1 Earth Science

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Earth Science Module – Week 1
EARTH SCIENCE
Fundamentals of General Science

a) Scientific Method
-is the logical method used by scientists to acquire knowledge that is used to explain
different phenomena in nature.
1. Make an observation. Identify a problem from observations.

2. Question and Research. Formulate questions and do background research on the
problem.
3. Formulate Hypothesis and Predictions. Make an “educated guess” based on your
research.
4. Test the Hypothesis. Conduct experiments.
Controlled Experiment -manipulating one of the conditions or factors that may
affect the result of experiment
✓ Trials -number of times the experiment is repeated
✓ Controls -factors kept constant throughout the experiment
✓ Variables -factors changed during the experiment
▪ Independent or Experimental: factors that are changed
▪ Dependent: factors that change as a result of changes in the
independent variable
✓ Presentation of Results
▪ Tables - use when aiming for easy to read, organized presentations
▪ Graphs
1. Line: appropriate for comparing two continuously changing
variables
2. Bar: appropriate for comparing a changing value with an
unchanging value
▪ Pie Chart - appropriate when comparing parts of a whole
Results may support or oppose the hypothesis.

5. Analysis and Conclusion. Draw a generalization or conclusion from your results.
Conclusion – a statement about the result of the experiment
Law – a statement describing what happens without explaining the cause of
occurrence
Theory – hypothesis that can be explained from observations
6. Iteration and Feedback. Review and apply the principles from the experiment to other
situations.
b) Units and Dimensional Analysis

International System of Units (S.I. Units) - base units legally enforced by scientists from
which other units of measurement are formed
Table 1. The Seven Fundamental S.I. Units

Physical Quantity S.I. Unit Symbols
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric Current Ampere A
Thermodynamic Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of Substance Mole mol
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
Some Derived Units from S.I. base units:

Area: m2
Volume: m3
Velocity: m/s
Force: kg*m/s2 or Newton (N)
Energy: N*m or Joule (J)
Metric Prefixes -used for metric conversions in powers of 10

Table 2. Metric Prefixes and the factors they represent
Prefix Symbol Factor
tera T 1012
giga G 109
mega M 106
kilo k 103
hecto h 102
deka da 101
deci d 10-1
centi c 10-2
milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6
nano n 10-9
pico p 10-12
Dimensional Analysis – process of converting between units; deals with conversion factors
TRY IT YOURSELF!
Sample Problem: How many minutes are there in 2 days?
Solution:
24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
2 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠 × × = 2880 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠
1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
c) Significant Figures and Operations

Rules for Significant Figures
1. Non-zero digits are always significant.
2. Zeros between two significant digits are significant.
3. Leading zeros are not significant.
4. Trailing zeros are only significant IF they are found in the decimal portion.
Addition and Subtraction Rules for Significant Figures

Apply normal methods of adding or subtracting. Final answer may have no more
decimal places than the number with the fewest number of decimal places.
Multiplication and Division Rules for Significant Figures

Apply normal methods of multiplication and division. Final answer contains the
same number of significant figures as the number with the fewest significant figures.
❖ When writing in Scientific Notation, exponential digits are not significant.
Example:
1.24 × 106 has 3 significant figures
6.321 × 108 has 4 significant figures
d) Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy – measure of how close a measurement is to the correct or accepted value of the
quantity being measured
Precision – measure of how close a series of measurements are to one another (even if the
measurements are not near the correct value)
Overview of Earth Science

a) Definition
Earth Science is the study of the Earth, its atmosphere, and its neighbors in space.
b) Branches
▪ Geology - study of the Earth
- deals with the composition of Earth materials, structures, and processes
(organisms, fuels, minerals, how the planet changed over time)
• Archaeology – the study of material remains of past human life and activities
• Paleontology – study of past geological periods from fossil remains
• Volcanology – study of volcanoes

