r fading of 1.35 m is tak-en on
point B from a level station established midway between the
two points. The difference in elevation between points A
and B is

a ) 1.38 m d) 4.11 m . .
b) 4.08 m e ) 1.35 m
c) 2.73 m

12. In Question 11, if the elevation of A is 386.70 m above

mean sea level, the elevat on of B should be

a) 389.43 m d) 390.81 m
b) 388.05 m e ) 388.08 m
c) 390.78 m

13. The two-peg test is used to determine if the line of

sight of an engineer’s level is in adjustment, and the
following rod readings are taken: with instrument setup
near A, backsight on A is 1.623 m, foresight on B is 2.875
m; with instrument setupnear B, backsight on B is 1.622 m,
and foresight on A is 0.362 m. The correct rod reading on A
to give a level line of sight with the instrument still
setup near B should be

a) 1.256 m d) 1.614 m
b) 2.878 m e) 1.630 m
c ) 0.366 m1
4

14. In Question 13, in order to adjust the line of sight,

the horizontal cross hair should be moved

a) downward by 0.894*m d) downward by 1.252 m

b) upward by 0.004 m e) downward by 0.004 m
c) upward by 2.516 m

15. In the two-peg test of a dumpy level, the following

observations are taken: with level setup at M {midway
between A and B),* the rod readings on A and B are 1.155 m‘
and 1.770 m, respectively. With level at P, the rod reading
m Uftr*Hnvr
tM A HIN A T 10
Alt ,5 0 5 ,
6n A is 2.‘423 m and that on B is 2.999 m. If point P is
located 1.67 m from A along the extension of line AB and
76.910 m from B, the correct rod reading (d') on the far
r odv for a horizontal line of sight (with the level still
setup at P) should be

a) 3.039 m d) 2.422 m
b) 2.424 m e ) 2.999 m
c) 2.359 m

16. In Question 15, the correct rod reading (c *) pn the

near rod for a horizontal line of sight (with the level
still setup at P) should be «

a) 2.959 m d) 3.039 m
b) 2.422 m e) 2.999 m
c) 2.424 m
17. In Question 15, the line of sight is
a) horizontal d) inclined to the left
b) inclined upward e) inclined to the right
’c) inclined downward

18. The combined effect of the earth's curvature and re­

fraction on a level sight of 1200 m is

a) 0.972 m d) 0.005 m •
b) 0.081 m e) 0.097 m
c) 0.054 m '
j

19. A fishing vessel with a green light on its deck, 7.5 m

above the water, disappears from the sight of a person on
shore whose eye level measures 1.30 m above the water.
Neglecting the effect of waves, the distance of the vessel
from the man on shore is
• i
a) 14.93 km. d) 10.54 km
b) 130.37 km e) 6.15 km
c) 4.39 km

2 0 . A-woman on shore standing close to the sea water's edge

looks out toward the direction of the sea. If her eyes
measure 1.525 m above sea level, her visible horizon, neg­
lecting the effect of waves, should be about
' .
a) 4.75 km away d) 22.73 km away
b) ’0.21 km away * e) 1.63 km away
c ) 0.04 km away * '

■ i...
___ . tlL U S T H A T t v i
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING LESSON NUMBERS 17. THRU 23

LEVELING METHODS SET "A"

Note: Read and understand each statement carefully. Five

words, phrases, or figures follow.each statement and only
one of which may be the correct answer. If, however, an
answer is not‘listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the given choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by fully illustra­
ted ‘ solutio-ns in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the questionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.

1. Differential leveling is the process of determining the

difference in elevation between two or more points some
distance apart. It requires a series of set ups of the
instrument ‘ along a general route and, for each set up, a
rod reading is taken back to the point of known elevation
and forward to a

a) permanent bench mark d) terminal point

b) temporary bench mark e) point of unknown elevation
c) change point
»
2. A bench mark is a fixed point of reference whose

a) elevation is determined by trigonometric leveling

b) elevation is always below mean sea level
c) location is marked by range poles *
d) elevation is either known or assumed
e) position is used as the first instrument station in
any leveling operation

3. A backsight is a reading taken on a rod held on a point

of known or assumed elevation. It is a measure of the
vertical distance from the established line of sight to the
point sighted. Backsights are frequently referred to as
plus sights since they are added to the elevation of points
being sighted to

a)locate a turnihg point

b)obtain the difference in elevation
c)select the next suitable level station
d)determine the height of the instrument
e)determine the elevation of the terminal point
- t
4 . A reading taken on a rod held on a point whose eleva­
tion is to be determined is called a
* i

Unit Exam No. 4

 a) foresight d) release point
b) backsight e) sight reading
c) height of instrument

5. A turning point is an intervening point between two

bench marks upon which point foresight and backsight rod
readings are taken. It is sometimes referred to as a.

a) level point d) change point

b) reference point e) elevation point
c) BS-FS point

6. The height of instrument, which is sometimes called the'

height of collimation, is the elevation of the line of
sight of an instrument above or below a selected reference
datum. It is determined by »
a) subtracting the rod reading on the backsight from the
elevation of the point on which the sight- is taken
b) adding the rod reading on the foresight to the
elevation of the point on which the sight is taken
c) subtracting the rod reading on the turning point
from the elevati oh of the bench mark '
d )*adding the rod reading on the backsight to the
elevation of the point on which the-sight is taken
e) measuring the height of the instrument above the
ground where it is set up

7. A profile is a curved line which graphically portrays

the intersection of a vertical plane with the surface of
the earth. It depicts

a) ground elevations of selected critical points along

.a surveyed line and the horizontal distances between
these points a
b) stationings and the location of points backsighted
as well as those foresighted.
c) horizontal exaggeration to accentuate the location
of points
d) all natural and man-made features along the surveyed
route , .
e) the correct position of the reference datum used

8 . The process of drawing the vertical scale for a profile

much larger than the horizontal scale in order to accent­
uate the differences in elevation is referred to as

a ) scale uplifting d) elevation highlighting

b) vertical enlargement e) horizontal'exaggeration
c ) vertical exaggeration 9

9. The aneroid barometer functions by using an airtight

box -which responds to changes in air pressure. It is well

IL LU S TR A TIV E
.S?PwgWHMHOMI EXAM INATIONS
 suited for ordinary leveling purposes where only approxi­
mate elevations are required. They are, however, not desi­
rable when
*' ■' '
• ;•-/
a) used near metallic objects .
b) temperatures are below freezing point
c) pressures in the area are changing rapidly
d) used 'in rough or mountainous terrain
e) pressures in the area change very slowly

1 0 . Given the following differential level notes:

STA BS HI FS ELEV A T IO N
BM -A 1. 7 3 3 4 6 .5 0 m
TP i 2 .5 0 1 .8 5
TP 2 2 .7 6 1.05
TP 3 3. 1 5 \‘ 1.20
BM -B 1 .9 3 0 .7 4
T P ,4 1 .67 0 .9 8
TP 5 2 . 12 1. 8 *
BM -C 1.77

The station or point along the level circuit which has the
highest elevation is

a ) BM-A ' d) TP3

b) TP 5 e > BM-C
c) BM-B

11. In Question 10, the difference in elevation between BM-

B and BM-C is
«
a ) 5.30 m d) 0.78 m
b) 1.13 m e ) 0.97 m
c ) 6.43 m
12. The following set of level notes is to be completed by
employing the rise and fall method

ROD R E A D I N G S REDUCED ROD

R IS E FALL
BS IF S FS LEVEL STA

£ .4 5 2 2 3 .7 5 m BM -X
1. 7 3 9
1.05 b
2 .3 8 , c
3 .0 2 d
r .6 0 BM -Y

Based on the data given in the accompanying tabulation, the

sum cf all values to be tabulated under the "RISE" and
"FALL" columns shduld, respectively, be equal to

/
0
/IUMfffAfIVi ,50®
 a ) 2.45 m and 2.60 m d ) 1.97 m and 1.82 m
b) 8.18 ra and 5.05 m e) 8.18 m and 3.79 m
c ) 1.82 m and 1.97 m

13. In Question 12, the difference between the reduced le­

vel of point a and the reduced level of point d is

a) 0.57 m d) 0.42 m
b) 0.72 m e ) 1.29m
c ) 0.30 m

14. If a turning point along a profile level route measures

205.73 m beyond station. 10 + 33.5, its stationing should be
indicated as ;

a) 2 + 39.23 d) 8 + 27.77
b) 12 + 39.23 e) 1 + 827.77
c) 1 -I- 239.23
15. In the accompanying sketch, a vertical angle of -14°30'
is read to a target 1.75 m above point M. The measured inc­
lined distance (S) is 644.15 m and the elevation of point K
is 320.70 m above mean sea level.

If the heigit of instrument at K is 1.27 m, the elevation

of M, considering the effects of the earth's curvature and
atmospheric refraction, is

a ) 48 2.43 m d) 158.91 rn

e;Qr\ U H J S 1N A 1i v r
f X A N IN A T !O N $
 b) 162.47 m e) 158.97 m
cV 478.93 m

16. In leveling across a river, reciprocal level readings

were taken between two points A and B. From a setup near A:
on A, 0.994 and 0. 992 m; on B, 2.076, 2.077, 2. 078, and
2 .077 :
m. At the setup near B: on B, 2.550 and 2.548 m; on
A, 1.452, 1.463, 1. 464, and 1.463 m. From the observed data
it can be determine that

a ) B is 1.085 m below A d) A is below B by 1. 084 m

b) B is 1.085 m above A e ) A and B are of the same
c) A is above B by 1.088 m elevation
17 . In Question 16, if the elevation of point A is 246.850
m, the elevation of point B should be

a ) 247.935 m d) 245.763 m
b) 245.764 m e ) 245.765 m
c) 247.938 m

18. An inverse method of leveling Is executed between two

existing concrete structures and across a concrete wall
'located midway between the two structures. All rod read­
ings, as indicated in the accompanying sketch, were taken
with che rod’held upside down.

