Introduction

Historically, the discovery of radioactivity by Henry Becquerel in

1896 is considered as the first nuclear event ever observed. Three
types of radiation namely alpha, beta and gamma are emitted by
radioactive substances. By exploiting various properties of these
radiation and using as a probe, a series of events were observed
by physicists and chemists which led to the development of
nuclear physics as a full fledged branch of science. However, the
real beginning of nuclear physics may be ascribed to the highly
celebrated alpha-scattering experiment performed by Rutherford
and collaborators in 1911. Through this experiment not only the
existence of atomic nucleus was confirmed, its size was also
estimated. The size of atomic nucleus was found to be of the
order of 10-15 m (fm) while that of atom is 10-10 m (Å).
 Introduction

After confirming the existence of atomic nucleus an important

question arose; is the nucleus a single entity or made up of
something else? Initial proposal regarding the constituents of the
nucleus was that the atomic nucleus consists of positively
charged protons and negatively charged electrons. But various
facts were found against this proposal like uncertainty principle
demands electrons of energy of the order of 20 MeV when
confined in a space of order of fm but the electrons emitted
during beta decay have energy of the order of 1MeV only,
observed spin of deuteron is 1 while it is predicted to be ½ or 3/2
according to electron-proton nucleus model, observed magnetic
moment of deuteron is nearly 1/2000 of that expected from the
electronic nuclear model.
 Introduction

The real picture regarding the constituents of nucleus emerged

after the discovery of neutrons by Chadwick in 1932. A nucleus
containing Z number of protons and A number of total nucleons is
represented as ZXA, where X is the chemical symbol of the
element. Thus the atomic nucleus is a bound system consisting of
protons and neutrons. The binding energy of nuclei can be
estimated from the mass measurements. The total mass of the
nucleus is found smaller than the sum of the masses of the
individual nucleons. This mass difference is termed as mass
defect and the energy equivalent to mass difference is the binding
energy.
 Introduction
The binding energy of deuteron is ~ 2 MeV or 1 MeV/A while
that of alpha (Helium Nucleus) is ~ 7 MeV/A and afterwards
BE/A becomes nearly constant at 8 MeV/A. The initial quick rise
in the BE may be ascribed to the short range of nuclear
interaction. Owing to short range of nuclear interaction nucleons
in the deuteron tend to pull each other in a small region.
According to the uncertainty principle the nucleon confined to
such a small region acquire large kinetic energy and hence the
deuteron is a loosely bound system. On the other hand in case of
helium the number of bonds are six while there is only one bond
in deuteron and since the potential energy is proportional to the
number of bonds (1/2)A(A-1) its binding energy is very large in
comparison to deuteron. Kinetic energy is proportional to the
total number of nucleons (four in helium and two in deuteron).
 Introduction

It is very natural now to ask which force is responsible for the

binding of the nuclei? Since the already known gravitational and
the electromagnetic forces could not explain the binding of
nuclei, a new kind of strong nuclear force was introduced to
explain the binding of nuclei. The exact nature of the nuclear
force is still unknown but various qualitative features of nuclear
force may be inferred from binding energy curve and from the
observations of scattering experiments.
 Nuclear Model

The purpose of a nuclear model is to provide a practical means of predicting nuclear

properties and of explaining various experimentally observed facts about nuclei.
Some of the experimental characteristics of nuclei to be described by model are
listed below.
1. Nuclear angular momenta 𝐽 of ground levels
for even-Z, even-N nuclides, 𝐽 = 0.
for odd-Z, odd-N nuclides, 𝐽 = 1, 2, 3, …
1 3
for odd-A nuclides, 𝐽 = , ,…
2 2
Mirror nuclei have equal 𝐽.
2. Magnetic dipole moments 𝜇, and their approximate relationship with 𝐽.
 Nuclear Model
3. Electric quadrupole moments 𝑄and their systematic empirical variation with 𝑍 or
𝑁.
4. Existence of isomers and their statistical concentration in the regions of 𝑁 or 𝑍=40 to
50 and 70 to 80 (the so-called islands of isomerism)
 Nuclear Model
5. Discontinuities of nuclear binding energy and of neutron or proton separation energy,
as seen for particular values of 𝑁 or 𝑍.
 Nuclear Model
6. Substantially constant density of nuclei with radius 𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3 .
7. Approximate constancy of BE/A as well as its definitive systematic trends with 𝐴.
8. Fission by thermal neutrons of 𝑈 235 and other odd 𝐴 nuclides.
9. Finite upper bound on 𝑁 and 𝑍 of heavy nuclides produced in reactions and non
existence in nature of nuclides heavier than 𝑈 238 .
10. Wide spacing of low lying excited levels in nuclei, in contrast with the close spacing
of highly excited levels.
 Liquid Drop Model

Analogy between liquid drop and a nucleus:

1. Density of a liquid is almost independent of its size so that volume is
proportional to 𝐴, radius 𝑅 of a liquid drop is proportional to 𝐴1/3 (𝐴 is number
of molecules). Similarly size of nucleus is proportional to 𝐴1/3 (𝐴 is number of
nucleons).
2. Energy necessary to evaporate the drop completely into well separated
molecules is proportional to 𝐴 in analogy with the binding energy of a nucleus
which is proportional to 𝐴 (or BE/A=constant).
3. Surface tension causes a correction to this relation since the BE of surface
molecule is smaller than the BE of interior molecule and gives a term
proportional to 𝐴2/3 . A similar surface energy term proportional to 𝐴2/3 appears
in semi empirical mass formula.
 Liquid Drop Model

Difference between liquid drop and a nucleus:

The average kinetic energy of molecule in liquid is of the order of 0.1 eV and the
corresponding de Broglie wave length is of the order of 10-9 cm, which is much
smaller than the distance between molecules in the liquid.