• Seismology – study of earthquakes
▪ Meteorology - study of the atmosphere and how processes in the atmosphere
determine Earth’s weather and climate
▪ Oceanography - study of the composition, movement, organisms, and processes of
the Earth’s oceans
- oceans also have major influence on the weather and can drive climate change
▪ Astronomy - study of the universe
Atmosphere
The Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding the planet Earth and retained by the Earth’s
gravity. It is about 300 miles (480 km) thick; most within 10 miles (16km) from the surface. The
imaginary boundary of atmosphere and space is about 62 miles (100km) from the surface.
❖ Air pressure decreases with altitude; Air warmer near the ground and gets colder higher up
a) Composition
Nitrogen
78% - Nitrogen
21% - Oxygen Oxygen
0.97% - Argon and Carbon dioxide Argon and Carbon dioxide

~0.04% - trace amounts of other gases and Trace amounts of other gases and water vapor
water vapor
0%
1%
21%
b) Layers of the Atmosphere

i. Troposphere
• closest to Earth’s surface 78%
• 4-12 miles (7-20 km) thick
(half of the atmosphere)
• Where most of the weather we experience happens
• contains most clouds and nearly all the water vapor and dust in the
atmosphere
ii. Stratosphere
• starts above the troposphere, ends about 31 miles (50 km) above the
ground
• Where ozone layer is located
• Ozone-abundant -heats the atmosphere while absorbing harmful Ultraviolet
radiation from the sun
• Dry thin air
• Where jet aircraft and weather balloons fly
iii. Mesosphere
• Starts 31 miles (50km) and extends to 53 miles (85 km) from the surface
• Where meteors burn up/vaporize
• Coldest layer of the atmosphere
• relatively high concentration of iron and other metal atoms from meteor
residue
iv. Thermosphere
• About 56 miles (90 km) to between 310-620 miles (500-1000 km)
• Hottest layer, Temperature: up to 2700 degrees F (1,500 C)
• Very low air density
• Where satellites orbit and space shuttles fly
• Where auroras occur (Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis)
v. Exosphere
• Highest layer
• Where atmosphere merges into outer space
• Extremely thin air
• Composed of widely dispersed particles of hydrogen and helium
vi. Ionosphere
• Series of regions of the mesosphere and thermosphere
• High-energy radiation from the sun frees electrons from their parent atoms
and forms electrically charged atoms called ions
• Makes radio communications possible
c) Important Weather Patterns

-weather results from large global patterns in the atmosphere caused by the interactions
of solar radiation, large oceans, diverse landscapes, and motion in space
Weather Factors/Components
1. Temperature: how cold or hot the atmosphere is
2. Atmospheric Pressure: weight of the atmosphere overhead
-decreases as altitude increases
▪ High-Pressure System – cool temperatures and clear skies
▪ Low-Pressure System – warm weather, storms, and rain
3. Wind: movement of air
-caused by differences in temperature and atmospheric pressure between
regions
-wind blows from high-pressure to low-pressure areas
4. Humidity: amount of water vapor in the air
5. Precipitation: excess water vapor in the form of rain
6. Cloudiness: affects the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface
Weather Patterns
i. Global Winds
-circulation patterns due to the uneven heating of Earth’s surface
(caused by Earth’s rotation on a tilted axis and orbit around sun)
ii. Air Masses
-large bodies of air driven by global winds
iii. Fronts
-the location where two air masses meet
▪ Cold Front – cold air mass replaces warm air mass

▪ Warm Front – warm air mass replaces cold air mass
▪ Stationary Front – when warm air and cold air meet and boundary
does not move
iv. Jet Streams
-narrow bands of strong wind located high in
the atmosphere that steer weather systems and
transfer heat and moisture around the Earth
v. Coriolis Effect
-deflection of winds due to the Earth’s rotation
▪ Northern Hemisphere – veers to the right
▪ Southern Hemisphere – veers to the left
d) Clouds and the Water Cycle