,, m ' e d$ta portrayed, if the elevation of A (bottom of

elevat^Cr^ e beam o£ the first structure) is 240.05 m, the
c.+.rn„1_lon of the bottom of the concrete beam of the second
ore (indicated as C) should be

b! ? ? 4 , 6 8 m d) 238.78 m
r ^°-42 m e) 242.40 m
C) 238 -68 m

lishAthe° Se(3 looP o£ differential levels was* run to estab-';

elevations of several bench marks and the follow-

IXAMINAIIOHN mrn- ™ 5 9 | ,
H I U N I H A t IV l
 ing results were obtained

DISTANCE OBSERVED
POINT*
FROM BM-< elevation

BM-< 0 . 0 km <8 6 . 6 0 m
BM-2 , 3.2 < 9 6. 0 3
BM-3 4.8 < 99.< 0
BM-4 9.6 < 8 2. 5 7
BM-5 <2.8 < 7 7.43
BM-6 <6.0 < 88. 9 5
BM-< 22.4 < 86. 75

The difference in elevation between the adjusted elevations

of BM-6 and BM-4 is

a) 6.38 m d) 21-.73 m
b) 6.33 in e) 9.26 m
c) 0.05 m

20. Several lines of levels are run over different routes

from BM-A to establish the elevation of BM-B. The lengths
of these routes are shown in the accompanying sketch and
the observed elevations of BM-B through each route were
recorded as follows: Route 1, 379.855 m; Route 2, 379.904
m; Route 3, 379.927 m; Route 4, 379.775 m; and Route 5,
379.910 m.

The most probable.elevation of BM-B should be

a ) 379 .874 m d) 379 .795 m

b) 379 .898 m e ) 379 .798 m
c ) 379 .,895 m

IL L U S T R A T IV E
E X A M IN A T IO N S
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING LESSON NUMBERS 24 THRU 29
. ',.y ,' - -v.
. . ■ ‘ f■
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES AND DIRECTIONS SET "A"
> ' ’■
. ■
Note: Read and understand each statement carefully. Five
words, phrases, or figures follow each statement and only
one of which may be the correct answer. If, however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices .given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the give:: choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical-compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by f:ul» illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the guestionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.
1. The true meridian is the generally adapted reference
line in surveying practice. This line passes through the
geographic north and south poles of the earth and tha
observer's position. Since all true meridians converge at
the poles, they are

a) parallel to each other

b) perpendicular to magnetic lines of force of the
earth
c) coincident with grid meridian lines
d) not parallel to each other
e) deviated at higher latitudes

2. The magnitude of an angle can be expressed in different

unit systems which, are basically derived from the division
of the circumference of a circle. One such system used is
the centesimal system in which the unit of measure is the

a) degree d) steradian
b) mil e ) radian
c ) grad

3. A common method employed in designating the direction

of a line is by the use of azimuths«, The azimuth of a line
is its direction as given by the angle between the meridian
and the line measured

a) counterclockwise from the north or south branch cf

the meridian
b) in a clockwise direction from either the north or
south branch of the meridian
c) from either the east or west branch of the reference
parallel in a clockwise direction
d) in a counterclockwise direction from the north
branch of the meridian
e) only clockwise from t(ie south branch of the meridian

Unit Exam No. 5

wixLAmts
tr
i*Ar
MArt
:ov
n£
s
4. The compass is a hand-held instrument for dietermining
the horizontal direction of a line with reference to the

a) magnetic meridian d) astronomic meridian

!b) grid meridian e) assumed meridian
c) true meridian.

5. The horizontal angle and direction by which the needle

of a compass deflects from the true meridian at any parti-*
cular locality is called the

a) local attraction d) cyclic fluctuation

bj magnetic dip e) magnetic declination
c) secular variation

6. A chart or a map which shows lines connecting points

where the magnetic declination of the compass heedle is the
same at a given time is called

a) a fluctuation chart , d) a declination diagram

b) an isogonic chart e) a magnetic chart
c) an agonic map

7. A series of lines of known lengths and directions which

begin or end at points whose positions have been fixed by
other surveys of higher precision is referred to as
a) a closed traverse
b) an open traverse
c) a deflection angle traverse
d) an angle to the right traverse
e) a directional traverse

8 . When adjusting an open compass traverse there are two

important steps to perform. The first step is to determine
which among the traverse lines is free from local attract­
ion, and the second step is to perform the adjustment of
successive lines by
a) starting from the line with the largest difference
in its forward and back bearing angle
b) noting the differences in the length of each line
c) starting from either end of the unaffected line
d) first determining the traverse misclosure and thert
adjusting the interior angles t
e) starting from the first or last line of the traverse

9. An angular measurement of 151.0000 grads is equivalent

to

a) 2-413 mils d) 1.35° 54'

b) 2.703 rad e) 2316 mils
c) 135.85 deg
10. The equivalent of 270°00* in tfie centesimal system is
a) 300 grads d) 270.00 degrees
b) 4800 mils e) 15.5500 steradians
c) 4.712389 radians

11. The forward bearing of a line is N45°00’E. Its back

azimuth measured from north is equal to

a) S 45° 001W d) 3750 mils

b) 224°30* e) 50 grads
c) 250 grads

12. The azimuth from north of traverse line AB is 225°00’.

If the succeeding line BC has a bearing of S30*00'E, the-
deflection angle at station B is

a) 75 degrees to the left

b) 45 degrees counterclockwise
c) 0 deg 30 min to the left
d) 45 degrees clockwise
e) 75 degrees to the right

13. The true azimuth of a line measured from south is 154°

30’. If the .magnetic declination within the locality is 2°
15' west, the magnetic bearing which should be used to
retrace the line in the field is

a) S23° 15 'W d) N23<’l5,W

, b ) N25® 301W e) N27°45'W
c) N23#15'E

14. The magnetic azimuth reckoned from nor-th of a line is

205° 40'. If the magnetic declination is 3°15' east, the
true bearing of the line is

a) S28° 551W d) S25°40’E

b) S25°40'W e) S28°55'E
c) S22°25'W

15. In an old survey performed in 1965, a line AB had a

magnetic bearing of S75°10'W when the magnetic declination
was 4°30* west. In a new survey performed in 198 7h.., the
declination in the same locality changed to 2°50' east. The
magnetic bearing of AB in 1987 should be

a) N6 7 °50'E d) N70°40'E
b) S70 °40'W e) S67°50'W
c) S7 3 #30 1W

16. Given i’n the accompanying sketch are_ the. observed

forward and back bearings of an open compass.traver. -

•7./VA.VUV * ▼
 a) N75* 25'E d) S75°25'W
b) S75*15'W e) N75*15'E
c) N75° 20'E

18. The observed magnetic bearings (forward and back) of a

closed compass traverse are as follows: AB, Fwd = N55*30'E,
Back * S55* 45 'W; BC, Fwd = S58* 40'E, Back = N58*3Q'W; CD,
Fwd = S14® 30'E, Back = N14*00'W; DE, Fwd = S77*10’W, Back =
K77*10'E; and EA, Fwd = N40*20'W, Back = S40°15'E. The mis-
closure of the given traverse is

a) 0° 12 * d) 1*12'
b) 2° 30* e ) 0° 45'
c) 1°00‘

In Question 18, the adjusted interior angle at station

C is»

a) 136’00' d) 135® 48 *
b) 137*00' e ) 136*12 *
c) 136* 48' *
-•
In Question 18, the adjusted forward bearing of line CD
is

a> S14* 12' E d) S14*00 'E '•

b) S14° 30' E e ) N14 *12'W
c) N14*00»W •

KQC
gj U M M
ILLUirKATlV*
f t / W M A I tO H g
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING LESSON NUMBERS 29 TmtU 33
THE ENGINEER'S TRANSIT AND THEODOLITE SET "A"
N o t e < Read and understand each statement carefully. Five
words, phrases, or figures follow each statement and only,
one of which may be the correct answer. If, however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on ell the given choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the questionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.

1. A vernier is a small graduated mechanical device at­

tached and made to slide alpng linear or circular scales in
order to
a) avoid parallax when reading the horizontal circle
b) project the center of the instrument over the point
on which it is set up
c) increase to a higher degree of accuracy the readings
obtained in such scales
d) reduce the effects of friction and magnetism
e) read forward or back bearings conveniently

2. The process of measuring horizontal angles about a

■point is termed
a) transiting d) double sighting
b) indexing e) closing the horizon
c) double centering

3. The purpose of the adjustment of the standards of an

engineer"s transit is to make the

a) axis of the telescope level parallel to the line of

sight
b) axis of the telescope bubble tube parallel to the
line of sight
c) line of sight perpendicular to the'horizontal axis
of the telescope
d) horizontal axis of the instrument perpendicular to
its vertical axis
e) axis of each plate bubble lie in a plane'perpendicu­
lar to the vertical axis of the instrument- »

4. In a directional theodolite the horizontal circle re­

mains fixed during a series of observations.* The tele-
» #

Unit Exam No. 6

.597.
 scope is sighted on each of the points and

a) directions rather than angles to these points are

read on the circle
b) angles rather than directions are read on the circle
c) bearings are read on the circle
d) a horizontal angle is measured as many times by ad-
ding values successively on the graduated circle
e) horizontal angles are measured by repetition •

5. To leS/el the theodolite the plate bubble is placed pa­

rallel to two of the three leveling screws and the bubble
is brought to the center by manipulating these two screws.'
The instrument is then rotated 90 degrees and the bubble is
again centered .

a) by using the same two screws

b) but this time using only the third screw
c) but this time using one of the tripod legs
d) ,by means of the tribrach
e) by means of the telescoping plumbing rod

6 . In the equation, LC = s/n, s represents the value of

the smallest space or division on the main scale and n re­
presents the number of

a) divisions on the main scale

b) spaces on the extension scale
c) divisions on the vernier
d) spaces on the main scale
e) coincidences visible on the vernier

7. The double vernier of a transit consists of two parts -

a vernier on the left and another identical vernier on the
right. Each one is graduated and runs in an opposite di­
rection from the common index point. The vernier on the
left is used when reading

a) counterclockwise circle graduations

b) azimuths reckoned from south
c) clockwise circle graduations
d) either clockwise or counterclockwise circle gradua­
tions (
e) directions measured from the north branch of the me-
r idian

8 . The value of the smallest division on the main scale of

a horizontal circle is graduated to 1/6 of a degree. If
there are 60 divisions on the vernier, the least count or
fineness of reading is

a) 10 minutes d ) 10 seconds
b) 0.1667 seconds e) 15 minutes

*\QO
h rV V H M H M M
IL L U S T R A T IV E
E X A M IN A T IO N S
 c) 5 seconds

9. The setting o f va vernier on the horizontal circle of an

engineer's transit is illustrated in the accompanying
sketch.

