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Module Overview
This module is designed for Bachelor of Elementary Education that introduces
Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan with Entrepreneurship in the Philippine educational
context.
This course shall include pedagogical content, knowledge and skills in technology and
livelihood education necessary in teaching and learning in the elementary level. Selected topics
in agriculture, industrial arts, fisheries, and livelihood education and entrepreneurship shall
form a major part of the course. The students will learn appropriate teaching and assessment
strategies and techniques including preparation of fruitful and usable projects that can be
utilized in teaching TLE in the elementary grades. This course will utilize project based and
experiential learning approaches.
1. Learning Compass
This portion orients you with the learning outcomes for the learning unit.
2. Let’s Begin!
After the identification of learning outcomes and overview for every lesson, you will be
given a task that leads you to the key concepts to be discussed in that unit.
3. Let’s Learn
This serves as the discussion of the concepts of each lesson.
4. Take Note!
This provides the summary of the important concepts of the lesson.
5. How Far Have We Gone?
To check whether the given learning outcomes are met, you are given another task to
assess the extent of understanding.
6. Walk the Extra Mile!
Every unit is ended with suggested activities for the enrichment of learning and further
application of what has been learned.
This module also includes a Chapter Reflection at the end of every chapter to
jot down your thoughts by answering self-introspective questions. Rubrics are also found
in this module’s Appendices for your reference in making your outputs. Just follow the
notes below each exercise and
activity for guidance. Lastly, a Course Feedback is provided at the end of this module
for you to share your evaluative feedback of this module. This part will be our basis for
improvement for future revision.
UNIT 1
IMPORTANCE OF EDUKASYONG
PANTAHANAN AT PANGKABUHAYAN WITH
ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN THE K-12
CURRICULUM
“The best way to predict the FUTURE, is to create it!” – Peter Drucker
LESSON 1
Importance of Edukasyon Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan with
Entrepreneurship in the K-12 Curriculum
Learning Compass
At the end of the unit, the pre-service teacher can:
explain the importance of EPP in the holistic development of the learner
for the improvement of their quality of life, their family and their
community
explain and be guided by the different learning theories needed in
teaching EPP.
Let’s Begin!
…are you ready to share your knowledge? Here we go…
While the society all around is developing with technology and innovations, the K-12 schools
have been in a stagnant scenario. Education is the driving force behind every country’s economy, directly
or indirectly. Sure, many schools have adapted to modernization, and have started making students work
in groups to solve problems, learn online and integrate science with arts. But it is noticed even then,
students that are graduating lack the advanced skills and innovative thinking to work through the
modern day challenges in the workplace. Thus, entrepreneurship, the capacity to not only start
companies, but also to think creatively and ambitiously, is very important to be included in school
curriculum.
Entrepreneurship education aids students from all socioeconomic backgrounds to think outside
the box and nurture unconventional talents and skills. It creates opportunities, ensures social justice,
instills confidence and stimulates the economy. Entrepreneurship education is a lifelong learning process,
starting as early as elementary school and progressing through all levels of education, including adult
education.
Introducing young kids to entrepreneurship develops their initiative and helps them to be more
creative and self-confident in whatever they undertake and to act in a socially responsible way.
A. Industrial Arts
Industrial Arts has an important role to play as part of general education in our modern
society. Each day our world becomes more mechanized and technical with the invention and production
of more labor-saving devices. Many tradesmen and technicians are needed to install, operate, and
service these modern pieces of equipment. Industrial Arts offers the student an opportunity to acquire
some insight into various technical and trade areas. Lab or shop classes are not designed to turn out
tradesmen or technicians but are for the purpose of acquainting the student with various occupations
requiring some type of mental manual skill. Industrial Art class experiences will have carry-over value in
later life, in job situations, in consumer knowledge, or possibly in home maintenance. Vocational
Building Trades provides students an opportunity to explore twenty areas of pre-apprenticeship training
for those that are considering construction as a career. Craftsmanship is not dead; it just has to be
taught and honored.
Carpentry is a skilled trade and a craft in which the primary work performed is the
cutting, shaping and installation of building materials during the construction
of buildings, ships, timber bridges, concrete formwork, etc. Carpenters traditionally
worked with natural wood and did the rougher work such as framing, but today many
other materials are also used and sometimes the finer trades of cabinetmaking and
furniture building are considered carpentry.