Clouds – made of water droplets from water vapor condensed in the sky
How are Clouds formed?
Clouds form when air is forced upward at areas of low pressure or at warm surfaces
of the Earth and cools below the dewpoint.
Main Categories of Clouds
Cirrus - thin, white, wispy
Cumulus - big, white, cottony
Stratus - whitish, transparent, blanket the sky
Nimbo-/-Nimbus - precipitating, heavy, thick, dark
Alto - mid-level clouds
High-Level Clouds (5-13 km): Cirrocumulus, Cirrus, Cirrostratus

Mid-Level Clouds (2-7 km): Altocumulus, Altostratus, Nimbostratus
Low-Level Clouds (0-2 km): Stratus, Cumulus, Cumulonimbus, Stratocumulus
Source: University Corporation for Atmospheric Research
The Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

- describes the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface
of the Earth involving its changes in state (liquid, vapor, and ice)
- ©Howard Perlman, USGS. Public domain.
Fundamental Components of the Water Cycle

i. Evaporation: process of converting liquid water to gas or vapor
ii. Condensation: process of converting water vapor into liquid water
iii. Evapotranspiration: sum of the processes of evaporation from the land

and transpiration from plants (release of water absorbed by plants
through the stomata in the form of vapor)
iv. Freshwater Lakes and Rivers: surface water includes lakes, reservoirs,
ponds, streams, canals, and freshwater wetlands
v. Groundwater Flow and Storage: water stored below the ground, major
contributor to flow in many streams, rivers, and wetlands
vi. Ice and Snow: stored water in its solid state for a relatively long period of
time influence the weather patterns of the region
vii. Precipitation: water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing
rain, sleet, snow, or hail
viii. Infiltration: portion of the precipitated water infiltrates into the
subsurface soil and rock; deeper infiltration recharges groundwater
aquifers and remain in groundwater storage for a long time
ix. Sublimation: conversion from solid to gaseous phases of matter without
an intermediate liquid state
x. Surface Runoff: water that flows on surfaces along channels as it moves
into larger creaks, streams, and rivers
e) Winds and Breezes

Winds are driven by the sun heating the Earth unevenly and creating warm and cool spots.
Breezes are caused by surface pressure shifts due to temperature gradient in land and sea.
Sea breeze - wind that blows from the ocean inland towards land (day)
Land breeze - wind blows from the land towards the ocean (night)
❖ The land heats up and loses heat quicker than the water (ocean).
Climate
Weather vs. Climate
Weather – temporary conditions of the Earth’s atmosphere at a specific time and
place with respect to various weather factors; changes more frequently
Climate – average weather in a specific region including its variations and extremes
Historical Geology
a) Relative Dating and Stratigraphic Principles
- the process of determining the age of rock structures by comparing them with one
another and determining which is younger or older without knowing specific ages
- Uniformitarianism - The laws and principles that nature follows in today’s world also
applied in the geologic past; “The present is the key to the past”
- Stratigraphy - the study of layered rocks and archaeological remains to measure
geologic time
Stratigraphic Principles
1. Principle of Superposition
The layers in the bottom are older than those at the top.
2. Principle of Original Horizontality
Layers of rocks are originally laid down horizontally.

[Exception: margin of basins where strata slightly slope downward]
3. Principle of Lateral Continuity
Within the depositional basin, strata are continuous in all directions
until they thin out at the edge of the basin.
4. Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships
Deformation events like folds, faults, and igneous intrusions that cut
across rocks are younger than the rocks they cut across.
5. Principle of Inclusions
When one rock formation contains pieces or inclusions of another
rock, the included rock is older than the host rock.
6. Principle of Fossil Succession
Assemblages of fossils contained in strata are unique to the time
they lived and can be used to correlate rocks of the same age across
a wide geographic distribution.
TRY IT YOURSELF!
Sample Problem on Applications of Stratigraphic Principles
Use the stratigraphic principles to interpret the sequence of events in
the illustration below. Determine the layers from oldest to youngest.
Answer: Chronology (Oldest-Youngest) – d, b, c, e
Unconformities happen when formation of basement rocks and deposition of