The least count or fineness of reading for this particular

vernier and scale is

a) 01 min d) 30 sec
b) 10 sec ! e) 30 min
c) 1 0 min

10. In Question 9, if the dashed lines indicate the coin­

cidence, the, readings on the outer and inner circles,
respectively, are

'a) 168*00' and 177°30» d) 175*00' and 182°30«

b) 174*00' and 185*14' e) 174*46' and 185*14'
c) 185*00' and 174*46’
«
11. For the vernier and scale shown in the accompanying
illustration, the least count and the readirtg on the inner
circle, respectively, are

a) 30 sec and 209*58'30" d) 30 sec and 150*01'30”

b) 20 sec and 150*01'30" e) 40 sec and 210°00'00''
c) 15 sec and 150*00’00"

,5 9 9 1
12. Given in the accompanying sketch Is a double vernier
set on the horizontal scale of an engineer's transit.

a) 30 min and 15 d) 20 min and 30

b) 15 min and 45 e) 15 sec and 45
c) 15 sec and 15

13. Given in the accompanying sketch is a simulated setting

of a double vernier on the horizontal circle .of a transit

If the dashed lines shown indicate the coincidences, the

clockwise and counterclockwise angles read are, respect­
ively#
a) 64*00* and 296*00' d) 61*35' and 298*25'
b) 298*25' and 6.1*35* e) 301* 35' and 78*25'
cj 64° 00' and 310*30'

14. A. vertical angle is measured to a signal mounted on top

of a tower. With the transit telescope in direct position
the reading on the circle is +22*32'. If the reading on the
circle is +22*38' with the telescope in reversed’, position,
the index error and the index correction, respectively, are

a')* -06' and +06'* 4) +03' and -03'

b) -03' and +03* e) -03' and -03*
' c) +06' and -06' i

600,..-,
 1 $. Jf*Vertical angle measured by a single observation with
v a transit is recorded as -13*56'. If t^e index error is +0*
04', the correct value of the angle is

a) -13*52' d) -13*56'
b) -13*58' e) -14w00'
c) -13®54'

16. The horizontal angles about point P ware measured and

recorded as follows: = 17*30*10", -e* = 22*18'02", *83 =
87* 43'33", -e-4 = 103* 10'24", -8 * = 48* 50'44", and 8 * = 80*27'
01 " .

The horizen misclosure is

a) +0*00*06" d) -0*00*06"
b) +0 ° 06'00" e) -0*06*04"
C) -0°00'04"

17. In Question 16, assuming that the error is the same

for each angle, the sum of the adjusted values of the first
three listed angles is

a) 127*31*35" d) 127*31*46"
b) 127*31'42" e) 127*31'48"
c) 127*31'41" .% •

18. A 30-sec transit'was used to measure a horizontal angle

by repetition ten times. If the first reading was 125*35*
30" and the final value was 175*57'00", the average value
of the measured angle is

a) 125*35*36," d) 125*35'30"
b) 125*35*42" e) 125*35*15"
c) 125*36 *00"
m u m HA1 t y t
,601,
19. A horizontal angle was measured by repetition six time*
with an engineer’s transit. Prior to measurement, the hori­
zontal scale ,was set at 0* 0 0 ' and the reading on the scale;
was 84°38’ after the angle was measured once. If the final
reading was 14,7*42', the average value of the angle mea7
sured is v

.a) 84*37' d) 84*39'

b) 84*38' e) 84*36'
c) 84*35 *
'} . 4

20. Angle ..Omega was measured with a transit four times >ith
telescope direct and four times with telescope reversed*
starting with an initial backsight setting of 0*05'. If
after the first and eight measurements the readings on the
horizontal scale were 89*56' and 3 5 9 * 5 7 ^respectively, the
average measured value of Omega is
a) 89*59' d) 90*00'15"
■, b) 90*00 ' e) 89° 59'30"
c) 89*58'
E L E M E N T A R Y S U R V E Y IN G L E S S O N N U M B ER S 3 4 TH R U 3 9

T R A V E R S IN G AND T R A V E R S E C O M P U T A T IO N S SET "A"

' :, ' . i 'v-
Note; Nead and understand each statement carefully. Five
words, phrases, or figures follow' each statement and only
one of Which may be the correct answer. If, however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the given choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the questionaire,
and submit if back upon completion of the examination.

1. The latitude of a line is its projection onto the refe­

rence meridian while the departure of a line is its pro­
jection onto the
a) north-south line d) reference parallel
b) equatorial axis e) polar axis
c) north-east line
2. The procedure of computing the linear error of closure
and applying corrections* to the individual latitudes and
departures far the purpose of providing a mathematically
closed figure is referred to as
a ) jtriangulation d) side adjustment
b) traverse adjustment e) angle adjustment
c) error distribution
•
3. The compass rule is a very popular rule for adjusting a
closed traverse. It is based on the assumption that

a) the angular measurements are more precise than the

linear measurements
b) the .errors in traversing are accidental
c) all lengths were measured with equal care and all
angles taken with approximately the same precision*
d) the linear measurements are more precise than the
angular measurements
e) the angular and linear errors in traversing are
accidental , ,
• f.

4. An important rule*in traverse adjustment is stated as

follows: "The correction to be applied to the latitude .(or
departure) of any course is equal to the total closure in
latitude (or departure) multiplied by the ratio .of the"
length of the course to the total length of the traverse."
This
* rule is knownt as the

Unit Exam No. 7

U L \ l * T N A T IV t
K K A N IN A rtO M S ,bo$
 a ) transit rule d) theory, of probability
b) Bowditch rule e) principle of least squares
c) Crandall rule

5. The method of adjusting a traverse by the transit rule

is similar to the method using the compass rule. The main
difference is that with the transit rule the latitude and
departure corrections depend on the length of the latitude
and departure of the course, respectively, instead of both
depending on the

a) error of closure d) length of the course

b) angular measurements e) length of the side of
c) length of the traverse error

6. The method of least squares is a mathematically exact

method. It is the best way of adjusting survey data parti­
cularly very precise measurements. This method is employed
to simultaneously adjust the angular and linear measure­
ments to make the sum of the squares of the residuals a
minimum. It is based on the

a) theory of relativity
b) theory of probability
c) skill and accuracy of observation
d) principle of actuarial mathematics
e) variations and accuracies of adjusted observations
and positions

7. The graphical method is essentially an application of

the compass rule. It provides a simple graphical means of
making traverse adjustments. In this method each traverse
point is moved in a direction parallel to the drror of
closure by an amount proportional to

a) the length of each course

b) one-half the perimeter of the traverse
c) the length of the longest course in the traverse
d) the length of the shortest course in the traverse
e) the distance along the traverse from the initial
point to the given point

8 . A closed traverse proceeds in a counterclockwise di­

rection and the angle to the right at each station were
measured and recorded as follows: A, 160*19'; B, 49*26'; C,
115*18'; D, 127*32'; and E, 88*15'. The-error of closure Is

a) 50 min d) 40 min
b) 10 min e) 30 min9
c) 20 min

9. In a closed traverse the measured length- of line AB is

245.08 m. If the bearing of the line is S40*35'E, the
 latitude of the line should be
a) -186.13 m
b) +159.4f m d) -159.44 m
e) +186.13 m
c) -175.64 m

10o The length of a traverse 1 i n * » r»r» . c .n

magnetic azimuth from south of the line is ^ M ® * ? . ? " ' 5 the

The departure of CO is

a) +284.21 m
b) +144.05 m
c) -139.23 m
11. In a given closed traverse the sum of the north
latitudes exceeds the sum c£ the south latitudes by 2.49 m
and the sum of the west departures exceeds the sum of the
east departures by 5.66 m. The linear error of closure is

a) 3.30 m d) 6.18 m
b) 2 . 8 5 m e) 5.57 m
c) 5 . 0 8 m

12. In Question 11, the bearing of the side of error is

a) N23® 44'56"E d) N66°15’14"W

b) S 6 6 °15’14"E e) S23°44,56"E
cj N23* 44 ’56 !iW

13. Given the following data for a closed traverse

LATITUDE DEPARTURE
LINE
+N -S . +E -w
AB 18.01 3 1 8 . 76
BC 551.14 15.23
CD 80.81 409.36
DE 190.47 H I . 82
EA 302.58 222.t3
Sums + 5 6 9 . 1 5 m - 5 7 3 : 8 6 m + 5 4 0 . 89m - 5 3 6 . 4 1 m

If the total length of the traverse is 1885.00 m, the re­

lative error of closure or precision of the survey is

a) 1:275 d) 1/290
b) 0.004 e) .1:500
c) 1/2900

14. Given the following data for a transit tape purvey:

LATITUDE DEPARTURE
COURSE LENGTH
(m) +N - S +E -w
AB 19 7.20 119.09 i 57.16
BC 372.3 1 372.28 4.54
CD i 65.03 1. 16 164.63
DA 242.50 242.16 1 2.99
Sums 977.04 +372.28 -362.41 + 1 6 9. 1 7 -170.15

By applying the compass rule, the corrections, to be applied

respectively to the latitude and departure of course AB are

a ) 1.60 m and 0-45 m d ) 1.99 m and 0.20 m

b) 0,45 nt and 1.60 m e ) 0 . 5 6 m and 1.39 m
q) 1.76 m and 1.50 m

E X A M IN A T IO N S

_ _
 15. Using the given data in Question 14 and employing the
transit rule, the adjusted latitude and adjusted departure
of course AB, respectively, are

a) -120.69 m and -157.36 m

b) -117.49 m and -157.61 m
c) -120.69 m and -156.71 m
d) -117.10 m and -157.36 m
e) -121.08 m and -156.96 m

16. In a closed traverse, the adjusted latitude and adjus­

ted departure of course AB are +266.68 m and -121.54 m,
respectively.