Plumbing may be defined as the practice, materials, and fixtures used in installing,
maintaining, and altering piping, fixtures, appliances, and appurtenances in connection
with sanitary or storm drainage facilities, a venting system, and public or private water
supply systems. Plumbing does not include drilling water wells; installing water softening
equipment; or manufacturing or selling plumbing fixtures, appliances, equipment, or
hardware. A plumbing system consists of three parts: an adequate potable water supply
system; a safe, adequate drainage system; and ample fixtures and equipment.
Electronics is the study of how to control the flow of electrons. It deals with circuits that
are made with parts called components and connecting wires that control the flow
of electricity and direct it to do useful things.
Metal works is the process of shaping and reshaping metals to create useful objects,
parts, assemblies, and large scale structures. As a term it covers a wide and diverse
range of processes, skills, and tools for producing objects on every scale: from huge
ships, buildings, and bridges down to precise engine parts and delicate jewelry.
B. Home Economics
Is a field of study that is primarily concerned with strengthening family life and increasing
productivity of individuals in the social economy. It synthesizes knowledge from arts and science-based
disciplines to improve manipulative skills, organizational skills and social skills (James, 2003).
Home economics is a broad field of knowledge and services concerned with all phases of family
life. Lemchi (2001) also noted that Home Economics is a skill-oriented subject which is capable of
equipping the individuals with basic skills and knowledge that will help them to be self-reliant and
thereby contribute to the social and economic development of the individual, the family, and the nation
at large.
Food, health and nutrition - Eating a well-balanced diet, with adequate nutrients and
appropriate calories, is a fundamental requirement for continued health. An appropriate
diet contributes to healthy development, healthy ageing and greater resilience against
disease. Similarly, a poor or inappropriate diet places people at greater risk of infection
and a range of chronic illnesses – including cancer, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular
disease.
Personal finance and family resources - is the financial management which an individual
or a family unit performs to budget, save, and spend monetary resources over time,
taking into account various financial risks and future life events
Textile and clothing is about the design, manufacture and marketing of clothing and
footwear and other textile products. Studying in this area includes learning
about fabrics and other materials and about weaving, dyeing, printing, pattern-making,
sewing, washing, etc.
Consumer science is a social discipline that focuses on the interaction between people
and the environment. Some of the topics addressed by a specialist in consumer
science are nutrition, aging, housing, food safety, community, and parenting.
Household management refers to the various tasks and chores associated with the
organization, financial management, and day-to-day operations of a home.
Housekeeping is a term that is sometimes used to refer to the cleaning and physical
upkeep of a house, as distinct from financial issues or outdoor maintenance.
Human development is defined as the process of enlarging people's freedoms and
opportunities and improving their well-being. Human development is about the real
freedom ordinary people have to decide who to be, what to do, and how to live.
C. Agriculture
Is the science and art of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the
rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created
food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities. The history of agriculture began thousands of
years ago. After gathering wild grains beginning at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers began to
plant them around 11,500 years ago. Pigs, sheep and cattle were domesticated over 10,000 years
ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture
based on large-scale monoculture in the twentieth century came to dominate agricultural output,
though about 2 billion people still depended on subsistence agriculture into the twenty-first.
Livestock Production. Livestock is commonly defined as domesticated animals raised in
an agricultural setting to produce labor and commodities such as meat, eggs, milk, fur,
leather, and wool.
Agricultural economics is an applied field of economics concerned with the application
of economic theory in optimizing the production and distribution of food and fiber.
Crop production. Irrigated farm areas mainly grow rice and sugarcane whereas rained
areas are planted with coconut, corn and cassava. The Philippines' major agricultural
products include rice, coconuts, corn, sugarcane, bananas, pineapples, and mangoes.
Modern Agriculture is a term used to describe the wide type of production practices
employed by American farmers. It makes use of hybrid seeds of selected variety of a
single
crop, technologically advanced equipment and lots of energy subsidies in the form of
irrigation water, fertilizers and pesticides.
D. Theories of Entrepreneurship
It is a universal fact that entrepreneurship is an important factor in economic development.
