2 Biology

ALAMag: ALigning the youth to Achieve Greater Magnitudes
For questions and inquiries: facebook.com/alamag.reviews

Biology Module – Week 2
BIOLOGY
Bios = “Life” + Logos = “Study”; study of life and organisms
I. Mechanisms of Evolution
• Evolution: change through time

• Mutation: heritable radical change in gene of an individual, brought on by factors such as
radiation, chemicals, or extremes in temperature
• Concept of Evolution:
o Paleontology: fossils from sedimentary
o Catastrophism: by Cuvier (developed paleontology); past events were sudden and
occurred with mechanisms different from present events
o Uniformitarianism: by Lyell; mechanisms of change are constant over time
• Theory of Natural Selection (The Origin of Species)

o Descent with Modification
o Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, Adaptation
• Addition Information:
o Endemism: species found nowhere else in the world (in a certain island only)
o Continental drift: from Pangaea; broke apart 250 mya to today’s continents
Evidence for Evolution
A. Natural Selection: a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive
and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals
➢Adaptation
➢Lamarckian Evolution (individuals could change to develop adaptations for the
environment) vs Darwinian Evolution (organisms that are best adapted for an environment
survive and reproduce)
• Artificial Selection: process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to
selectively develop particular phenotypic traits
Figure 1. Humans have modified other species over many gen. by selecting and breeding individuals that possess desired traits called artificial selection.
B. Homology
➢Homologous Structures: Anatomically similar; different functions
➢Vestigial Structures: no apparent function and appear to be residual parts from a past
ancestor
Figure 2. Wisdom teeth
C. Fossils: provide valuable information about evolutionary changes
D. Biogeography: geographic distribution of species

E. Molecular Clocks: Based on DNA and protein sequences

F. Embryology
G. Origin of Species
➢Speciation
o Allopatric: gene flow is reduced when two populations of one species become
geographically separated from each other
o Sympatric: population forms a new species within the same area as the parent
species
II. Evolutionary History of Biological Diversity

A. Life Classification of Organisms
Binomial Nomenclature
- biologists use a standard way of naming organisms
- systematic way of giving scientific names by Genus species
- Carolus Linnaeus
B. Levels of Classification
King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
Increase similarity, Decrease in members
Decrease similarity, Increase in members
• The Five Kingdoms
o Prokarya/Bacteria
▪ No membrane bound nucleus containing the genetic material of cell
▪ “Prokaryotes”
▪ Plasmids: where genetic material is found within cell’s cytoplasm
▪ Bacterial also comprise the Superkingdom Prokarya
o Animalia
▪ Multi-celled organisms which develop from an embryo resulting from the fertilization of
an egg by a much smaller sperm
o Plantae
▪ Multi-celled organisms that grow from embryos that are usually the result of sexual
fusion of male and female cell
o Fungi
▪ Non-motile cells that have cell walls made of chitin (same hard stuff that the outer
bodies of insects are made of) and not cellulose
o Protista
▪ Catch all kingdom for everything that does not fit into the other four
A. Phylogenetic Tree VS. Cladogram
o Phylogenetic – shows the phylogenetic history of organisms with respect to
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
Figure 3. homology (same origin/ancestry) analogy (same function but different ancestry)
How to read a phylogenetic tree?

▪ Monophyletic - includes the most recent common ancestor of a group of

organisms, and all of its descendents
▪ Paraphyletic - includes the most recent common ancestor, but not all of its descendents
▪ Polyphyletic - does not include the common ancestor of all members of the taxon
o Cladogram – shows the relationship between different organisms based on their

DIFFERENT SIMILARITIES.
III. Plant Form and Function

A. Plant Structure, Growth and Development
➢Basic plant organs: ROOTS, STEMS, LEAVES
o Root: multicellular organ
- anchors a vascular plant in the soil
- absorbs minerals and water
- stores food
- transports water and food
- produce hormones
o Stem: organ consisting of alternating system of nodes
- points at which leaves are attached
- Stems increase in length through the activity of an apical
meristem at the apex of root/shoot
o Leaf: main photosynthetic organ
- Site of transpiration and storage of food and water
• Plant Tissue System
➢ Dermal Tissue System: plant’s outer protective covering
➢ Vascular Tissue System: xylem and phloem
➢ Ground Tissue System: tissues that are neither dermal nor
vascular (pith and cortex)
• Plant Cell Types: based on thickness of cell wall