The length of AB should be equal to,

a ) 237.97 m d) 53.68 m
b) 293.07 m e) 305.70 m
c ) 387.04 m .
17. In Question 16, the adjusted azimuth from south
course should be

a ) 155° 301 d) 114° 45'

b) 24° 30 ' e ) 20 40 161
c ) 335° 30 1
18. Given in the accompanying tabulation are tha adjusted
latitudes and adjusted departures of a closed traverse. If
the X and Y coordinates of corner A are 250.50 and 725.35
meters, respectively, the X and Y coordinates of corner D
are, respectively,

a) 357.11 m and 997.16 m d) 831.96 m and 522.31 m

. U L U S W A T lV C I, ' C \7
C X A H iM A T IO N S 3 I 1
 b) 522.31 m and 831.96 m e) 106.61 m and 271.81 m
c) 464.76 m and 1040.24 m
ADJ. LATITUDE ADJ. DEPARTURE
LINE
♦N - S +E . -w
AB 305.70 125.50
BC 101.44 169.39
CD 97.65 43.06
DA i 06.61 271.81
Sums + 3 0 5 . 7 0 m - 3 0 5 . 7 0 m + 3 1 4 . 8 9 m - 31 4 . 8 9 m
'
19. The X and Y coordinates of two corners of a traverse
are: A(-123.45 m, +105.70 m) and B{+163.08 m, +230.17 m).
The length of course AB should be equal to

a) 130.63 m d) 338.20 m
b) 256.75 m e) 306.14 m
c ) 312.40 m

20. In Question 19, the bearing of course AB is

a) N66®31 *E d) S23° 29 1W
b) N23*29 ®E e) S 6 6 ®31’W
c) N17°40'E

60Snmmoi
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING LESSON NUMBERS 40 THRU 42

OMITTED MEASUREMENTS SET "A"

Note; Read and understand each statement carefully. P'ive

words, phrases, or figures follow each statement and only
one of which may he th|e correct answer. If, however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the gi^en choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the guestionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.

1. When the length or direction of a line within a closed

traverse cannot be determined by field observation, these
missing quantities may be determined analytically to obtain
a complete set of notes for the traverse provided

a) there are only three or more unknown quantities

b) they do not exceed two unknown quantities
c) the sides with unknown quantities are parts of an
adjusted open traverse •
d) the sides with unknown quantities are non-adjoining
e) the linear error of closure is less than the square
root of the total length of the traverse

2. When the two sides of a closed traverse are non-adjoin­

ing, the determination of the unknown quantities is under­
taken with an added graphical solution. For example, a line
(or lines) may be moved from one location to a second
location parallel with the first. This principle is adapted
since the

a) area of the traverse remains constant

b) latitude and departure of any of the lines moved
remains unchanged
c) coordinates of all points or corners defining the
traverse will correspondingly be adjusted
d) linear error of (Closure will remain invariable
e) precision in the computations will not be affected
' l
3. Whether the sides of a closed traverse with unknown
quantities are adjoining or non-adjoining, it must be defi­
nite that the algebraic sum of the latitudes and the alge­
braic sum of the departures must be zero,

a) and correspondingly the sum of the residuals 'must

al^o be a minimum

Unit Exam No. S )

K

,609,
t
 b) and the length of each course is proportional to the
.total length of the traverse
c) provided the sides are arranged >in proper order or
sequence - ' '
d) regardless of the order in which the sides are
placed
e) and the area of the transformed figure is propor­
tional to the originally computed area
/'
4. Given the following tabulated data for a closed* tra­
verse in which the length and bearing of course GD are un­
known. ;'

LATITUDE DEPARTURE
LENGTH
COURSE BEARING
(m) ♦N -s +E -W

AB 255.75 " N 0 4*3 0'E 2 5 4 .9 6 2 0 .0 7

BC 410.06 N42° I5 'E 3 0 3 .5 3 2 7 5.7 1
CD Unknown Unknown (Unki iown) (Unki lown)
DE 852.65 S 30* 19* W 736.05 4 3 0 .4 0
EA 230.28 N46*45'W 1 5 7.78 167.73

The length of course CD is

a) 303.00 m d) 30^.70 ™ •
b) 322.13 m e) 1 6 <81 m
c ) 17.95 m
5. In Question 4, the bearing of course CD, rounded to the
nearest minute, is

N 86 °15 'W d) N 86 #15’

b) N03° 45'E e) S03° 45'W
c) S03°45'E
ketch for a closed traverse in
6. Given the accompanying 3 of line DA are unknown
which the length and bearing

]own i
own d

i6 |0 .

L ___
The length of DA is

a) 954.48 m •d) 658.45 m

b) 564.18 m e ) 717.94 m
c) 844.14 m

7. In Question 6 , the azimuth from south of line DA,

rounded to the nearest minute, is

a) 11° 15* d) 78* 45'

b) 101°15' e) 281* 15'
c) 168°45'
8 . Given the following sketch and tabulated data for a
closed traverse in which the length of DE and the bearing
of EF, have not been observed iin the field.

%\
¥ Vt<°
/ o\N#
/
p \-*
m
. at
:<o \
trX
F
N
'3k
Zp &
'2/5 $0
0; tm
s M

LATITUDE .D E P A R T U R E
LENGTH
COURSE BEARING
(ml +N -S +E -w
A6 4 9 2 .9 8 N05*30'E 490.71 47*.25
BC 845.85 N46, 03'E 5 8 7 .0 5 6 0 8 .9 7
CO 8 5 2 .18 S 67*24*E 3 2 7 .4 9 7 8 6 .7 4
OE Unknown S ( 2* 17*E ■(Unkr own} (Unkr own) \
(Unkn own)
EF
FA
1210.50
, 6 6 1.26
Unknown
N5o'27'W
(Unkr own)
3 7 5 .0 2 j __ 1 5 4 4 .6 3
 If line DF is chosen as the closing line, its length is
equal to

a) 445.98 m d) 2023.62 m
b) 1439.89 m e) 1592.05 m
c) 167*7.75 m

9. In Question 8 , the bearing of the closing line DF,

rounded to the nearest minute, is

a) N51°241E d) N38°36'E
. b) S38° 36’W e) S51°24'W
c) S51°24'E

10. In Question 8 , the bearing of course EF is

a) S67°44'W d) S350 45'E

b) N53°50'W e) N79°38VW
c) N82°05*W

11. In Question 8 the length of DE,-rounded to the near­

est tenth of a meter, is

a) 1275.4 m d) 1895.7 m
b) 2350.2 m e) 1678.3 m
' c) 1374.6 m

12. Given the following tabulated data for a closed tra­

verse in which the lengths of sides CD and DE are unknown.

LENGTH LATITUDE DEPARTURE

SIDE BEARING
(m) +N -s +E -W
AB 54 1.55 S85°58'E 38.09 540.2 1
BC 795.62 S03,,05'W 794.4*’ 42.80
CD Unknown S52°50'W (Unkrown) (Unkrtown)
DE Unknown N 12°42'W (Unknown) (Unknown)
EA 650.25 N 40° 15;E 496.29 420.1 4

If CE is chosen as the closing line, its length is

a) 977.23 m d) 2'* .11 m

b) 581.28 m e) 3'.41 m
c) 853.71 m

13. In Question 12, the bearing of the closing line CE,

rounded to the nearest minute, is
a ) S69 °52 'E d) S70°40'E.
b) N64° 32 »W e) N73° 09 1 W
c) N69 0 52 'W

14. In Quest ion’ 12, the length of side CD is

, >i1
\(? O
C ,m * * * v - * * m
IL L U S T F A T IV t:
C X A M IN A T IO H S

/
 «* a) 1058,58 m d) 903.48 m
b ) 902.13 f
ti e ) 1902.35 m
c ) 1057.00 m ■ • V"■
15. In Question 12, the length of side DE is

a) 902.13m d) 1058.58 m
b) 1057.00 m e) 903.48 m
c) 1902.35 m

16. Given the following sketch and tabulated data for a

closed traverse in which the bearings of side CD and DE are
unknown.

LEN G TH L A T IT U D E D EPARTU RE
C O U RSE BEA RIN G
* (m) +N -s ♦E W
AB 668.15 N 58°32*W 348.78 569.89
BC 670.32 S 35* 16 'W 547.97 386.08
CD 610.68 Unknown (Unkr own) (Unkr own)'
DE 515.26 Unknown j (Unkr own) (Unki own) i
EA 448.50 N70a40‘E j 148.48 j 423.21 |

H i o * t ft A n n
MhAHlNAl ,6 1 3 ,
If CE is chosen as the closing line, its length i^

a) 482.05 m ' d) 583.47 m

b) 535.17 m e) 324.16 m
c ) 21.96 m ,

1 7 . In Question 16, the bearing of the closing line CE,

rounded to the nearest minute, is

a) N 8 4° 34 ’E d) N74°45’E
b) SO5° 26’W e) S65°50'W
c) N05°26'E

1 8 . In Question 16, in analyzing the triangle^formed by the

closing line and the two courses with omitted* measurements
(triangle CED),__the interior angles at D and C are, res­
pectively,

a) 55° 59' and 52°57« d) 55°59 1 and 71°04’

b) ' 71° 04 ’ and 52°57l e )•71°04' and 55°59'
c) 52° 57' and 71°04'

1 9 . In Question 16, the, bearing of course CD is

a) N13°30'W d) N24°45'E
b) S46°131E e) S42°29'E'0
2
c) S42°29'W

20. In Question 16, the bearing of course DE is

a) S13° 30'W d) S29°25'E

b) N42°29,W e) N13°30’E
c) S46°13'E

,614.
ELEMENTARY SURVEYING v LESSON NUMBERS 43 THRU 46

AREA COMPUTATIONS SET mA m

’" ‘ * -'.• . ■‘ • ‘ • •’./ •I :•
Note: Read and understand each statement carefully. Five
words, phrases, or f i g u r e s follow each statement and only
one of which may be the correct a n s w e r I f , however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on a i l the givbn Choices for
t h e p a r t i c u l a r number. Questions requiring n u m e r i c a l compu-
tafions and Answers must be a c c o m p a n i e d b y fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. .Do not write any­
thing or make1any identifying marks on the guestionaire>
and submit it back.upon completion of the examination.