The average kinetic energy of nucleon in nucleus is of the order of 10 MeV and the
corresponding de Broglie wave length is of the order of 10-13 cm, which is
comparable with the distance between nucleons in the nucleus.

Thus liquid can be described in classical terms while nucleus is of quantum

character.
 Liquid Drop Model

Semi-empirical mass formula

Various terms appearing in semi-empirical mass formula
 Liquid Drop Model

Semi-empirical Mass Formula (Explaining BE curve using LDM):

Volume energy: Let U be the energy associated with each nucleon-nucleon bond.
Then U/2 is the binding energy of each nucleon. There are 12 other nucleons in
contact with an interior nucleon. Therefore total binding energy of each interior
nucleon is 12xU/2=6U. The volume energy is 𝐸𝑉 = 6𝑈𝐴 which is the total binding
energy of the nucleus if all 𝐴 nucleons are in its interior.
or 𝐸𝑉 ∝ 𝐴 or 𝐸𝑉 = 𝑎1 𝐴.
Surface Energy : The number of nucleons on surface, having fewer than 12
neighbors, is proportional to surface area i.e. 4𝜋𝑅2 = 4𝜋𝑟02 𝐴2/3 and reduces the
total binding energy by 𝐸𝑠 = −𝑎2 𝐴2/3 . The nucleus exhibits surface tension effects
like a liquid drop.
 Liquid Drop Model

𝑒2
Coulomb Energy : Potential energy of a pair of protons r apart is 𝑉 = − . The
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑍 𝑍−1 𝑍 𝑍−1 𝑒 2 1
number of pairs of protons is . Therefore 𝐸𝑐 = − . If protons
2 2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑎𝑣
1 1 1 𝑎 𝑍 𝑍−1
are uniformly distributed ∝ ∝ 1/3 and 𝐸𝑐 = − 3 1/3 .
𝑟 𝑎𝑣 𝑅 𝐴 𝐴
The total binding energy is
2
𝑎3 𝑍 𝑍1
𝐸𝑏 = 𝐸𝑉 + 𝐸𝑆 + 𝐸𝑐 = 𝑎1 𝐴 − 𝑎2 𝐴 − 3
𝐴1/3
𝐸𝑏 𝑎2 𝑎3 𝑍 𝑍1
and = 𝑎1 − 1 −
𝐴 𝐴4/3
𝐴3
 Liquid Drop Model
4. Asymmetry Energy : To produce a neutron excess of say N − Z = 4,
1
without changing 𝐴 , 𝑁 − 𝑍 = 2 neutrons would replace protons in
2
original nucleus in which 𝑁 = 𝑍.
2𝜖
The new neutrons occupy levels higher in energy 𝜖 = , then those of
2
protons they replace.
1
In general case, (𝑁 − 𝑍) new neutrons each raised in energy by
2
1 𝜖
(𝑁 − 𝑍)
2 2
Total work needed is
∆𝐸 =(number of new neutrons)x(energy increase per new neutron)
1 1 𝜖 𝜖 𝜖
= (𝑁 − 𝑍) 𝑁−𝑍 = 𝑁 − 𝑍 = 𝐴 − 2𝑍 2
2
2 2 2 8 8
1 (𝐴−2𝑍)2
Since 𝜖 ∝ , 𝐸𝑎 = −𝑎4
𝐴 𝐴
 Liquid Drop Model
5. Pairing Energy :
𝑎5
𝐸𝑃 = (±, 0) 3/4
𝐴
+ for even-even nuclei
- for odd-odd nuclei
0 for odd-even and even-odd nuclei
Thus the binding energy is
2 𝑍 𝑍−1 (𝐴 − 2𝑍)2 𝑎5
𝐸𝑏 = 𝑎1 𝐴 − 𝑎2 𝐴3 − 𝑎3 1 − 𝑎4 ±, 0 3/4
𝐴 𝐴
𝐴3
The best fitted values of coefficients are
𝑎1 = 14.1 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎2 = 13.0 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎3 = 0.595 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎4 = 19.0 𝑀𝑒𝑉, 𝑎5 = 33.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
 Liquid Drop Model

The contributions of the various terms in the semi-empirical mass formula to the
binding energy per nucleon
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

Hahn and Strassmann led to the discovery that from U, elements of much smaller
atomic weight and charge are formed. This new type of reaction was given the name
fission by Meitner and Frisch and emphasized the analogy of the process concerned
with the division of a fluid sphere into two smaller droplets as the result of a
deformation caused by an external disturbance. In heaviest nuclei because of large
Coulomb repulsion, a small energy is required to produce a critical deformation and
a large amount of energy will be set free in division. The great ionizing and
penetrating power of nuclear fragments made it possible to observe fission processes
directly. The fission process is also accompanied by an emission of neutrons.
Besides the induced fission, there may occur spontaneous fission which competes
with alpha emission.
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