another strata is broken by events of metamorphism, intrusion, and erosion. They
represent periods when deposition did not occur, or erosion has interrupted it.
▪ Nonconformity - occur when sedimentary rock is deposited on top of

crystalline (igneous and metamorphic) rocks
▪ Disconformity - occur between parallel layers of strata indicating either a
period of no deposition or erosion
▪ Angular Unconformity - occur when the lower strata were deformed (tilting,
folding, and/or faulting) by tectonic processes that disturbed their original
horizontality
b) Absolute Dating (Radiometric Dating)

- Radiometric/Radioisotopic Dating: determines the age of rock structures by the
measurement of the content of specific radioactive isotopes of known half-life
- Igneous rocks best for radioisotopic dating because their primary materials provide
dates of crystallization from magma.
- Uranium/Lead method with crystals of Zircon
: uses the radioactive decay of Uranium isotopes into stable isotopes of lead
: commonly used since Zircon is resistant to weathering
- Radiocarbon Dating uses unstable isotope C-14 and stable isotope C-12 for dating
archaeologically important samples containing organic substances (e.g. wood, bone)
- Thermoluminescence: measures time elapsed since silicate minerals were last
exposed to light or heat at the Earth’s surface
c) Geologic Time Scale

“The Geologic Time Scale shows divisions of Geologic Time approved by the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) Geologic Names Committee showing major
chronostratigraphic and geochronological units.” -USGS Fact Sheet
Table 3. Geologic Time Scale

EON ERA PERIOD EPOCHS MILLIONS OF YEARS AGO
Holocene
Quaternary
Pleistocene
Pliocene
Cenozoic Miocene 1.6
Phanerozoic
Tertiary Oligocene
Eocene
Paleocene
Mesozoic Cretaceous 66
Jurassic 138
Triassic 205
Permian 240
Pennsylvanian 290
Mississippian 330
Paleozoic Devonian 360
Silurian 410
Ordovician 435
Cambrian 500
Late Proterozoic
Proterozoic Middle Proterozoic 570
Early Proterozoic
Late Archean
Archean Middle Archean 2500
Early Archean
Hadean Pre-Archean 3800-
d) Important Details on Earth and Its History

- Earth is estimated to have formed around 4.5 billion years ago
- situated in the Goldilocks zone: where temperatures are just right for liquid water to
exist and for life to evolve
- Ptolemy: proposed that planets were tiny spheres orbiting Earth (geocentric model)
- Nicolaus Copernicus: proposed celestial bodies orbited the Sun (heliocentric model)
Theories on Earth Formation

i. Core Accretion Model (for terrestrial planets)
The gravitational collapse of a solar nebula led it to spin faster until it
flattened into a disk with its particles colliding and sticking together to form
what is now the Solar System. Earth’s rocky core formed first during collision
and gravity captured gases to form the atmosphere.
ii. Disk Instability Model (for gas giants)
Clumps of dust and gas are bound together early on and slowly compact into
giant planets that can form faster than core accretion planets allowing them
to trap rapidly-vanishing lighter gases and quickly reach an orbit-stabilizing
mass keeping them away from the sun.
iii. Pebble Accretion Model
Smaller pebble-sized objects fused together to build giant planets up to a
thousand times faster
Important Celestial Bodies. Natural bodies outside of the Earth’s atmosphere.