1. In plane surveying, the area of a tract of land is

taken as its projection upon a horizontal plane. However,,
areas of much larger tracts of land such as a country or a
continent are taken as the
' .V -V: '/ / . ■■ -
a) projection of the tract upon the earth's spheroidal
surface at mean sea level
b) actual area of the land surface as projected upon
the average elevation of the ground surface
c) . projection of the tract upon an arbitrarily chosen
Matum *
d) area determined by averaging the elevations of cri­
tical reference points defining the surface
e) area projected upon a plane parallel to the horizon­
tal

2. The hectare is the most commonly used unit of area for

large tracts of land. It is equal to

a) 100 sq m d) 10000 sq m
b) 5000 sq m e) 1000 sq m \ .
q) 1000 ares „
*
3. The meridian distance of a line is defined as the

a) longest distance from the center of the line to the

reference meridian ,
b) perpendicular distance from the midpoint of the line
to the reference parallel
c) shortest distance from the midpoint of the line to
the reference meridian
d) offset distance measured from either the reference
meridian or reference parallel
e) mean distance from the center of the line to the
reference meridian

Unit Exam No. 9

M M A M IN A ftO m .615,
A. The double meiridian distance of the last course of a
-closed traverse is numerically equal to the

a) latitude of the course itself with its sign reversed

b) departure of the cburse itself
c) either the latitude or departure of the course, but
with the opposite sign
d) departure of the course itself, but with the op­
posite sign
e) departure of the succeeding course plus the depart­
ure of the course itself

5. The assumption made in using the Trapezoidal Rule is

that the ends of the offsets in the boundary line are as­
sumed to be connected by ^

a) curved lines which forms a series of triangles

b) straight lines forming a series of trapezoids
c) parabolic lines forming a series of trapezoids and
triangles ,
. ' d) concave or convex lines forming a series of, regular
geometric figures
e) broken lines which forms a series of triangles,
trapezoids, and rectangles »

Simpson's O m Third Rule is based on .the assumption

that the curved boundary consists of parabolic arcs, where
each arc is continuous over three adjacent offsets that are
equally spaced. Because of this assumption, the rule is
only applicable when there is

a) an even number of offsets

b) either an odd or an even number of offsets
c) an equal number of odd and even offsets
d) a predominance of even numbered offsets
e) an odd number of offsets *

7. The planimeter is a mechanical device used for deter­

mining the area of any shape of figure plotted to a known
scale. Its design is based on the principle that the amount
the roller turns is a measure of the area

a) included within th.e perimeter traced

b) excluded from the perimeter of the traded figure
c) of the figure divided by two
d) included within the traced figure after it is multi­
plied by a predetermined factor of the planimeter *
e) of the traced figure multiplied by two

8 . The following tabulated data is to be used in deter­

mining the area of«traverse ABCDE by the DMD method. The
double meridian distance of course CD is

,616,
 a) -589.70 m d) +23.45.m
b) -1655.32 m e) +1578.88 m
c) -375.50 m

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

COURSE
+N -S +E -w
AB 558.25 78.34
BC 102.58 746.38
CD 28S.3 3 31 9 .2 4
DE 352.05 395.68
EA 23.45 5 9 !.6 0
Sums +6 6 0 .83m -6 6 0 .8 3 m +1065.62 m -1065.62 m
I
(2ND (SSL) (2 ED) (2WD)

9. In Question 8 , the total area of the traverse, employ­

ing the DMD method, is

a) 102.5272 Ha d) 114.6255 Ha
b) 114.6255 Ha e) 51.2636 Ha
c) 512,366.30 sg m

10. The data given in the accompanying tabulation is to be

used in determining the area of the adjusted traverse PGHIJ
by the double parallel distance method /

ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTE0 DEPARTURE

COURSE
+N -S +E -W
FG 187.45 430.1 5
GH 246 .0 4 2 10.37
H1 309.53 131,67
. 1J 1 27.00 4 4 4 .9 1
JF 24 1.1 2 6 3 .94
Sums + 555.57m - 5 5 5 .5 7 m + 6 4 0 .52m - 6 4 0 .5 2 m

The double parallel distance of course IJ is

a) -609.24 m d) -241.12 m
b) -426.71 m e) +609.24 m
c) +127.00 m

11. In Question 10, the total area of the closed traverse

is

a) 450,398.9826 sg m d) 22.5199 Ha
b) 168,793.1604 sg m e) 16.8793 Ha
c) 61.9192, Ha1
2

12. Given in the accompanying sketch is a tract of land

 wherein the lengths of the four sides and two interior
‘angles are indicated.

a) 98.0087 Ha d) 290,000 sq m
b) 374, 075.04 sq m e) 127,626.39 sq m
c) 28.9261 Ha

13. In Question 12, the area of BCD is

a) 289,261.36 sq m d) 28.926 Ha
b) ,127,626.39 sq m e) 12,763 Ha
c) 12.674 Ha ■ . „1
4

14. Shown in the accompanying sketch are the measured

offsets from a traverse line &B to an irregular boundary
and the spacing between the offsets

Irregular 12.30m
Boundary' 9 . 5 0 a V f . • ■ . . • . I ■- ..JO.80m
i.
7.90 m
i••.
7.50mJ^r . ' . : } - . Ti
6.40 m„,__•r:T’T\'
5.60fi)___ rjr-;■■■•:;r.s \|v- V .'yVr'y: V.''■* **\
’•V^i'-\2.7Qin
f; 4~^TrqverMj Line

...............
60 *6.0 6.0 6.0 1 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
T T
48.0 m

ILLU STN A TIV C

,616. E X A M IN A T IO N S
Employing the Trapezoidal Rule, the area bounded by the
traverse line,, the irregular boundary, and the end offsets
is .

a) 413.40 sqm d) 64.75 s q m

b) 388.50 sqm e) 348.76 sq m
c) 206.70 s q m
15. In Question 14, if Simpson's One-Third Rule is instead
employed, the area bounded by the traverse line, the irre­
gular boundary, and the end offsets is

a) 195.30 sqm dj 585.90 sq m

b) 390.60 sqm e) 1170.00 sq m
c) 388.50 sqm
16. In the accompanying tabulation are the measured offsets
(taken at irregular intervals) from a straight line to the
edge of a river.

DISTANCE OFFSET DISTANCE OFFSET

FROM A LENGTH FROM A LENGTH
0 .0 0 m 5.63 m 3 0 .0 0 m 9 .5 4 m
6 .5 0 6.45 3 6 .5 0 12.32
12 . 3 0 7.90 4 2 .7 5 10.05
1.8.85 6.28 4 8 .2 5 2 .7 6
2 4 .6 0 7.57 - —

The area included between the straight line, the river's

edge, and the end offsets is

, a) 779.018 sq m d) 354.282 sq m
b) 350.249 sq m e) 389.509 sq m ♦
c) 700.498 sq
i
17. in the following tabulation are given the adjusted la­
titudes and adjusted departures of six courses which
forms a closed traverse
ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE
COURSE
+N -S-~ +E -W .
AB , 3 3 0 .5 4 7 0 6 .0 0
BC 9 9 5 .0 6 2 2 2 .3 0
CD 9 7 .3 5 9 8 0 .6 4
DE 3 8 2 .0 2 5 8 7 .9 8
• EF 5 0 .2 5 f
4 8 7 .7 6 “
FA 5 5 3 . 17 5 9 0 .0 7
Sums +1422.95m -1422.95m +1568.62m -1568.62m
(SNL) (S S L ) (SED) (SWD) .

Assuming that the origin.of the coordinate system * passes

HLUHttAr/kW ,619,
through station A, the X coordinate of station D is

a) -640.32 m d) -1422.95 m
b) -1040.93 m e) -52.34 ,m
c) +928.30 m

18. In Question 17, the Y coordinate of station F is

a) -590.07 m d) -640.32 m
b) -1040.93 m e) -553.17 m
c) +706.00 m

19. In Question 17, the area of the closed traverse em-

ployingj the coordinate method, is

a) 128,7906 Ha d) 30.6840 Ha
b) 184.8129 Ha e) 156.8008 Ha
c) 28.0102 Ha

20. The X and Y coordinates of five stations of a closed

travese are given in the accompanying tabulation

COORDINATES
STA
X(m) Y(m)
A -4 1 2 .2 0 - 1 5 5 .4 0
3 5 3 .4 0 1 0 2.0 0
C 5 7 5 .0 0 2 2 5 .0 0
D 6 5 3 .3 0 -2 3 3 .7 0
E 7 .3 0 -4 3 5 .7 0

The area of the traverse is

a) 41.2709 Ha d) 17.4056 Ha
b) 1.8738 Ha e) 3.7475 Ha
"c) 48.3540 Ha

» L L U * T * A T IV *
i
^*~KJ*m§**c*m r xAMuurto**
E L E M E N T A R Y S U R V E Y IN G LESSON NUMBERS 47 THRU 49

PARTITION OF LAND SET "A "

Note: Read and understand each statement carefully. Five

words, phrases, or figures follow each statement and only
one of which may be the correct answer. If, / however, an
answer is not listed among the five choices given, indicate
an X-mark in your answer sheet on all the given choices for
the particular number. Questions requiring numerical compu­
tations and answers must be accompanied by fully illustra­
ted solutions in order to be credited. Do not write any­
thing or make any identifying marks on the questionaire,
and submit it back upon completion of the examination.

1. The most common case(s) encountered in the subdivision

of land is

a) dividing an area into two parts by a line between

two points
b) dividing an area by a line running through a point
and a given direction
c) to cut off a required area by a line through a given
point
d) to cut off a required area by a line running in a
given direction
e) all of the above

2. For any of the cases encountered in the partition or

subdivision of land, a resurvey is run, the latitudes and
departures are determined, the surveyed traverse is bal­
anced, and the area of the entire tract is computed. Also,
when computing the desired subdivision scheme

a) coordinates of all corners must be known

b) all lengths must be measured and recorded to the
nearest decimeter
c) only the adjusted latitudes and departures are used
d) the relative precision must be at least 1/500
e) all observed angles must be in grads

3. When dividing an area into two parts it is always im­

portant that the calculated length arid direction of the
dividing line must be

a) of acceptable precision
b) compared with the actually measured values
c) checked by noting the magnetic declination
d) longer than any of the courses and of known magnetic
bearing
e) compatible with the other known or measured data

Uns* L.m m No. 10

!L L U M l N A T I V t
t K A N IN A X IO N S GZ\,
4.. If a large tract of land Is to be subdivided into two
parts, the area of each tract must be calculated independ­
ently based on the given and calculated latitudes and
departures of their respective courses. As a check, the sum
of the areas of the two tracts should

a) equal the area of the entire parcel of land

b) be inversely proportional to the area of the larger
part
c) have a minimum residual value
d) be inversely proportional to the area of the smaller
part >
e) be proportional to the difference between the areas
of the two parts

5. In the process of dividing a tract of land by a line

running in a given direction, the surveyor needed to ana­
lyze and evaluate the resulting triangle as shown in the
accompanying sketch.