The mechanism of fission process and accompanying effects based on comparison

between a nucleus and a charged liquid drop was described by Bohr and Wheeler.
The short range nuclear forces are compared with the surface tension force of a
liquid. The excitation energy of the nucleus is expected to give rise to modes of
motion of the nuclear matter similar to the oscillations of a fluid sphere under the
influence of surface tension and leads to either fission or emission of gamma rays or
neutrons.
Consider the nucleus as a uniformly charged drop of constant density
(incompressible or ∆𝑉 = 0). A small arbitrary deformation of the liquid drop of type
𝛿𝑅 𝜃 = 𝛼ℓ 𝑃ℓ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) [axis of symmetry is retained] leads to characteristics
oscillations of the fluid, even when the fluid has a uniform electric charge.
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

The radius of deformed nucleus is given by

𝑅 𝜃 = 𝑅0 1 + σ∞ ℓ=0 𝛼ℓ 𝑃ℓ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) -------(1)

For ℓ = 0 the deformation is but ∆𝑉 ≠ 0 hence 𝛼0 = 0.

For ℓ = 1 the deformation is but c.m. changes hence 𝛼1 = 0.

∴ 𝑅 𝜃 = 𝑅0 1 + σ∞
ℓ=2 𝛼ℓ 𝑃ℓ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) ---------(2)
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission
Now the surface energy of a spherical nucleus is
𝐸𝑆0 = 𝜏𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑅02 𝜏 here 𝜏 is surface tension.
and the surface energy of the deformed nucleus is
2𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜕𝑅 2
𝐸𝑆 = 𝜏 ‫= 𝑆𝑑 ׬‬ 𝜏 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝜙 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝜃 + 1 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ------(3)
𝑅 𝜕𝜃
Using eq.(2) it becomes
+1 ∞ 2 ∞ 2 ∞

𝐸𝑆 = 𝜏2𝜋𝑅02 න 1 + ෍ 𝛼ℓ 𝑃ℓ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + ෍ 𝛼ℓ 𝑃′ ℓ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 1 + ෍ 𝛼ℓ 𝑃ℓ (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) 𝑑(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

−1 ℓ=2 ℓ=2 ℓ=2

It leads to
2 2 5 2 ℓ−1 ℓ+2 2
𝐸𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑅02 𝜏 1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝛼ℓ + ⋯
5 7 2 2ℓ + 1
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

Now the Coulomb energy for deformed nucleus is

1
𝐸𝐶 = න 𝑉𝜌𝑑3 𝑟
2
For a deformed nucleus 𝑉 = 𝑉0 + 𝛿𝑉 and 𝜌 = 𝜌0 + 𝛿𝜌, so that
1 1
𝐸𝐶 = න 𝑉0 𝜌0 𝑑 𝑟 + න 𝑉0 𝛿𝜌𝑑 𝑟 + න 𝛿𝑉𝛿𝜌𝑑 3 𝑟
3 3
2 2
Here it is assumed that ‫𝑉 ׬‬0 𝛿𝜌𝑑3 𝑟 = ‫𝜌 ׬‬0 𝛿𝑉𝑑 3 𝑟
The first term is Coulomb energy of undistorted nucleus
1 3 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸𝐶0 = න 𝑉0 𝜌0 𝑑3 𝑟 =
2 5 𝑅0
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

The second term is the energy of monopole redistribution of charge

𝑅
3 𝑍𝑒 2
3
𝐸𝑐𝑚 = න 𝑉0 𝛿𝜌𝑑 𝑟 = න 𝑑Ω න 𝑅𝑑𝑅
4𝜋 𝑅0 3
𝑅0
2
3 𝑍𝑒
𝐸𝑐𝑚 = − 𝛼22 + 𝛼32 + ⋯
8𝜋 𝑅0
The third term is the interaction between multipole part of potential field and multipole
charge distribution
∞ 𝑅
1 3
3 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸𝐶𝐼 = න 𝛿𝑉𝛿𝜌𝑑 𝑟 = 3 ෍ න 𝑑Ω𝑉(𝑅 0 , 𝜃) න 𝑅 𝑑𝑅
2 8𝜋 𝑅0
ℓ=2 𝑅0
∞
9 𝑍𝑒 2 1 2
= ෍ 𝛼ℓ
8𝜋 𝑅0 2ℓ + 1
ℓ=2
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

3 𝑍𝑒 2 1 2 10 2 5 ℓ−1 2
Thus 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝐶0 + 𝐸𝑐𝑚 + 𝐸𝐶𝐼 = 1− 𝛼 − 𝛼 − ⋯− 𝛼 −⋯
5 𝑅0 5 2 49 3 2ℓ+1 2 ℓ
Total deformation energy is
2 2 5 2 1 2 10 2
𝐸𝑇 = 𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝐶 = 𝐸𝑠0 1 + 𝛼2 + 𝛼3 + ⋯ + 𝐸𝐶0 1 − 𝛼2 − 𝛼3 − ⋯
5 7 5 49
Change in energy due to deformation is
1 2
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑠 + 𝐸𝐶 − 𝐸𝑠0 + 𝐸𝐶0 ≅ 𝛼2 2𝐸𝑠0 − 𝐸𝐶0
5
The nucleus is stable if ∆𝐸 is positive or 𝐸𝐶0 < 2𝐸𝑠0
The nucleus is unstable if ∆𝐸 is negative or 𝐸𝐶0 > 2𝐸𝑠0
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