➢ Parenchyma: primary cell wall is uniformly thin; for
photosynthesis
➢ Collenchyma: primary cell is unevenly thickened; support for
growing plant
➢ Sclerenchyma: primary & secondary cell walls are both present;
for mechanical support, functionally dead at maturity for they lack
protoplasts unlike parenchyma + collenchyma cells
➢Xylem vs Phloem
o Xylem transports water and solutes from the roots to the leaves.
o Phloem transports food from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
B. Angiosperm Reproduction
Part Function
Sepals outermost whorl of floral parts; protects flower before it blooms
present if species is pollinated by animals; if wind-pollinated,
Petals petals
will be absent
Stamen male part of the flower
Filament stalk that holds up anther
Anther produces pollen (sperm)
Carpel/pistil female part of the flower; produces the egg
Stigma sticky surface that receives the pollen
Style long tube through which the pollen tube grows
Ovary contains the ovule (egg); turns into the fruit open fertilization
C. Plant responses
➢Phototropism: plant movement in response to light
➢Gravitropism: plant movement in response to gravity
➢Thigmotropism: plant movement in response to touch
Figure 4. The shoot is exhibiting phototropism. The root is exhibiting gravitropism.

IV. Animal Form and Function
A. Animal Forms, Function and Nutrition
• Physiology vs Anatomy
o Anatomy – structure of body parts
o Physiology – functions and relationships of the body parts
• Main groups of animal tissues:

o Epithelial tissue forms active interfaces with the environment on
external and internal surfaces of the body.
o Connective tissue binds and supports other tissues.
o Muscle tissue contracts, moving the parts of the body.
o Nervous tissue transmits nerve impulses throughout the body
• Homeostasis: maintenance of a steady state despite internal and external
changes
o Negative Feedback: response reduces the stimulus
o Positive Feedback: amplification of a stimulus by the response and often
brings about a change in state
➢Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores

o Herbivores mainly eat plants;
o Carnivores mainly eat other animals; and
o Omnivores eat both.
B. Circulation and Gas Exchange
➢Major Functions: Carry oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients throughout
the body
➢Major Parts: Heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
➢Interaction: The respiratory systems allows for the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide in the blood. The circulatory system supplies oxygen to
muscles, which allows them to move
C. The Immune System
➢Major Functions: Creation of white blood cells and fight off infections
➢Major Parts: Bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus
➢Interactions: Bone marrow (skeletal system) produces white blood cells,
which are carried in the blood (circulatory system).
➢Innate Immunity
: targets everything perceived to be a foreign threat
: outer wall of defense (skin, hair in the nose, mucosal lining, lining of lungs)
o Macrophage: the primary white blood cells of the innate system,
attack anything foreign
o Natural Killer Cell: searches and destroys abnormal/infected cells
(secondary backup when adaptive immune function has been
compromised)
➢Adaptive Immunity: targets specific threats that it recalls from past
memory.
o Cellular Immunity:
- Allows different types of lymphocytes (WBC specialists) to
recognize and eliminate abnormal cells
o Humoral Immunity:
- Recognizing foreign antigens (flags) and creating antibodies
against harmful pathogens
D. Osmoregulation and Excretion

➢Major Function: Filter blood to get rid of waste products and produce urine
➢Major Parts: Kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra
➢Interactions: Blood from the circulatory system is filtered. The bladder is a

muscular organ
E. Hormones and the Endocrine System

➢Major Function: Releases hormones, Involved in growth, metabolism, blood
sugar regulation
➢Major Parts: Hypothalamus, thyroid, pancreas, ovaries, testes
➢Interactions: Hormones travel through the blood (circulatory system). The
ovaries and testes are directly involved in the reproductive system.
Figure 5. Negative - dampens the stimulus; Positive - amplifies the stimulus & drives the response to completion.
F. Animal Reproduction: process which organisms give rise to new individuals

➢ Types:
a. Sexual Reproduction – requires the fusion of male and female gametes,
forming a diploid zygote. If differentiated, female sex cell is called an egg cell
while male sex cell is called sperm.
Special Cases:
• Hermaphroditism/Hermaphrodite: organism capable of producing
both eggs and sperm; self fertilization
b. Asexual Reproduction -- production of offspring without gamete fusion
Figure 6. Binary Fission - division of cell; Budding - hydra; Fragmentation - starfish