A
The interior angles at P and C, respectively, are

a) 23° 08‘ and-69°05' d) 87°47« and 23°08«

b) 87047' and 69°05' e) 80°37» and 76°15'
c) 6 90 05 ' and 23° 08'

6 . In Question 5, £he length of the dividing line AP is

a) 664.66 m d) 1670.84 m
b) 1808.45 m e) 1580.32 m *
c) 4299.81 m

7. In Question 5, the distance of point P from station E

(or length
* of PC) is »
a) 1*580.32 m d) 1808.45 m
b) 1670.84 m * e) 4299.81 m
c) 664.66 m

C O O
P £-£******./l UXVA MS TINHAAT IOr i VHt9

—L
 8. Given in the accompanying tabulation are the adjusted
latitudes and adjusted departures of a parcel *of land

ADJUSTED L ATITU D E ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

COURSE
+N -s +E ~W
AB 4 0 8 .2 5 2 3 8 .3 6
BC 1 6 3 .4 0 31 3 . 6 7
CD 16 5 .0 8 5 8 5 .1 8
DE 36 1.7 2 12 0 .0 2
EF 22 1.61 3 5 0 .4 3
FA 1 7 3 .4 0 906.80
Sums + 7 4 6 . 73m - 746.7 3m +1257.23m -1257.2 3m

The length of a line running from station F to station e:

which will divide the tract into two parts is

a) 418.25 m d ) 278.03 m
b) 354.77 m e) 467.48 m
c) 548.45 m

9. In Question 8 , the bearing of the dividing line FC is

a ) N49® 41'40.4"W d) N40°18'19.5"W

b) S40°18'19.5"E e) S49°41'40.4"E
c) N4 3° 22'13.6”W

10. In Question 8 , the area east of the dividing line (par­

cel CDEF) is

a) 24.2378 Ha d) 22.8336 Ha
b) 45.6672 Ha e) 48.4756 Ha
c) 47.0714 Ha1

11. In Question 8 , the area west of the dividing line (par­

cel ABCF) is

a) 24.2378 Ha d) 48.4756 Ha
b) 22.8336 Ha e) 47.0714 Ha
c) 45.6672 Ha

12. A surveyor was tasked to cut off a required area by a

line through a given point. In the process of determining
some required quantities there was a need to evaluate the
resulting triangle BDP as shown in the accompanying sketch.
If the area of BDP is 630,905.65 sq m, the length of line
DP is

a) 742.66 m d) 889.25 m
b) 865.19 m e) 980.50 m
c) 934.02 m

H i U S T N A T IV t
tX A h tIN A T U W f i623'.
13. In Question 12, the length of dividing line BP is

a) 1427.64 m d) 1868.75 m
b) 2563.27 m e) 1698.00 m
cl 1740.19 m •
14. In Question 12, the interior angle at P is

a) 64° 05 ' d) 45°181

b) 56°41' e) 57°37* * .
c) 59° 56'

15. In Question 12, the interior angle at B is

a) 46° 50' d) 54*19'

b) 31*34' e) 56*41'
c) 95* 08'
16. In Question'12, the bearing of the dividing line- BP is
*■
a) S68*58'E d) N77°19'W
bj S 49“10 *E e) N58°15'W
C) S77°19'E
17. The irregular parcel of land shown in the accompanying
sketch is to be subdivided into three parts by cut off
lines extending from B to G and from C to F. By considering
lot 1, (tract ABGH) as a closed traverse the length and
direction of the dividing line BG can be determined since,
this is

a) easily determined by computing the coordinates of

each corner of the traverse
b) the same as that of computing the ‘length and direct­
ion 04 the side of error in any closed traverse.
c) a simple problem of omitted measurements involving

_____
 two adjoining sides
d) computed by the least squares method
e) a common type omitted measurement involving two
non-adjoining sides

18- In Question 17, after the . algebraic sum of the lati­

tudes (CL) and the algebraic sum of the departures (CD )
have been determined, the bearing of the dividing line BG
can be determined by the equation

a) Sin oC = c0/cL d) Cot oC = cD/cL

b) Cos oC = cL/cD e ) Sec oC = c l /Cd
c) Tan cC - -cD/-cL
In Que;st ion 17, the length of the dividing line C7 can
also be determined by using two simultaneous equudons
containing two unknowns, wherein the sums of the

a) latitudes and the departures are set respectively to

zero
b) north latitudes and the south latitudes are set res­
pectively to zero
c) east departures and the west departures are set res­
pectively to zero -
d) departures are set equal to the sums of the lati­
tudes
e) north latitudes are set equal to the sum of the
south latitudes, and the sum of the east departures
are also set equal to the sum of the west departures

IllUttrttAT/W ,625,
t A A M lN A T lC H S
20. In Question 17, the area of the whole parcel of land or
any of its subdivided areas may then be determined by any
the conventional methods used in determining areas. A
check is made by noting that the
. ‘' ■
a) sum of the areas of the three lots, each calculated
independently, is equal to the calculated area of
the entire parcel of land
b) direction of line BC is parallel to line CP
c) sum of the lengths of the two dividing lines is
equal to one-half the total length of the traverse
d) difference between the areas of tracts 1 and 2 is
equal to the difference between the areas of tracts
*• 2 and 3
e) area of tract 3 is equal to one-half the sum of the
areas of tracts 1 and 2

C iO fi / L IU S THArtVC
•
V f - tH Am m AT/O H S
A N S W E R SHEETS
A N D SOLUTIONS
Unit Exam Numbers i Thru to
 ANSWER
SHEET
(FOR U E -1 ) (FOR U E - 2 ) v

A 0 /3 A 014
• SET CONTROL NO SET CONTROL NO

E X A M IN A T IO N K E Y E X A M IN A T IO N K E Y
NAME NAME

E /e m S u rve y in g N ov 1986 E le m S u r v e y in g D ec 1986

S U B JE C T . D ATE S U B JE C T O ATE

tJF - / B -2 U E-2 B -2
EXAM NO SECTIO N EXAM NO S E C TIO N
INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH 'QUESTION INDICATE YOUR’ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION
BY MARKING AN X N THE APPROPRIATE BY MARKING AN X IN THE APPROPRIATE
SQUARE. EXAMPLE : Q [ | ] [ e] SQUARE. EXAM PLE : Q g j j j j jo ] [ | ]

-.01® @® -s(3l® ® ® ^0 g o M e b 16' 0 E 0 ® M

2.0 0 0 0 1 1 ] 17000011] 21 ® ® 0 ® , 7 ® 1 ® ® ®

30000H] .e.00000
,.00000 ,900000 < 0 l ® 0 ® - 9 . 0 0 0 0 1 1

5 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 = 0 ® 1 ® ® 2 C > 1 ® ® ® ®

6.00000 2100000 g® 0 ® 1 ® 21.0 H E H U ]

22.0 s b 0 m 7 0 ® ® ! ® 2 2 0 0 0 0 0

60]^00[i] 2300000 . . 0 0 0 0 8 25.0SETH]0

9000)§(0 24.00000 9 - 1 0 0 0 0 2 4 . 0 0 0 0 ®

1O 0000M 2 5 0 0 0 0 0 - 0 . 0 1 ® ® ® 2 5 .0 ® ® ® ®

1 1 0 0 ]g( 0 0 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 "0 1 ® ® ® 26® 0 ® @ ®

120]g[000 2 7 0 0 0 0 0 - 2 0 ® 0 ® 1 2 7 . 0 ® ® @ ®

1 3 . 0 0 0 0 ^ 2a0 0 0 0 0 1 3 . 1 ® ® ® ® 2 6 ® ® ® ® ®

2a00000 « 0 ® ® 1 ® 2 9 0 ® ® ® ®

3a00@0[i] , 5 ® 0 ® ® 1 3 9 0 ® ® ® . ®

USE ONLY TH E NUMBERED ITEMS CORRESPONDING USE ONLY T H E NUMBEREO ITEM S CORRESPONDING
TP TH E NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION

_______ _______ , J P L JP L
6 RA0E GRADED BY GRADE GRADED BY.

N o t* : A w i g h t o f 5*/• i s given p e r item . N o te : A w eigh t o f 5*/» is given, p e r item .

\
* j;

A M S WEN S H E E T S / CZO(
• S O L U T IO N S I V — II
 A N S W E R ANSWER
S H E E T SHEET
(FOR U E -3 ) (FOR U E -4 )

A 0 /5 A 016
SET CONTROL NO SET CONTROL NO

E X A M IN A T IO N KEY E X A M IN A T IO N K E Y
NAME NAME

E/em S u r v e y in g Ja n 1987 E/em S u r v e y in g F e b 1987

S U B JE C T D A TE S U B JE C T D A TE

B -2 B -2
1

U E-4
§

EXAM NO S E C TIO N EXAM NO SECTIO N

INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION
BY MARKING AN X IN THE APPROPRIATE BY MARKING AN X IN THE APPROPRIATE
SOUARE, EXAMPLE, SQUARE . EXAMPLE : 0 (b] )g ( ® [fj

'B000M <6.80000
2 0 0 ) g ( 0 0 ' '7 0 0 ) 1 ( 0 0 Mam0 MB '7.0B0®M
3 . 0 0 B 0 M 1 8 .0 0 0 0 M *.0008® laBjgBBB
1 9 ^ 0 0 0 0 1M0 0 0 0 isMbukuh]
5 . 0 0 0 0 M ZO^QbJ U H U E 600080 20.08000
6.0 0 0 0 M 21.0 S 0 1 D1II] 60008® 2100000
7- 0 0 0 M - 0 22.0 0 0 0 H] 7.MEB0HI 2200000
8- 0 ^ [ 0 0 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 «0®H@0 23.000-00
90]S ( 0 0 I I 3 24.0 [¥][c] [d][e] 6.008®® 24.00000
1O0 ® ^ [ 0 0 2 5 . 0 [ b] 0 0 0 '<=00008 2300000
" M ® 0 0 III 260 ® 0 0 0 ”•0000® 2«0'0000
1 2 0 0 0 0 M 270 0 0 0 0 12.0 0 8 0 ® 2 7 0 0 0 0 0
i3 0 0 ] g 0 0 2a0 ®[c][0 [E] «0000M 2«00000
1 4 0 ] g (0 0 0 2 ^ 0 0 0 0 0 ~«0 g ( 0 0 B 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
1 ^ 0 0 0 0 3 a 0 0 0 0 0 '6.00008; 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
USE ONLY T H E NUMBERED ITEMS CORRESPONDING USE ONLY TH E NUMBERED ITEMS CORRESPONDING
TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION1
*

_______ ________ J P L __________ _________ J P L ________•_

GRADE GRADED BY GRADE GRAOED BY
1.