An Entrepreneur is the risk bearer and works under uncertainty. But no attempts were made by
economists for formulating systematic theory of entrepreneurship. According to William J. Baumol, the
economic theory has failed to provide a satisfactory analysis of either the role of the entrepreneurship or
its supply.
1. Economic Theory
The economic entrepreneurship theory has deep roots in the classical and neoclassical
theories of economics, and the Austrian market process (AMP). These theories explore the
economic factors that enhance entrepreneurial behavior.
2. Social Theory
Sociological theory is the third of the major entrepreneurship theories. Sociological
enterprise focuses on the social context .In other words, in the sociological theories the level
of analysis is traditionally the society (Landstrom, 1998)
3. Psychological Theory
The level of analysis in psychological theories is the individual (Landstrom, 1998). These
theories emphasize personal characteristics that define entrepreneurship. Personality traits
need for achievement and locus of control are reviewed and empirical evidence presented
for three other new characteristics that have been found to be associated with
entrepreneurial inclination. These are risk taking, innovativeness, and tolerance for
ambiguity
3.1 Personality Traits Theory
Coon (2004) defines personality traits as “stable qualities that a person shows in most
situations”. To the trait theorists there are enduring inborn qualities or potentials of the
individual that naturally make him an entrepreneur. The obvious and logical question on your
mind maybe, “What are the exact traits/inborn qualities?” The answer is not a straight forward
one since we cannot point out at particular traits. However, this model gives some insight into
these traits or inborn qualities by identifying the characteristics associated with the
While the trait model focuses on enduring inborn qualities and locus of control
on the individual's perceptions about the rewards and punishments in his or her life, (Pervin,
1980,), need for achievement theory by McClelland (1961) explained that human beings have a
need to succeed, accomplish, excel or achieve. Entrepreneurs are driven by this need to achieve
and excel. While there is no research evidence to support personality traits, there is evidence
for the relationship between achievement motivation and entrepreneurship (Johnson, 1990).
Achievement motivation may be the only convincing person logical factor related to new venture
creation (Shaver & Scott, 1991).
5. Opportunity-Based Theory
The opportunity-based theory is anchored by names such as Peter Drucker and Howard
Stevenson. An opportunity-based approach provides a wide-ranging conceptual framework for
entrepreneurship research (Fiet, 2002; Shane, 2000). Entrepreneurs do not cause change (as
claimed by the Schumpeterian or Austrian school) but exploit the opportunities that change (in
technology, consumer preferences etc.) creates (Drucker, 1985). He further says, “This defines
entrepreneur and entrepreneurship, the entrepreneur always searches for change, responds to
it, and exploits it as an opportunity”. What is apparent in Drucker’s opportunity construct is
that entrepreneurs have an eye more for possibilities created by change than the problems.
Stevenson (1990) extends Drucker’s opportunity-based construct to include resourcefulness.
This is based on research to determine the differences between entrepreneurial
management and administrative management. He concludes that the hub of entrepreneurial
management is the “pursuit of opportunity”.
Take Note!
REMEMBER:
Entrepreneurship education aids students from all socioeconomic backgrounds to think
outside the box and nurture unconventional talents and skills.
Content-
50 Clarity-
25
Creativity-
25
Total – 100%
REFERENCE
S
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture
https://www.economicsdiscussion.net/entrepreneurship/theories-of-
entrepreneurship/31823
https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/publications/books/housing/cha09.htm
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics#:~:text=Electronics%20is%20t
he%20study%20of,it%20to%20do%20useful%20things.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalworking
https://www.google.com/search?q=personal+finance+and+family+resourc
es&oq=%E2%80%A2%09personal+finance+and+family+resources&aqs=chr
ome.1.69i57j33i22i29i30l6.3876j0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_finance
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230814855_Entrepreneurship_t
heories_and_Empirical_research_A_Summary_Review_of_the_Literature
LESSON 2
Learning Theories and their Impact to EPP Teaching
Learning Compass
At the end of the unit, the pre-service teacher can:
explain and be guided by the different learning theories needed in teaching
EPP.
Let’s Begin!
…are you ready to share your knowledge? Here we go…
Think of a teacher that’s most unforgettable to you in elementary of high school. Are
there things that when you encounter at present (see, hear, touch, smell )make you “go back to
the past” and recall this teacher? What are these things?
Learning theory describes how students receive, process, and retain knowledge during
learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a
part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.