Fission: division of cell into two parts (Binary)
Budding: a new organism develops from an outgrowth
Fragmentation: in multicellular organisms when body of organism
breaks into two or more parts each of which will form a new
organism
Parthenogenesis: offspring develops from unfertilized eggs.
Ex.: Bees
• Additional Info (Human Reproduction)
➢ Female Reproductive System:

Two ovaries, the female gonads, produce mature eggs. Leading away from the
ovaries are the fallopian tubes/oviducts, the site of fertilization. The uterus, a
muscular organ with an expandable neck called the cervix, houses the
developing fetus, which leaves the woman’s body through the vagina/birth
canal
➢ Male Reproductive System:
The organs of male reproductive system enable a man to have sexual
intercourse and to fertilize female sex cells (eggs) with sperm. The gonads,
called testicles, produce sperm. Sperm pass through a long duct called the vas
deferens to the seminal vesicles, a pair of sacs that lies behind the bladder.
These sacs produce seminal fluid, which mixes with sperm to produce semen.
Semen leaves the seminal vesicles and travels through the prostate gland,
which produces additional secretions that are added to semen. During male
orgasm the penis ejaculates semen.
G. Animal Development
➢Cleavage:
a period of rapid cell division → production of large number of cells a.k.a.
blastomeres
➢Gastrulation:
converts blastula to gastrula (primitive digestive cavity)
o Germ Layers:
Ectoderm (tissue of an embryo in early development)
Endoderm (internal layer)
Mesoderm (skeletal muscles, smooth muscle)
H. Nervous Systems
➢Major function: sends signal throughout the body
➢Major parts: brain, spinal cord, nerves, neurons (brain cells)
➢Interactions: The nervous system controls every other body system.
Figure 7. Brain has three major components: cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem. Cerebrum is responsible for intelligence and
reasoning. Cerebellum - helps to maintain balance and posture. Medulla - involved in maintaining involuntary functions
such as respiration.
I. Animal Behavior
➢Foraging: food-obtaining behavior
➢Mating System
o Monogamous: one male mating with one female

o Polygamous: individual of one sex mating with several of other
(polygyny: one male & polyandry: one female)
V. Ecology
: study of interactions between living things and their environments
A. Ecology
➢Different level of ecological interaction:
o Biosphere: entire part of earth where living things exist
- Biomes: division of large regions of Biosphere
i. Tundra:
◼ Regions: northernmost
◼ Plant life: few, if any tree; primarily grasses
and wildflowers
◼ Characteristics: permafrost (frozen soil); has
a short growing season
◼ Animal life: lemmings, arctic foxes, snowy
owls, caribou and reindeer
ii. Taiga:
◼ Region: northern forests
◼ Plant life: wind-blown conifers (evergreens),
stunted in growth, possess modified spikes
for leaves
◼ Characteristics: very cold, long winters
◼ Animal Life: includes caribou, wolves,
moose, bear, rabbits and lynx
iii. Temperate Deciduous Forest
◼ Region: northeast and middle eastern
United States, western Europe
◼ Plant life: deciduous trees that drop their
leaves in winter
◼ Characteristics: moderate precipitation;
warm summers, cold winters
◼ Animal life: includes deer, wolves, bear,
small mammals, birds
iv. Grasslands
◼ Region: American Midwest, Eurasia, Africa,
South America
◼ Plant life: grasses
◼ Characteristics: hot summers, cold winters;
unpredictable rainfall
◼ Animal life: includes prairie dogs, bison,
foxes, ferrets, grouse, snakes and lizards
v. Deserts
◼ Region: Western United States
◼ Plant life: sparse, includes cacti, drought-

resistant plants
◼ Characteristics: arid, low rainfall: extreme
diurnal temperature shifts
◼ Animal life: includes jackrabbits (in North
America), owls, kangaroo rats, lizards,
snakes, tortoises
vi. Tropical Rain Forests
◼ Region: South America
◼ Plant life: high biomass; diverse types
◼ Characteristics: high rainfall and
temperatures; impoverished soil
◼ Animal life: includes sloths, snakes,
monkeys, birds, leopards, and insects
o Ecosystem: interaction of living and nonliving things
o Community: a group of populations interacting in the same area