Let us define the fissionability parameter

𝑍 2 /𝐴
𝜒= 2
𝑍 /𝐴 𝑐
The 𝑍 2 /𝐴 𝑐 is obtained by putting ∆𝐸 = 0 i.e. 2𝐸𝑠0 = 𝐸𝐶0
3 𝑍𝑒 2
2 × 4𝜋𝑟02 𝐴2/3 𝜏 =
5 𝑟0 𝐴1/3
2 40𝜋𝑟03 𝜏
It implies 𝑍 /𝐴 𝑐 = ≈ 50
3𝑒 2
For stable nuclei 𝜒 < 1 and for unstable nuclei 𝜒 > 1.
Now, let us define the critical energy for fission or fission threshold energy (𝐸𝑓 ). It
is the energy necessary to deform a drop when it is about to split into 2 equal drops
2
2
𝐸𝑓 = 4𝜋𝑟0 𝜏𝐴3 𝑓 𝜒 = 𝐸𝑠0 𝑓(𝜒)
 #Alakh_Niranjan

Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

Consider a nucleus having mass number A is split into two nuclei having mass
numbers A/2 and are in touch with each other
𝐴 𝐴𝑍 𝐴𝐴
(2) 𝐴 2,2 𝐴,𝑍 ( 2,2)
𝐸𝑓 = 2𝐸𝑠0
− 𝐸𝑠0 + 2𝐸𝑐0 − 𝐸𝑐0 + 𝐸𝑐
(neglecting second order change in energy due to neck joining)
2 2
2/3 𝑍𝑒 2
𝑍𝑒
𝐴 2 3 2 3 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸𝑓 = 2 4𝜋𝑟02 𝜏 − 4𝜋𝑟02 𝜏 𝐴 3 + 2 1 − 1 + 1
2 5 5
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑟0 (𝐴/2)3 𝑟0 (𝐴)
𝑍𝑒 2
3 2𝑟0 (𝐴/2)3
𝐸𝑓 1 3 2 3 𝑍𝑒 2 2
or 2 =2× 2/3 − 1 + 2 × × 𝐴 − + 𝐴
2 5 4𝜋𝑟03 𝜏 1 5 4𝜋𝑟03 𝜏𝐴 4𝜋𝑟03 𝜏2 1
4𝜋𝑟02 𝜏 𝐴 3
𝐸𝑓 23 23
or 2 = 𝑓 𝜒 = 0.260 − 0.215𝜒
4𝜋𝑟02 𝜏 𝐴 3
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

For an uncharged drop 𝜒 = 0 therefore 𝑓 0 = 0.260.

To calculate 𝑓(𝜒) for 𝜒 ≈ 1; we use
𝐸𝑓 98 3 11368 4
2 =𝑓 𝜒 = (1 − 𝜒) − 1−𝜒 +⋯
135 34425
4𝜋𝑟02 𝜏 𝐴 3

So that 𝑓 𝜒 = 0 for 𝜒 = 1.
For all 𝜒, 𝑓(𝜒) is interpolated between 𝜒 = 0 and 𝜒 = 1.
As an example for 𝑈 235 ; 𝐸𝑓 = 5.7 MeV it gives 𝜒 = 0.74 which in turn gives
𝑍 2 /𝐴 𝑐 ≈ 48. this is in agreement with the experimental observation.
 Bohr and Wheeler Theory of Nuclear Fission

Saddle point shapes for different values of fissionability parameter

 Nuclear Shell Model
A major drawback of liquid drop model is that it is unable to explain the observed
magic numbers and properties of magic nuclei.
Nuclei having either the neutron or proton number equal to 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 and 126,
usually called magic numbers, possess special (or anomalous) nuclear properties.
Some of these properties are listed below.
(i) Nuclei having magic neutron or proton values, show anomalous large binding
energy as compared with the smoothly varying prediction from the semi
empirical mass formula. The high binding energy of 208Pb makes itself
perceptible, starting with nuclei that are ten or more mass units below or above it.
The higher binding energy also manifests itself in the energy release in alpha
decay and beta decay connecting such nuclei.
(ii) The binding energy of the last nucleon in a nucleus, plotted as a function of the
nucleon number, displays very large values at the magic numbers.
 Nuclear Shell Model
(iii) The 9th , 51st and 83rd neutrons in 17O, 87Kr and 137Xe respectively are very
loosely bound making all these nuclei spontaneous neutron emitters.
(iv) The total number of stable nuclei with neutron or proton equal to magic
numbers is much larger than the average number of nuclei for a non magic neutron
or proton value in the neighborhood.
(v) The first excited state of even nuclei having neutron or proton equal to the magic
numbers occurs at an energy that is unusually large as compared with the same
excitation energy of neighboring nuclei.
 Nuclear Shell Model

All the above mentioned properties of magic nuclei are direct evidences for the
existence of shell structure in the nucleus.
The magic number makes the filling up of a group of closely lying levels belonging
to a shell.
The nuclear shell structure, however, is different from the atomic shell structure in
the sense that there is no stronger attraction of the nucleons with any object located
at the center of the nucleus.
It is clear that the two nucleons interactions between all pairs average out to a large
extent and produce a strong overall potential in which the nucleons move more or
less independently. The residual two nucleon interaction that remains after the
extraction of the one body potential is evidently weaker than the original interaction.
 Nuclear Shell Model

Variants of nuclear shell model :

1. Extreme single particle model : the properties of the nucleus are attributed to the
single unpaired nucleon.
2. Single particle model : the nucleus is visualized as consisting of filled shells that
contain the maximum number of neutrons and protons permitted by the Pauli
exclusion principle and unfilled shells containing the remaining number of
neutrons and protons to form particular nucleus.
3. Individual (or independent) particle model : all the particles in the nucleus are
taken into account.
 Nuclear Shell Model