a) Stars
- spheroids of plasma with own heat and light held together by its own gravity
- Sun: nearby star to Earth
- grouped into constellations

b) Planets
- Bodies that revolve around a star that is enormous enough to hold a spherical shape
but not huge enough to cause thermonuclear fusion
- Exoplanets/Extrasolar planets: planets revolving around stars other than the sun
Low-Density Giant Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Stony Terrestrials: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
c) Satellites
- natural celestial objects with a recognized orbit around a planet of the Solar System
Dwarf Planets with natural satellites: Pluto, Haumea, Makemake, and Eris
- the Moon is Earth’s only natural satellite
Phases of the Moon

i. New Moon: The moon is between the Earth and the Sun with the side of the
moon facing towards Earth not getting direct sunlight to illuminate it.
ii. Waxing Crescent: One side of the moon slowly becomes illuminated by direct
sunlight as it revolves around Earth.
iii. First Quarter: The moon is 90° away from the sun, has traveled a quarter of its
revolution around Earth, and is half-illuminated as seen from the Earth.
iv. Waxing Gibbous: More than half of the moon is illuminated by sunlight as
seen from the Earth
v. Full Moon: The moon is 180° away from the sun, has traveled half of its
revolution around Earth, and is fully illuminated as seen from the Earth.
vi. Waning Gibbous: From the full moon phase, illumination decreases leaving
more than half of the moon illuminated as seen from Earth.
vii. Last Quarter: The moon has moved to the third quarter position and is half-
illuminated as seen from Earth.
viii. Waning Crescent: Less than half of the moon appears to be illuminated and
illumination decreases until it goes back to the new moon phase.
Eclipses
-Eclipses happen when a celestial body such as a moon or a planet moves
into the shadow of another body.
i. Solar Eclipse
-happens when the moon moves between the sun and the Earth at
some point of its orbit and blocks the light of the sun from reaching
the Earth and casts a shadow onto Earth.
Types of Solar Eclipse

1. Total Solar Eclipse: [Sun, Moon, and Earth are in a direct line.]
Visible only for those viewing from the small part of the Earth
that is in the center of the shadow casted by the moon on the
Earth’s surface.
2. Partial Solar Eclipse: [Sun, Moon, and Earth not exactly aligned.]
The sun appears to have a dark shadow on only a small part of
its surface.
3. Annular Solar Eclipse:
The moon appears smaller because, at this point, it is farthest
from the Earth and cannot entirely block the view of the sun.
The moon in front of the sun looks like a dark disk with a sun-
colored ring around it.
Source: Earthsky.org Annual Solar Eclipse (June 21, 2020)
umbra: the dark center of the shadow casted by the moon on Earth
penumbra: the second shadow slightly less darker than the umbra
ii. Lunar Eclipse

-happens when Earth moves between the sun and the moon and
blocks the sunlight that is normally reflected by the moon. Earth’s
shadow falls on the moon.
-can only occur when the moon is full
Types of Lunar Eclipse

1. Total Lunar Eclipse: [Moon and Sun on exact opposites of Earth]
Although the moon is in Earth’s shadow, some sunlight reaches
the moon passing through Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere
filters most of the blue light so the moon appears red from the
Earth’s viewpoint.
2. Partial Lunar Eclipse:
Earth’s shadow appears very dark on the side of the moon
facing Earth and only a portion of the moon enters the Earth’s
shadow.
d) Comets
- icy celestial objects that warm up when traveling close to
the Sun and starts to emit gases (outgassing)
- mainly composed of dust and ice
- distinguished from asteroids by an extended atmosphere
near its core composed of:
nucleus: frozen center of gas and dust particles
coma: glow surrounding core from gases released
due to solar radiation
tail: dust and gas emitting out from the coma
Source: EarthHow Comet Facts
- Kuiper belt: a region like a thick disk of icy

bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune
- Oort cloud: a much more distant region of
icy comet-like bodies surrounding the Solar
System including the Kuiper belt
-
e) Asteroids
- small bodies that orbit around the sun but
possess neither planet-like discs nor distinct
characteristics of a comet such as the coma
and tail
- mainly composed of minerals and rocks
- Ceres: largest asteroid (1,000 km across)
- Asteroid belt: located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
-
f) Meteors, Meteoroids, and Meteorites
Meteoroid -a space rock that’s bigger than a dust grain but smaller than an asteroid
Meteor -a.k.a. “shooting star”; a piece of rock that enters the atmosphere
Meteorite -a piece of space rock that lands on Earth; may be a portion of a meteor
Attribute: This image has been designed using resources from Freepik.com
Galaxies
- gravitational systems of stars, interstellar gas, stellar fragments, dust, and dark matter
- characterized according to visual morphology: Ellipticals, Spirals, Lenticulars, Irregular
Ellipticals oval-shaped, stars, little dust, and interstellar matter orbit a galactic
center in random directions
Spirals flat spinning disk with central bulge surrounded by spiral arms
Lenticulars resemble lenses, thin rotating disk of stars with a central bulge but
without spiral arms, also have little dust and interstellar matter
Irregular galaxies that are not elliptical, spiral, or lenticular
- most are gravitationally systematized into groups, clusters, and superclusters

- the universe contains several thousands of galaxies
Some Notable Galaxies
▪ Milky Way - a flattened disk with spiral arms containing dust, stars, and gas
rotating as a barred spiral galaxy from a center point
- contains 200 billion stars including our Solar System
▪ Andromeda – spiral galaxy that houses about a trillion stars (double or triple the
stars in the Milky Way)
▪ Black Eye - has a dark band of absorbing dust in front of its nucleus (“Evil Eye”)
▪ Sombrero - spiral galaxy in the constellation Virgo
▪ Bode’s - spiral galaxy in the constellation Ursa Major
▪ Cartwheel - lenticular galaxy and ring galaxy in the constellation Sculptor

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ALAMag: ALigning the youth to Achieve Greater Magnitudes

For questions and inquiries: facebook.com/alamag.reviews

Fundamentals of General Science

1. Make an observation. Identify a problem from observations.

Results may support or oppose the hypothesis.

b) Units and Dimensional Analysis

Table 1. The Seven Fundamental S.I. Units

Some Derived Units from S.I. base units:

Metric Prefixes -used for metric conversions in powers of 10

c) Significant Figures and Operations

Addition and Subtraction Rules for Significant Figures

Multiplication and Division Rules for Significant Figures

❖ When writing in Scientific Notation, exponential digits are not significant.

d) Accuracy and Precision

Overview of Earth Science

• Volcanology – study of volcanoes

0.97% - Argon and Carbon dioxide Argon and Carbon dioxide

b) Layers of the Atmosphere

c) Important Weather Patterns

▪ Cold Front – cold air mass replaces warm air mass

d) Clouds and the Water Cycle

High-Level Clouds (5-13 km): Cirrocumulus, Cirrus, Cirrostratus

Source: University Corporation for Atmospheric Research

The Water Cycle (Hydrologic Cycle)

- ©Howard Perlman, USGS. Public domain.

Fundamental Components of the Water Cycle

iii. Evapotranspiration: sum of the processes of evaporation from the land

e) Winds and Breezes

Layers of rocks are originally laid down horizontally.

Answer: Chronology (Oldest-Youngest) – d, b, c, e

Unconformities happen when formation of basement rocks and deposition of

▪ Nonconformity - occur when sedimentary rock is deposited on top of

b) Absolute Dating (Radiometric Dating)

c) Geologic Time Scale

Table 3. Geologic Time Scale

d) Important Details on Earth and Its History

Theories on Earth Formation

Important Celestial Bodies. Natural bodies outside of the Earth’s atmosphere.

- grouped into constellations

Phases of the Moon

Types of Solar Eclipse

Source: Earthsky.org Annual Solar Eclipse (June 21, 2020)

ii. Lunar Eclipse

Types of Lunar Eclipse

- Kuiper belt: a region like a thick disk of icy

- most are gravitationally systematized into groups, clusters, and superclusters

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