LEARNING THEORIES
BEHAVIORISM
The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It
emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes
occurring in the mind. Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from
Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.
Behaviorism
Advance Organizer
Primary Laws
Reinforcement
Law of Effect
Shaping of
Law of Exercise
Behavior
Law of Readiness
Edukasyong Pantahanan at Pangkabuhayan with Entrepreneurship 12 | 28
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical
conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment
involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s salivation
in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Bell No response
(Neutral stimulus)
Bell
(Neutral stimulus
Paired with
Salivation (Conditioned
Bell (Conditioned response)
Stimulus)
Somehow you were conditioned to associate particular objects with your teacher. So at present,
when you encounter the objects, you are also reminded of your teacher. This is an example of classical
conditioning.
time that the bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without
the sound of the bell.
Edward L. Thorndike Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework
of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he wrote a textbook
entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He
explained that learning is the result if associations forming between stimuli (S)
and responses (R). Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or
weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R
theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be
repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately
explained without considering any unobservable internal states.
Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has taken place when a strong connection or
bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws:
Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence to positive (reward) and the connection between the
stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike response
is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this “law” when he
found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some
seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the
stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like
the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice
without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the
stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a
stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the
teacher says, “Okay we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And
suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready to
respond to the stimulus but was prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all
ready to respond to stimuli and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying. For instance,
the teacher calls a student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher asks the question and
expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the
student. That is why teachers should remember to say the question first, and wait for a few
seconds before calling on anyone to answer.
John Watson
John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas.
He too was initially involved in animal studies, then later became involved in
human behavior research. He considered that humans are born with a few
reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is
learned through stimulus-response associations through conditioning. He
believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that if he is given a
dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you want them to be,
basically through making stimulus- response connections through conditioning.
Experiment on Albert
Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child and a
white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden noise each time
Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to
fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now, he was
also afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing
the rat without the loud noise.
Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today, nevertheless, his work did clearly
show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may
help us understand the fears, phobias, and prejudices that people develop.
Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he
studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment). Thus, his theory
came to be known as Operant Conditioning.
Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt
behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in
the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a
math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and a negative reinforcer.
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An example
of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area to children who behave
well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cellphone for her son who gets good
grades. Still, other examples include verbal phrases, star stamps, and stickers.
A negative reinforce is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response when it
is withdrawn or removed. A negative reinforce is not a punishment, in fact it is a reward. For instance, a
teacher announces that a student who gets an average grade of 1.5 for the two grading periods will no
longer take the final examination, the negative reinforce is “removing” the final exam, which we realize is
a form of reward for working hard and getting an average grade of 1.5.
Skinner also looked into extinction or non-reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced are
not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a student’s misbehavior may extinguish that behavior.
Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a
lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are
rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping,
the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the
lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pressing the lever.
Behavioral chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal
would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child
being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of
tying the shoelace is learned.
Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has
passed since the last reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforce) every 10
minutes, regardless of how many times it presses the bar.
Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time
that must pass between reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforce) different
intervals, not every ten minutes.
Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement
may recur. Example, the bird will be given food (reinforce) everytime it presses the bar 5 times.
Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for
reinforcement varies, example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times, then
after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs to
press the bar before it gets food again.
Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent
rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they
know that they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy lotto tickets
even when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win. While it is true that very rarely there
is a big winner, but once in a while somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement). People cannot predict
when the jackpot can be gotten (variable interval) so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of
response).
Implication of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed instruction.
1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) – answer (response) frames which expose
the student to the subject in gradual steps.
2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback.
3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a
positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal
praise, prizes and good grades.
Advance Organizer
Neo Behaviorism
Goal-Directedness Principles
Intervening Variables
Applied in human learning, since student passes by the same route going to school every day, he
acquires a cognitive map of the location of his school. So when the transportation re-routing is done, he
can still figure out what turns to make to get to school the shortest or easiest way.
Latent Learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. It is
learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can exist even without
reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the maze”
by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they
needed to.
Applied in human learning, a two-year old always sees her dad operate the t.v. remote control
and observes how the t.v. is turned on or how channel is changed, and volume adjusted. After sometime,
the parents are surprised that on the first time that their daughter holds the remote control, she already
knows which buttons to press for what function. Through latent learning, the child knew the skills
beforehand, even though she has never done them before.