Nor*: A w ig h t o f 5 */» Is gi von par item. Not*: A w ig h t o f 5*/• is giv*n p*r itom.

£30,
 A N S W E R A N S W E R
S H E E T - SH E E T
(FORUE-5) (FOR U E -6 )

A 017 A ota
SET CONTROL NO SET CONTROL NO

E X A M IN A T IO N K E Y E X A M IN A T IO N K E Y
NAME NAME

E/em S u r v e y in g M ar 1987 E/em S u r v e y in g A p r 1987

S U B JE C T D A TE S U B JE C T D A TE

U E-5 B -2 U E -6 8 -2
EXAM NO S E C TIO N EXAM NO S EC TIO N

INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION
BY MARKING AN X N THE APPROPRIATE BY MARKING AN X W THE APPROPRIATE
SQUARE. E X A M P L E : [|| SQUARE, example: 0 0 ^ 0 ( 7 ]

' • 0 0 edM ® 1 S -0 0 B 0 M '■00M00 .«

& [$
[£]E0
2.0EM0 0 ^ - 0 M 0 0 0 2 0 id0 - ® K ".h o d i h i j M
30 M 0 0 0 ie0 M0 00 3.0S0MH] "BH000
4M 0 0 0 0 190 0 0 ) 3 0 ^@ @ 0 ®'s-M
®in
[3m
3 0 0 0 0 M 20)3 0 0 0 0 5.0MBmu] 2 0 .^ 0 0 0 0
6 0 ) 3 0 0 0 21.0 [b )[c]0 [e] «0@M0E :'00@@@
7)30000 2 2 .0 0 0 0 0 22.0 0 0 0 [ U
6 0 0 ) 3 0 0 230 0 0 0 0 8.
0 0 0 M 0 23.00000
9 0 0 0 ) 3 0 24.00000 2 4 - 0 0 0 [p]0
.0)30000 25.00000 io-0 0 0 0 M 25.0S B BUI
11.00)300 26.00000 "MiBUllI 2600000
12. M 0 0 0 0 27-00000 *13)8(13 0 E 27.0 0 0 0 0
13-000)3® 2 E 0 0 0 0 0 1300(D
M ®2600000
w.)30000 z a 0 0 0 0 0 14.0M000 2 5 0 0 0 0 0
13.0000)3 3 a 0 0 0 0 0 •6 0 0 0 0 M 6 6 0 0 0 0 0
USE ONLY TH E NUMBEREO ITEMS CORRESPONDING USE ONLY TH E NUMBERED ITEMS CORRESPONDING
TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION

_______ _________ J P L _______ _________ J P L

GRADE GRAOED BY GRADE GRADED BY

N ot 0: A weight or 5 % is g iv e n p e r item . N ote: A w eig h t o f 5 V* i s g iv e n p e r ite m .

A N S W E R S H E E T S / '1
S O L U T IO N S MNHMl£
?*2I
Q^L
 A N S W E R ANSWER
S H E E T SHEET
(FOR UE-7) (FOR U E - 8 )
*

A 019 \ A « 020
SET CONTROL NO SET CONTROL NO

E X A M IN A T IO N K E Y E X A M IN A T IO N--------------------
KEY -
NAME NAME

E le m S u r v e y in g M ay 1 9 8 7 E le m S u r v e y in g Ju n 1987
S U B JE C T D ATE S U B JE C T D A TE

U E-7 B -Z U E-8 B -2
EXAM NO SEC TIO N EXAM NO S E C TIO N

INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH OUESf ION INDICATE YOUR. ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION
BY MARKING AN X IN THE APPROPRIATE BY MARKING AN X IN THE APPROPRIATE
s q u a r e , example (5) m SQUARE . S A M P L E : 0 [5] )g ( 0 [IJ

..0 0 0 H m *h M e 0 0 i.b Mb b b 1
6b Mb 0 in
2Gi)Kic] 0 id ^ 0 0 a la 2.0M B 0 0 i ? M ® 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 ^ ( 0 ie)E(0000
•>
0 )H0 0 0 •,9-0 0M® 0 4.)^000III 19.0000M
=000^0 »M®000 5-0 H l @ M ® 2 0 -0 0 0 0 M
6.0MS00 2100000 6 0 [H0@^( 21.130000
1.00@@^ 2200000 7 .0 ] g ( 0 0 0 22.00000'
» M 0 @lsli 2 3 . 0 0 0 0 0 . 0 M @ 0 ® 23.00000
9-M000® 24.00000 * 0 )1 ( 0 0 0 24.00000
,0.00^00 25.00000 1 0 .0 0 0 0 ) 1( 2 5 . 0 0 0 0 0
11.0 0 0 ^ ( 0 2 6 0 0 0 0 0 - 1 .0 0 M 0 1 « . 0 0 0 0 0
12.0g(000 27.00000 12. ^ 0 0 0 0 ' 2 7 . 0 0 0 0 0
1 3 0 0 0 M S 2 6 0 0 0 .0 0 13.00M0® 2 6 0 0 0 0 0
2 *00000 «.0)g000 2 * 0 0 0 0 0
15.00^(00 3 *00000 1*0 0 0 0 )g( 3 0 0 0 0 0 0
USE ONLY T H E NUMBERED ITEMS CORRESPONDING USE ONLY TH E NUMBERED ITEM S CORRESPONDING
TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION

_______ JP L __________ _________ J P L ___________

GRADE GRADED BY GRADE GRADED BY
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 A N S W E R A N S W E R
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(FOR UE-9) (FOR U E -I O )

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SET CONTROL NO SET CONTROL NO

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NAME NAME

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S U B JE C T D ATE S U B JE C T D A TE

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EXAM NO S EC TIO N EXAM NO S EC TIO N
INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH OUESTION INDICATE YOUR ANSWER TO EACH QUESTION
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USE ONLY T H E NUMBERED ITEMS CORRESPONDING USE ONLY TH E NUMBERED ITEMS CORRESPONDING
TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION TO THE NUMBER OF QUESTIONS IN YOUR EXAMINATION

__________ __________ J P L __________ * JP L

GRADE GRADED BY ' GRADE GRAOED BY

N o t* * A w eight o f 5V» is given p e r item . N ote: A w eight o f 5 */• is g iv e n p^ r item .

 BIBLIOGRAPHY
U ' ' ‘ •; ■.
Breed, C.B.; Hosmer, G.L.; and Bone, A.J., "Higher
Surveying, Principles an^ Practice of Surveying, Vol.
II," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1962.
Breed, C.B.; Hosmer, G.L.; and Bone, A.J., "The Prin- 1
ciples and Practice of Surveying, Vol. I, Elementary
Surveying," Eleventh Edition, John Wiley & sons, Inc.,
New York, 1958. ,
Brinker R.C., and Wolf, P.R., "Elementary Surveying,"
Seventh Edition, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York,
1984.
Clancy, John, "Site Surveying and Leveling," Edward
Arnold (Publishers) Ltd., London, 1981.
Clark, David, "Plane and Geodetic Surveying, Vol. One,
Plane Surveying,"Sixth Edition, Constable & Company,
Ltd,. London, 1977. 4
Clark,1David "Plane and Geodetic Surveying, Vol; Two,
Higher Surveying," Sixth Edition, Constable &
Company, Ltd., London, 1976.
Davis, R.E.; and Kelly, J.W., "Elementary Plane Sur1-
veying," Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, 1955.
Davis, R.E.; Foote, F.S.; Anderson, J.M.; and Mikhail,
E.M., "Surveying Theory and Practice," Sixth Edition,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1981.
DeGrbot, A., "Leveling," International Correspondence
Schools, Scranton, Pennsylvannia, 1977.
DeGroot, A., "Linear Surveying," Center for Degree
Studies, Scranton, Pennsylvannia, 1979.
DeGroot, A., "Transit Surveying, Pdrt JL," I.C.S. Cen­
ter for Degree Studies, Scranton, Pennsylvannia, 1978.
/DeGroot, A., "Transit Surveying, Part 2," I.C.S. Cen­
ter for Degree Studies, Scranton, Pennsylvannia, 1978.
DeGroot, A., "Transit Surveying, Part 3," I.C.S. Cen­
ter for Degree Studies, Scranton, Pennsylvannia, 1978.
Dugdale, R.H., "Surveying," Second Edition, ' MacDonald
and Evans, Ltd., London, 1975.
Edwards, D.M.; Bubenzer, G.D.; and Mitchell, J.K.,
"Surveying Fundamentals - A Tutorial Approach," Ame­
rican Publishing Co., Madison, Wisconsin, 1977.
Evett, Jack B., "Surveying," John Wile;/ & Sons, New
York, 1979.
Headquarters. Department of the Army, "Map Reading, FM
21-26," United States Government Printing Office,
Washington D.C., 1960. *
Herubin, Charles A., "Principles of Surveying,." Third
Edition, Reston Publishing Company,Inc., Reston,*Vir-
ginia, 19 82. *»
Hosmer, .George L., "Geodesy," John Wiley & So|is, Inc.,
New York, 1946.

B IB L IO G R A P H Y
20. Keates, J.S., "Cartographic Design and Production"
Longman Group Ltd., London, 1973.
21. Kissam, Philip, "Surveying for Civil Engineers," Se­
cond Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
1981.
22. Legault, A.R.; McMaster, H.M; and Marietta. R.R.,
"Surveying, An Introduction to Engineering Measurer-
ments," Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1956.
23. McCormac, J.C., "Surveying Fundamentals," Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1983.
24. Moffitt, F.H., and Bouchard, H., "Surveying," Seventh
Edition, Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, 1982.
25. Monkhouse, F.J., and Wilkinson, H.R., "Maps and Dia­
grams," Methuen & Co., Ltd., London, 1974.
26., Mueller, 1.1., and Ramsayet, K.H., "Introduction to
Surveying," Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., New York,
1979 .
27. Pafford, William F;, "Handbook of Survey Notekeep­
ing," Robert F. Krienger Publishing Company, Malabar,
Florida, 1983.
28. Rayner, W.H., and Schmidt, M.O., "Advanced Surveying,"
D.Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New Jersey,
1957.
29. Rayner, W.H., and Schmidt, M.O., "Elementary Survey­
ing," D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, New
Jersey, 1963.
30. Rubey, Harry; Lommel, G.E.; and Todd, M.W., "Engineer­
ing Surveys: Elementary and Applied," The Macmillan
Company, New York, 1958.
31. Smirnoff, Michael V., "Measurements for Engineering,"
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1961.
32. The Military Service Publishing Company, "Map and
Aerial Photograph Reading," Fifth Edition, The Tele­
graph Press, Harrisburg, Pennsylvannia, 1957.
33. The Staff of the Engineering Fundamentals Group, "An
Elementary Surveying Text," United States Military
Academy, West Point, New York, 1972.
34. War Department, "Topographic Drafting, • TM 5-230,"
United States Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C., 1947.
35. Westfall, Claude Z., "Basic Graphics and Cartography, 'J
University of Maine at Orono Press, Orono, Maine, 1984
36. Wilson, R.L. "Elementary Forest Surveying and Mapp­
ing" O.S.U. Bookstores, Inc., Corvallis, Oregon, 1981.