The main assumption in the independent particle model is that each nucleon
experiences a central attractive force which can be ascribed to the average effect of
all the other (A-1) nucleons in the nucleus. On this assumption, each nucleon
behaves as though it were moving independently in a central field, which is
describable as a short range potential well. The liquid drop model is the antithesis of
the independent particle model. The interaction between nucleons are assumed to be
strong instead of weak. Nuclear levels are represented as quantized states of the
nuclear system as a whole and not as states of a single particle in an average field.
 Nuclear Shell Model

According to nuclear shell model, in the assumed potential, each nucleon is

imagined to be capable of describing an orbit of well defined energy and angular
momentum in a manner analogous to the behavior of atomic electrons. This
condition implies that each nucleon can describe at least several revolutions without
being disturbed or scattered in collisions with other nucleons.
 Nuclear Shell Model

But with so many other nucleons to collide with and with such strong forces acting
between them, how can a nucleon go around complete orbits without a collision? It
is expected that nucleons traverse only a small fraction of an orbit between
collisions as shown

The justification for existence of orbits relies upon Pauli exclusion principle.
 Nuclear Shell Model

Single particle levels and magic numbers :

Considering two-body interactions alone, i.e. without resorting to more complicated
three or more than three body forces, for a nucleus comprising A nucleons the
Hamiltonian is
𝐴 𝐴

𝐻 = ෍ 𝑇(𝑖) + ෍ 𝑉(𝑖, 𝑗)
𝑖=1 𝑖<𝑗
where 𝑇(𝑖) is the single particle kinetic energy operator and 𝑉(𝑖, 𝑗) is two nucleon
potential.
The restriction 𝑖 < 𝑗 takes care of the fact that the interaction has to be summed
counting each pair (𝑖, 𝑗) only once. The Schrodinger equation
𝐻Ψ 1, 2, … , 𝐴 = 𝐸Ψ 1, 2, … , 𝐴
can not in general be solved in a straightforward manner.
 Nuclear Shell Model
Thus we start with an approximate Hamiltonian
𝐴

𝐻0 = ෍ 𝑇 𝑖 + 𝒱(𝑖)
𝑖=1
where 𝒱 is a suitably defined one-body potential. First, we find a set of single-particle
eigenvalues 𝜖𝛼 , 𝜖𝛽 ,… and the corresponding single particle functions 𝜙𝛼 , 𝜙𝛽 , … by
solving the one-body Schrodinger equation
𝑇 + 𝒱 𝜙𝛼 = 𝜖𝛼 𝜙𝛼
Then an A-particle product wave function
Φ𝛼𝛽…𝜉 1, 2, … , 𝐴 = 𝜙𝛼 1 𝜙𝛽 2 … 𝜙𝜉 (𝐴)
obviously satisfies the many-body equation
𝐻0 Φ𝛼𝛽…𝜉 1, 2, … , 𝐴 = 𝐸0 Φ𝛼𝛽…𝜉 1, 2, … , 𝐴
with 𝐸0 = 𝜖𝛼 + 𝜖𝛽 + ⋯ + 𝜖𝜉 .
 Nuclear Shell Model

The many body eigen functions of the simple Hamiltonian 𝐻0 are labeled by A sets
of single particle quantum numbers 𝛼𝛽 … 𝜉(it should be noted that each of the values
𝛼, 𝛽 … is an abbreviation for the full set of quantum numbers needed to specify a
single particle state). There can evidently be several such many-body wave
functions corresponding to the various ways of choosing the A single particle states
𝛼𝛽 … 𝜉.
Let us write 𝐻 = 𝐻0 + 𝐻𝐼
where 𝐻𝐼 = 𝐻 − 𝐻0 = σ𝐴𝑖<𝑗 𝑉 𝑖, 𝑗 − σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝒱(𝑖)
Since the solutions of 𝐻0 are already known, the many body calculation now
reduces to an approximate treatment of the residual interaction 𝐻𝐼 by perturbation
techniques. The rapidity of convergence depends on the strength of the residual
interaction which can be controlled by a judicious choice of 𝒱.
 Nuclear Shell Model
The model single particle potential most extensively used in nuclear structure study is the isotropic
harmonic oscillator potential
1 1
𝒱 𝑟 = 𝑀𝜔 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 𝑀𝜔2 𝑟 2
2 2 2 2
2 2
where M is nucleon mass, 𝜔 is the angular frequency of oscillator. Let 𝛼 be the spring constant
2 𝛼
then 𝜔 = .
𝑀
Now the equation for 𝑥-direction is
ℏ2 𝑑 2 1 2 𝑥 2 𝜙 𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜙(𝑥)
− + 𝑀𝜔 𝑥
2𝑀 𝑑𝑥 2 2
whose eigen values and eigen functions are
1
𝐸𝑥 = ℏ𝜔(𝑛𝑥 + ) 𝑛𝑥 = 0, 1, 2, …
2
1 1 2
𝜙𝑛𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑏 𝜋 2 𝑥 𝑛𝑥 ! 2 𝐻𝑛𝑥 (𝜉)𝑒 2𝜉
𝑛 − −

𝑥 ℏ
𝜉= and 𝑏 2 = . The 𝐻𝑛𝑥 (𝜉) are Hermite polynomials.
𝑏 𝑀𝜔
 Nuclear Shell Model