- All organisms within a community fill one of the following
roles: producers (autotrophs), consumers (heterotrophs) or
decomposers
- Producers/Autotrophs: raw building blocks to make their
own food
- Consumers/Heterotrophs: forced to find their energy
sources in the outside world
- Decomposers: organisms that break down organic matter
into simple products/garbage collectors in our environment
- Niche: its position/function in a community
o
Population: a group of individuals that belong to the same species
and that are interbreeding
o Types of consumers (heterotrophs)
- Herbivore: eats plants only (ex. cow)
- Carnivore: eats animals only (ex. lion)
- Omnivore: eats both plants and animals (ex. bear, humans)
- Decomposer: externally digest dead organic matter (ex.
bacteria, fungi)
- Detritivore: internally digest dead organic matter (ex.
earthworm, vulture)
➢ Ecological Relationships
1. Predation: a predator (the one hunting) feed on its prey (the
organism that is attacked)
2. Competition: the fitness of one is lowered by the presence of
another
3. Symbiosis
- type of a close and long-term biological interaction between
two different biological organisms
- Basic types of symbiotic relationship:
i. Mutualism: both organisms win (ex.: lichen)
ii. Commensalism: one organism lives off another with
no harm to the “host” organism (ex.: remora)
iii. Parasitism: organism actually harms its host
B. Human Impact on Environment
➢Greenhouse effect: increasing atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide
➢Ozone depletion: pollution has also led to the depletion of atmospheric

ozone layer such chemicals as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which are used in
aerosol cans
➢Acid rain: burning of fossil fuels produces pollutants such as sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide
➢Desertification: when land is overgrazed by animals, it turns grasslands →

deserts and reduces the available habitats for organisms
➢Deforestation: when forests are cleared (slash and burn method), erosion,
floods, and changes in weather patterns can occur
➢Pollution: another environmental concern is the toxic chemicals in our

environment
o Biomagnification: concentration of a harmful substance increase in
organisms at higher trophic levels in a food chain/food web
➢Reduction in biodiversity: as different habitats have been destroyed, many

plants and animals have become extinct.
REFERENCES
Reece, J. B., & Campbell, N. A. (2011). Campbell biology. Boston: Benjamin

Cummings / Pearson.

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ALAMag: ALigning the youth to Achieve Greater Magnitudes

For questions and inquiries: facebook.com/alamag.reviews

• Evolution: change through time

• Theory of Natural Selection (The Origin of Species)

Evidence for Evolution

Figure 2. Wisdom teeth

C. Fossils: provide valuable information about evolutionary changes

D. Biogeography: geographic distribution of species

E. Molecular Clocks: Based on DNA and protein sequences

II. Evolutionary History of Biological Diversity

King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti

Increase similarity, Decrease in members

Decrease similarity, Increase in members

• The Five Kingdoms

How to read a phylogenetic tree?

▪ Monophyletic - includes the most recent common ancestor of a group of

o Cladogram – shows the relationship between different organisms based on their

III. Plant Form and Function

• Plant Cell Types: based on thickness of cell wall

Figure 4. The shoot is exhibiting phototropism. The root is exhibiting gravitropism.

• Main groups of animal tissues:

➢Herbivores, Carnivores, Omnivores

D. Osmoregulation and Excretion

➢Interactions: Blood from the circulatory system is filtered. The bladder is a

E. Hormones and the Endocrine System

F. Animal Reproduction: process which organisms give rise to new individuals

Figure 6. Binary Fission - division of cell; Budding - hydra; Fragmentation - starfish

• Additional Info (Human Reproduction)

➢ Female Reproductive System:

o Monogamous: one male mating with one female

◼ Plant life: sparse, includes cacti, drought-

o Community: a group of populations interacting in the same area

➢Ozone depletion: pollution has also led to the depletion of atmospheric

➢Desertification: when land is overgrazed by animals, it turns grasslands →

➢Pollution: another environmental concern is the toxic chemicals in our

➢Reduction in biodiversity: as different habitats have been destroyed, many

Reece, J. B., & Campbell, N. A. (2011). Campbell biology. Boston: Benjamin

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