BIMLlOAKAPMf
 IN D E X

___ 1
 Accidental error, 33 Compass, 11, 286, 289, 299
Accuracy, 35 Construction surveys, 7
Adjustment of Coordinates
cross hairs, 166, 363 area by, 463
dumpy level, 166 computation of, 422-425
level circuit, 255 Correction
line of sight, 167, 363 sag, ICO
; transit, 362 temperature, 92
traverse, 404 tension, 94
Agt-nic line, 299 slope, 90
Aneroid barometer, 242 Crandall method, 413
Angle Cross
deflection, 275,378, 383 hair, 142
exterior, 274, 275 sections, 252
horizontal, 344 field notes for, 253
interior, 274, 376,382 Daily variation, 298
measuring vertical, 347 Datum for leveling, 125
to the right, 275, 386, 389 Datum, 125
units of measurement, 269 Declination
zenith, 368 - . definition of 292
laying off, 346 magnetic, 291
Angular closure in tr-verse, 303 Deflection
Area angle traverse, field notes, 377
by Simpson's rule,482, 485 angle, 275, 377, 383
by coordinate method, 463, 468 Departure, 396, 399
by coordinate squares, 493 closure in, 397, 400
ty double meridian distances, 474, 476 computation of, 397-400
by double parallel distances, 475, 477 corrections to, 405, 412
by offsets, 480 Difference in elevation, 125/ 523
by planimeter, 490 Differential leveling, 182, l87
by trapezoidal rule, 480, 484 Digital theodolite, 368
by triangles, 462, 465 Diopter, 8, 11
Assumed north, 271 Dip of compass needle, 301
Astrolabe, 8 Direct leveling, 126
Azimutn Direction instrument, 366
angle, 278 Distance, horizontal, 92
back, 279 Double meridian distance (DHP)/ 472
definition of, 278 Double parallel distance (DPD)/ 473
magnetic, 279 Double vernier, 337
of line, 278 Double-centering with transit/ >355
traverse, 387, 391 Double-rodded line,: 194
true, 279 Dumpy level
Backsight, 163, 183 adjustment of, 166
Balancing traverse, 404 description of, 129
Balancing-in with transit, 355 Earth's curvature,, 163
Barometer, 241 Electronic distance measurements, 66
Barometric leveling, 127, 240 Elevation, 125, 525, 530
Bearing Engineer's level, 128
assumed, 277, 279 Engineer's transit, 322
back, ,277-2 78 Erecting eyepiece, 141
computation of, 276 Error
definition of 276, 410 accidental, 33
magnetic, 277, 279 cumulative, 33
true, 277, 279 definition of 32
forward, 277, 278 natural, 35, 163
Bench marks, 182 of closure, 397, 400
Bowditch rule, 405 personal, 35, 161 **>
Breaking tape,'81 probable, 44, 47, 522
Br *-on compass, 287 sources of, 312
Builder's level, 130 standard, 44
Cadastral surveys, 6 systematic, 33
Centesimal system, 18 instrumental, 34, 160
Chorobates, 11 Eyepiece H'
Circle erecting, 141
graduated, 332 inverting, 142
horizontal, 332 Field notes
vertical, 325, 333 for deflection angle traverse/ 377
City surveys, 7 for direct leveling, 186'
Clinometer, 75 for interior angle traverse, 377
Closing the horizon, 345, 350 for profile leveling, 209
jompass rule, 405 methods of keening, 24

JN D CA 6 4 1 ,
 / V
vernier, 338 trigonometric, 127, 230, 235
\ght Libella, 11
\ition of 163, 183 Local attraction, 300, 313
mediate, 206 Long rod, 139
,cy surveys, 7 Lovar tapes, 73
jdetic surveying, 6 Lumber crayons, 76
Geodimeter, 70 Magnetic
Grad, 269 azimuth, 279 *
Graduations bearing, 277
on leveling rod, 152 compass, 287
on transit, 332 declination, 29i
■ Grid azimuth, 279 dip of needle, 301
Groma, 8 meridian, 264
Gunters chain, 11 needle, 286 •
Hand level, 75, 133 north, 271
Hand signals, 156 Magnification of a telescope, 143
Head tapeman, 29, 78 Mean sea level, 125*
Hectare, 16 Measuring horizontal angles, 344
Height of instrument, 1&4 Meridian
Horizon magnetic, 264
closing the, 345, 350 true, 264
measuring angles, 344 Metallic tapes, 72
Hydrographic surveying, 7 Meter, 15
Index error, 348 Mil, 269
Industrial surveys, 7 Mine surveys, 7
Instrumental errors, 34, 160' Mistakes
Instruments definition of 32
direction, 366 in leveling, 165
repeating, 366 Most probable value, 38, 522
Interior angle traverse, 376, 380 Natural errors, 35, 163
International system of units (SI), 16 Normal tension, 102, 106, 527
Invar tape, 72 Odometer, 59
Iaogonic Omitted measurements, 432, 456
chart, 299 Optical micrometer, 365
line, 299 Pacing, 54, 525
ma p, 29 9 Parallel lines with transit, 359
Jacob's staff, 288 Personal errors, 35, 161
1. .1 I It.ude, 396, 399 Philadelphia rod,-136
1 y 1ri(| off an angle with tape, 346 Plane surveying, 5
i• count of a vernier, 339 Planimeter, 488, 493
i.< c.l squares method, 413 Plumb bob,, 75, 327,
•o.l squares, traverse adjustment by, 413 Plunging the telescope, 352
l.nvnl Precision, 15, 35, 311
■idjuntinent of, 166 Probable error, 44, 47, 523
In' ), automatic, 130 Profile
dumpy, 129 leveling, 127, 206,. 213
engineer's, 128 definition of, 206
geodetic,132 Prolonging line, with transit, 355
hand, 133 Radian, 269
line, 124 , Range pole, 73
rod, 139 Reciprocal leveling, 126, 228, 230
««1£ leveling, 130 Rectangular coordinates, 421, 424
setting up, 148 Reference meridian, 2,64
uuriace, 124 Refraction, 164, 174, 174, 530
tilting, 132 Repeating an angle, 352, 360, 379
wye, 1 2 4 Repeating instrument, 366
beveling rod i; Residuals, 44 \
Philadelphia, 136 Reticle, 142
reading, 151 Retrograde vernier, 335
W.l v i n g , 1 5 5 , 1 5 7 Rod
1 i n y , 124 Philadelphia, 136
till i o m t t r l c , 1 2 7 , 2 4 0 level, 139
c t OHS Js a c t i o n , 1 2 8 , 252 leveling, 136
til 1 t r e nt i a i , 1 8 2 , 1 8 7 self-reading, 136
(In Will l r o d d e d , 19 4 , 1 9 7 target, 136
L>» o £ i 1 e , 1 2 7 , 206 , 2 1 3 waving the, 157
i c v l p r o c a l , 1 2 6 , 2 2 8 , 232 Rounding off numbers, 20, 522
1 o d , 1 ’’ 6 Route surveys, 7 *
r» i q i i i 1u I n , 1 5 6 , 1 7 5 SI units, 16
i .. i g e t : , 1 3 6 Sag of tape, 1,00
1 li l i ' r w I r e , 1 9 5 , 200, Settingup a level, 148*

,64 t N U lX
 Setting up a transit, 328, 368 adjustment of a, 305, 314, 404
Sexagesimal system, 18 azimuth, 387, 391
Significant figures, 18, 522 by angles to the right, 386, 389
Simpson's one-third le, 482, 485 by deflection angles, 377, 383
Slope by'interior angles, 376, 380
correction, 90, 96 , closed, 303
distance, 82 computations, 396
taping, 82, 86 open, 303 •
Split bubble, 144 Traversing, 302
Steel tape, 72 Tribrach, 340
Stride, 54 Trigonometric leveling, 127, 230, 235
Subtense bar, 58 Tr ipod
Surveying, 4 extension, 145
construction, 7 f ixed-leg, 145 *
geodetic, 6 True azimuth, 279
photogrammetric, 7 True bearing, 277 #
plane, 5 True meridian, 264
route, 7 Turning point, 164, 184
topographic, 7 Two-peg test, 169, 172, 175, 529
Surveys Vernier
cadastral, 6 . least reading of, 338
city, 7 definition of, 11, 334
forestry, 7 double, 337 t
hydrographic, 7 folding, 338
mine, 7 least count of, 339
topographic, 7 method of reading, 338
Systematic errors, 33 Vertical
Tape angle, 347
clamp, 73 circle, 325, 333, 365
engineer's, 72 line, 124
invar, 72 Waving the rod, 155, 157
laying off angles with, 111 Weighted measurements, 48, 523
lovar, 73 Wiggling (balancing) in, 355
measuring angles with, 119 Wild T-2 theodolite, 367
measuring distances with, 56 Wye level, 129
metallic, 72 Zenith angles, 368
steel, 72
Tapeman, 29
Taping
pins or arrows, 73
corrections, 83
downhill, 81
on level ground, 78
on uneven ground, 81 ,
slope, 82
Telescope
of level, 8, 324
of transit, 8
Tellurometer,71 t
Tension
handles, 75
on tape, 94.
Theodolite
definition of, 365
digital, 368, 367
directional, 366
repeating, _3(|.6
Three-wire leveling, 195
Tilting level, 132
Topographic surveys, 7
Total station instrument, 368
Transit
adjustment of, 8, 362
measuring vertical angles with, 387
prolonging straight line with, 355
reading vernier of, 338
rule, 412, 414
setting up, 328
verniers, 336
Trapezoidal rule,* 480, 484
Trave rse