Similar equations hold for 𝐸𝑦 , 𝜙(𝑦) and 𝐸𝑧 , 𝜙(𝑧). The energy E and the full three
dimensional wave functions are obviously given by
3
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐸𝑧 = ℏ𝜔(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 + )
2
and 𝜙 𝑟Ԧ = 𝜙 𝑥 𝜙 𝑦 𝜙(𝑧)
The energy E is determined by the total oscillator quantum number 𝜆, defined as
𝜆 = 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧
 Nuclear Shell Model

In nuclear structure work, it is more convenient to use the solutions of the three
dimensional harmonic oscillator equation in spherical polar co-ordinates 𝑟, 𝜃, 𝜙 .
Since the potential is spherically symmetric the angle dependence of the wave
function is given by spherical harmonics ; hence we write
𝑅 𝑟 𝑚
𝜙 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑌ℓ (𝜃, 𝜙)
𝑟
The radial function 𝑅(𝑟) satisfies the usual radial Schrodinger equation
𝑑2 ℓ ℓ+1 2
2
− 2
+ 𝑘 −𝑣 𝑟 𝑅 𝑟 =0
𝑑𝑟 𝑟
2 2𝑀𝐸 2𝑀 𝑀𝜔 2 2
where 𝑘 = 2 and 𝑣 𝑟 = 2 𝒱 𝑟 = 𝑟
ℏ ℏ ℏ
ℏ 2 ℏ 1/2
dimension of is that of length2 hence it is denoted by 𝑏 such that 𝑏 =
𝑀𝜔 𝑀𝜔
is oscillator parameter and has the dimension of length.
 Nuclear Shell Model
𝑟
Now let us introduce dimensionless radial co-ordinate 𝜌 = such that 𝑟 = 𝜌𝑏 and
𝑏
radial equation in 𝜌 becomes
𝑑2 ℓ ℓ+1 2
𝜌 2

2 2
− 2 2
+ 𝑘 − 2 𝑅 𝜌 =0
𝑏 𝑑𝜌 𝑏 𝜌 𝑏
𝑑2 ℓ ℓ+1
or − + 2𝜀 − 𝜌2 𝑅 𝜌 = 0
𝑑𝜌2 𝜌2
𝑏2 𝑘 2 1 ℏ 2𝑀𝐸 𝐸
where 𝜀 = = = is energy measures in units of ℏ𝜔.
2 2 𝑀𝜔 ℏ2 ℏ𝜔
For 𝜌 → 0 the nature of solution is determined by the first two terms and is given by
𝜌ℓ+1
𝑅 𝜌 = ቊ −ℓ 𝜌→0
𝜌
We accept the first one because the other one, for ℓ ≠ 0 blows up at the origin.
 Nuclear Shell Model

Similarly for 𝜌 → ∞ is determined by the first and last terms and is given by
1
−( )𝜌2
𝑅 𝜌 = 𝑒
ቐ 1 2
2
𝜌→∞
𝑒 (2)𝜌
Once again the first one is accepted from the condition of well behavior.
The 𝑅(𝜌) therefore is
1
ℓ+1 − 2 𝜌2
𝑅 𝜌 = 𝜌 𝑒 𝐹(𝜌)
𝜌2 𝜌 2 𝜌2
𝑑𝑅 𝜌 −2 𝑑𝐹 𝜌 − −2
= 𝜌ℓ+1 𝑒 + 𝐹 𝜌 𝜌ℓ+1 𝑒 2 −𝜌 + 𝑒 (ℓ + 1)𝜌ℓ
𝑑𝜌 2
𝑑𝜌 2
𝜌 𝜌
− 𝑑𝐹 𝜌 −
= 𝜌ℓ+1 𝑒 2 + 𝑒 2 𝜌ℓ 𝐹(𝜌) −𝜌2 + (ℓ + 1)
𝑑𝜌
 Nuclear Shell Model

𝑑2𝑅 𝜌
𝑑𝜌2
𝜌2 𝑑2𝐹 𝜌 𝑑𝐹 ℓ+1 −𝜌2 𝜌2
= 𝜌ℓ+1 𝑒 − 2 + 𝜌 𝑒 2 −𝜌 + 𝑒 − 2 (ℓ + 1)𝜌ℓ
𝑑𝜌2 𝑑𝜌
𝜌2
+ 𝑒 − 2 𝜌ℓ 𝐹 𝜌 −2𝜌
𝜌2 𝜌2 𝜌2
− 2 ℓ 𝑑𝐹
𝜌
+ −𝜌2 + (ℓ + 1) 𝑒 𝜌 + 𝐹(𝜌) 𝑒 − 2 ℓ𝜌ℓ−1 + 𝑒 − 2 𝜌ℓ (−𝜌)
𝑑𝜌
𝜌 𝑑2 𝐹 𝜌
2 𝜌2 ℓ+1 ℓ+1 𝑑𝐹
ℓ+1 −2 − 2 ℓ+1
=𝜌 𝑒 2
+ 𝑒 𝜌 −𝜌 + + −𝜌
𝑑𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝑑𝜌
2
𝜌
− 2 ℓ+1 2
ℓ
+𝑒 𝜌 −2 + ℓ + 1 − 𝜌 2
− 1 𝐹(𝜌)
𝜌
 Nuclear Shell Model