The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables are variables that are not readily
seen but serve as determinants of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced
by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables.
Example, in his experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential
for leaning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was
able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze, i.e., to develop a cognitive map, even in the
absence of reinforcement.
SOCIAL LEARNING
Albert Bandura’s Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social
context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational
learning, imitation and modeling. The ten-year old boy Sergio Pelico did watch Saddam’s execution on TV
and then must have imitated it.
Among others, Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s behavior vicariously. This is known
as vicarious reinforcement. This is where the model is reinforced for a response and then the
observer shows an increase in that same response. Bandura illustrated this by having students
watch a film of a model hitting an inflated clown doll. One group of children saw the model
being praised for such action. Without being reinforced, the group of children began to also hit
the doll.
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as well as behaviorist factors (actually operant
factors)
1. Learning without performance: Bandura makes a distinction between learning through
observation and the actual imitation of what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman’s latent
learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorists content that attention is a critical
factor in learning.
3. Expectations: As a result of being reinforced, people form expectations about the consequences
that future behaviors are likely to bring. They expect certain behaviors to bring reinforcements
and others to bring punishment. The learner needs to be aware, however, of the response
reinforcements and response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only when the
learner is aware of that connection.
4. Reciprocal causation: bandura proposed that behavior can influence both the environment and
the person, in fat each of these three variables, the person, the behavior, and the environment
can have an influence on each other.
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There is the live model, an actual person
demonstrating the behavior. There can also be a symbolic model, which can be a person or
action portrayed in some other medium, such as television, videotape, computer programs.
4. Motivation – the final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation, learners must
want to demonstrate what they have learned. Remember that since these four conditions vary
among individuals, different people will reproduce the same behavior differently.
CONSTRUCTIVIST (CONSTRUCTIVISM)
What is meant by constructivism? The term refers to the idea that learners construct knowledge
for themselves---each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning---as he or she
learns. Constructing meaning is learning; there is no other kind. The dramatic consequences of this view
are twofold;
1) We have to focus on the learner in thinking about learning (not on the subject/lesson to be
taught):
2) There is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience (constructed) by
the learner, or community of learners.
Advance Organizer
Constructivism
Individual
Constructivism
Social Constructivism
In this quotation, “filling up the pail” is more linked to rote learning and behaviorism. It connotes that
teaching is dominated by the teacher and the learners are passive receivers of knowledge. “Lighting the fire”
is related to the cognitive perspective and constructivism. It signifies that teaching involves giving
opportunities for learners to explore and
discover. Learners construct their own meaning. Learners generate insights and are “enlightened”.
Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that “knowledge exists in a social context and is
initially shared with others instead of being represented solely in the mind of an individual.” It is based
on Vygotsky’s theory. Here, construction of knowledge is shared by two or more people. According to
social constructivists, the opportunity to interact and share among learners help to shape and refine
their knowledge construction becomes social, not individual.
Characteristics of Constructivism
Whether one takes the individual or social view of constructivism, there are four characteristics
that these two views have in common. According to Eggen and Kauchak, these are:
Organizing Knowledge
Concepts as Feature Lists. Learning a concept involves learning specific features that
characterize positive instance of the concept. Included here are defining features and
correlational feature. A defining feature is a characteristic present in ALL instances.
Example, a triangle has three sides. Having three sides is a defining feature of a triangle
because ALL triangles should have three sides. If one doesn’t then it is not a triangle. A
correlational feature is one that is present in many positive instances but not essential
for concept membership. For example, a mother is loving. Being loving is a feature
commonly present in the concept of a mother. But a mother may not be loving. So
“being loving” is only a correlational feature, not a defining one.
Concepts as Prototypes. A prototype is an idea or a visual image of a “typical” example.
It is usually formed based on the positive instances that learners encounter most often.
Example, close your eyes now and for a moment think of a cat. Picture in mind what it
looks like. You probably thought of an image of the common car we see, rather than
some rare breed or species. Once learners have their own concept of prototypes, the
new examples that they see are checked against this existing prototype.