Therefore
𝜌2𝑑2 𝐹 𝜌 𝜌2 ℓ+1 𝑑𝐹
𝜌ℓ+1 𝑒 − 2 2
+ 𝑒 𝜌− 2 ℓ+1
2( − 𝜌)
𝑑𝜌 𝜌 𝑑𝜌
2 𝜌2
𝜌 ℓ ℓ + 1 ℓ ℓ + 1
+ 𝑒 − 2 𝜌ℓ+1 𝜌2 − ℓ + 2
− ℓ + 1 − 2 𝐹 𝜌 − 2
𝑒 − 2 ℓ+1
𝜌 𝐹 𝜌
𝜌 𝜌
𝜌2
+ 𝑒 − 2 𝜌ℓ+1 2𝜀 − 𝜌2 𝐹 𝜌 = 0
𝜌2
−2
Divide throughout by 𝑒 𝜌ℓ+1 , we have
𝑑2 𝐹 𝜌 ℓ+1 𝑑𝐹
+2 −𝜌 + 2𝜀 − 2ℓ + 3 𝐹 𝜌 = 0
𝑑𝜌2 𝜌 𝑑𝜌
 Nuclear Shell Model

𝑑𝑧
Substitute 𝜌2 = 𝑧 so that 𝑑𝜌 = and we have
2 𝑧
𝑑2 𝐹 ℓ+1 𝑑𝐹
4𝑧 2 +2 − 𝑧 2 𝑧 + 2𝜀 − 2ℓ + 3 𝐹 = 0
𝑑𝑧 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑑2 𝐹 1 𝑑𝐹 2ℓ+3 2𝜀 𝐹
or + ℓ+1−𝑧 − − =0
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 2 2 2𝑧
Comparing with the confluent hypergeometric equation
𝑑2 𝐹 1 𝑑𝐹 𝑎
+ 𝑐−𝑧 − 𝐹=0
𝑑𝑧 2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑧
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎+1
with solution 𝐹 𝑎, 𝑐; 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑧 + 𝑧2 +⋯
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐+1 2!
1 3
Thus 𝐹 𝜌 = 𝐹( ℓ+ − 𝜀 , ℓ + 1; 𝜌2 )
2 2
 Nuclear Shell Model
𝜌2
−2
Now in order that 𝑅(𝜌) can go as 𝑒 when 𝜌 → ∞ the confluent hypergeometric
series must terminate after a finite number of terms. This happens when the quantity
‘a’ of 𝐹(𝑎, 𝑐; 𝑧)is a negative integer or zero. In the present case we thus obtain
1 3
ℓ + − 𝜀 = −𝑛 ; 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
2 2
3
𝜀 = 2𝑛 + ℓ +
2
3
or 𝐸𝑛ℓ = ℏ𝜔𝜀 = ℏ𝜔 2𝑛 + ℓ +
2
3
Comparing it with 𝐸 = ℏ𝜔 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑛𝑦 + 𝑛𝑧 = ℏ𝜔(𝜆 + )
2
𝜆 = 2𝑛 + ℓ
For each integral 𝜆 the quantum numbers 𝑛, ℓ may acquire various possible values
giving rise to considerable degeneracy.
 Nuclear Shell Model

A given state 𝑛, ℓ has (2ℓ + 1) degenerate sub states corresponding to the values of
the projection quantum number 𝑚ℓ = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, … 0,1, … ℓ.
Each such (𝑛ℓ𝑚ℓ ) sub state can accommodate two nucleons of each kind (i.e.
1
neutrons or protons) corresponding to the two alignments of spin 𝑚𝑠 = ± .
2
Thus the Pauli exclusion principle allows 2(2ℓ + 1) nucleons of each kind to go to
a particular oscillator state 𝑛ℓ. This enables us to estimate how many neutrons or
protons are needed to fill up the various oscillators energy levels 𝜆 = 0, 1, 2, …
When each oscillator energy level is filled up we say that a shell closure has taken
place.
 Nuclear Shell Model

Shell Closure for Isotropic Harmonic Oscillator:

Each energy level is determined by the value of 𝜆 and is degenerate in two ways :
first it contains several states of different 𝑛, ℓ (𝜆 = (2𝑛 + ℓ)) and second an 𝑛, ℓ
state itself is degenerate with respect to the projection quantum numbers 𝑚ℓ and 𝑚𝑠 .
The states 𝑛ℓ𝑚ℓ 𝑚𝑠 are the substates of the state 𝑛, ℓ. The word shell denotes a
collection of states lying very close in energy and separated from a similar group by
a comparatively larger energy interval.
 Nuclear Shell Model

𝝀 𝒏ℓ No. of nucleons needed Total no. of nucleons at

to fill up shell shell closure
𝟐(𝟐ℓ + 𝟏)
0 00 2 2
1 01 6 8
2 (02)(10) 10+2=12 20
3 (03)(11) 14+6=20 40
4 (04)(12)(20) 18+10+2=30 70
5 (05)(13)(21) 22+14+6=42 112
6 (06)(14)(22)(30) 26+18+10+2=56 168

Only first three magic numbers 2, 8, and 20 could be reproduced.