Concepts as Exemplars. Exemplars represent a variety if examples. It allows learners to
know that an example under a concept may have variability. Example, a learner’s
concept of vegetable may include a variety of different examples like cauliflower,
kangkong, cabbage, string beans, squash, corn, potatoes. When he encounters a new
type of vegetable like “bitsuelas”, he would search from the exemplars he knows and
looks for one that is most similar, like string beans.
Making Concept-learning Effective. As a future teacher, you can help students learn concepts by doing
the following:
Schemas and scripts. A schema is an organized body of knowledge about something. It is like a file of
information you hold in your mind about something. Like a schema of what a teacher is. A script is a
schema that includes a series of predictable events about a specific activity. Examples would include
knowing the series of steps done when we visit a doctor, or what transpires at the beginning of the class
when the teacher arrives.
Your role as a teacher is to bring learners to construct their own knowledge such that they have
a well-organized set of concepts, aim to make clear those concepts that are still vague for them, and to
pave the way for them to overcome misconceptions. It is important that you acquire skills on how to
facilitate concept formation and development. Constructivism can be an excellent guide for you.
Aim to make learners understand a few key ideas in an in-depth manner, rather than taking u so
many topics superficially.
Give varied examples.
Provide opportunities for experimentation.
Provide lots of opportunities for quality interaction.
Have lots of hands-on activities.
Relate your topic to real life situations.
Do not depend on the explanation method all the time.
COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the foundation of
the cognitive perspective to learning. It opposed the external and mechanistic focus of behaviorism.
It considered the mental processes and products of perception.
Advance Organizer
Gestalt Psychology
Law of closure
Law of closure
Law of closure
Gestalt theory was the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of
sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception. The term gestalt means “form” or
“configuration.” Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and
concluded that perceivers (or learners) are not passive, but rather active. They suggested that learners do not
just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it. This is
the perceptual process. Certain factors impact on this perceptual process. Factors like past experiences,
needs, attitudes and one’s present situation can affect their perception.
Gestalt Principles
Law of Proximity. Elements that are closer together will be perceived
as coherent objective. On the left, there appears to be four columns,
while on the right, there appears to be four horizontal rows. When
objects we are perceiving are near each other, we perceive them as
belonging together.
Law of Similarity. Elements that look similar will be perceived as part of
the same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square. We link
similar elements together.
Law of Closure. We tend to fill the gaps or “close” the figures we perceive.
We close a space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.
Insight Learning
Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight. The idea
of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described experiments with apes
where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is
attached to the top of a chimpanzee’s cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing
on and jumping from a box. Only one Kohler’s apes (Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more
difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required
the ape to stable stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks which they used to rake food into the cage.
Sultan, Kohler’s very intelligent ape, was able to master a two-stick problem by inserting one stick into
the end of the other in order to reach the food. In each of these problems, the important aspect of
learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of
materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.
EXPERIANTIALISM
Learning by doing. This is the basis for the experiential learning theory. Experiential learning
focuses on the idea that the best ways to learn things is by actually having experiences. Those
experiences then stick out in your mind and help you retain information and remember facts.
David Kolb is best known for his work on the experiential learning theory or ELT. Kolb published
this model in 1984, getting his influence from other great theorists including John Dewey, Kurt Lewin,
and Jean Piaget. The experiential learning theory works in four stages—concrete learning, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation. The first two stages of the cycle
involve grasping an experience, the second two focus on transforming an experience. Kolb argues that
effective learning is seen as the learner goes through the cycle, and that they can enter into the cycle at
any time.
Concrete learning is when a learner gets a new experience, or interprets a past
experience in a new way.
Reflective observation comes next, where the learner reflects on their experience
personally. They use the lens of their experience and understanding to reflect on what
this experience means.
Abstract conceptualization happens as the learner forms new ideas or adjusts their
thinking based on the experience and their reflection about it.
Active experimentation is where the learner applies the new ideas to the world around
them, to see if there are any modifications to be made. This process can happen over a
short period of time, or over a long span of time.
Kolb went on to explain that learners will have their own preferences for how they enter the
cycle of experiential learning, and that these preferences boil down to a learning cycle.
Take Note!
REMEMBER:
REFERENCE
S
https://tarunagoel.blogspot.com/2017/08/why-we-need-learning-
theories.html
https://www.exploratorium.edu/education/ifi/constructivist-learning
https://www.wgu.edu/blog/experiential-learning-theory2006.html