 Nuclear Shell Model
To explain higher magic numbers, Mayer suggested a spin-orbit coupling term
𝑉ℓ𝑠 𝑟Ԧ = −𝑢 𝑟 ℓ. 𝑠Ԧ
be added to the spherical shell model potential. This potential causes a splitting of
𝑗 = ℓ ± 1/2 -levels as follows
1 1 1 1
𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚 𝑉ℓ𝑠 (𝑟)
Ԧ 𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚 = 𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚 −𝑢 𝑟 ℓ. 𝑠Ԧ 𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚
2 2 2 2
1 2 2 2 2 1 1
Using ℓ. 𝑠Ԧ = 𝑗 −ℓ −𝑠 , 𝑗 |𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚඀ = 𝑗 𝑗 + 1 |𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚඀
2 2 2
2 1 1 2 1 1
ℓ |𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚඀ = ℓ(ℓ + 1) |𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚඀ , 𝑠 |𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚඀ = 𝑠(𝑠 + 1) |𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚඀
2 2 2 2
1
and 𝑠 = we have
2
1 1 1 3
𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚 𝑉ℓ𝑠 (𝑟)
Ԧ 𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚 =−𝑢 𝑟 𝑛ℓ 2 𝑗 𝑗+1 −ℓ ℓ+1 −
2 2 4
 Nuclear Shell Model
1 2ℓ−1
Now for 𝑗 = ℓ − =
2 2
3 2ℓ − 1 2ℓ − 1 3
𝑗 𝑗+1 −ℓ ℓ+1 − = +1 −ℓ ℓ+1 −
4 2 2 4
1 2 2
3
= 4ℓ − 1 − ℓ − ℓ − = −(ℓ + 1)
4 4
1 2ℓ+1
and for 𝑗 = ℓ + =
2 2
3 2ℓ + 1 2ℓ + 1 3
𝑗 𝑗+1 −ℓ ℓ+1 − = +1 −ℓ ℓ+1 −
4 2 2 4
1 2
3 1 2 2
3
= 2ℓ + 1 2ℓ + 3 − ℓ − ℓ − = 4ℓ + 6ℓ + 2ℓ + 3 − ℓ − ℓ −
4 4 4 4
3 3
= ℓ2 + 2ℓ + − ℓ2 − ℓ − = ℓ
4 4
 Nuclear Shell Model

So that we have
1 1
ℓ + 1 𝑢 𝑟 𝑛ℓ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑗 = ℓ −
1 1
Ԧ 𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚 = 2
𝑛 ℓ 𝑗𝑚 𝑉ℓ𝑠 (𝑟) 2
2 2 1 1
− ℓ 𝑢 𝑟 𝑛ℓ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑗 = ℓ +
2 2
1 𝑅𝑛ℓ
above |𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑚 > is a single particle state with the radial function and a total
2 𝑟
angular momentum 𝑗 obtained by coupling the orbital angular momentum ℓ with the
1
spin ; 𝑚 is the projection of 𝑗 along the quantization axis; and 𝑢 𝑟 𝑛ℓ is the
2 ∞ 2
radial integral ‫׬‬0 𝑅𝑛ℓ 𝑟 𝑢 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 of the shape function 𝑢(𝑟) of the spin-orbit
1 1
potential. The state 𝑗 = ℓ − is pushed up (+ sign) whereas the state 𝑗 = ℓ + is
2 2
pushed down(- sign).
 Nuclear Shell Model

The splitting of two 𝑗 −components of a given ℓ is found to be

1
∆𝐸ℓ = (2ℓ + 1) 𝑢 𝑟 𝑛ℓ
2
After the introduction of the spin-orbit coupling, various sublevels in an oscillator
shell will be specified by the set of quantum numbers 𝑛ℓ𝑗. Each such sublevel will
be filled up with (2𝑗 + 1) nucleons of each kind corresponding to the possible
(2𝑗 + 1) values of 𝑚. The level 𝑛ℓ is now changes to 𝑛ℓ𝑗.
Nuclear Shell Model
 Nuclear Shell Model

Upto shell 𝜆 = 2, total number of nucleons to fill these up is still the same as that
shown earlier.
Important changes start from 𝜆 = 3. If we assume the radial integral to be very
weakly dependent on the quantum numbers 𝑛ℓ, then we expect the splitting which is
proportional to (2ℓ + 1), to be larger for 𝑓 −state than for 𝑝 −state. Thus the state
1𝑓7/2 will be the lowest of the sub levels and will be filled up with 8 nucleons ; the
nucleon number (20+8=)28 therefore marks the closure of the sublevels 1𝑓7/2 and
accounts for the occurrence of this magic number. The remaining sub levels 2𝑝3/2 ,
2𝑝1/2 and 1𝑓5/2 require 12 nucleons to be filled up bringing the total number of
nucleons to 40, which is also known to be a semi magic number.
 Nuclear Shell Model

In order that the magic number 50 be reproduced, we obviously have to consider the
next set of levels belonging to 𝜆 = 4. If we once again invoke the dependence of the
spin-orbit splitting on (2ℓ + 1) we expect that the level 1𝑔9/2 will be the lowest in
this set. The spin-orbit splitting for the 𝑔 −state is so large that this particular level
is pushed down from above to the vicinity of the levels contained in 𝜆 = 3. If this
hypothesis is accepted then it is easy to see that the 1𝑔9/2 requiring 10 nucleons to
be filled up precisely explains the existence of the magic number 50. We now notice
that the spin-orbit coupling has radically changed the concept of an oscillator shell
specified by 𝜆. Instead of levels 2𝑝 and 1𝑓 contained in 𝜆 = 3 defining this
particular shell the level 1𝑔9/2 which came down from next higher 𝜆, also teamed up
with 2𝑝3/2 , 2𝑝1/2 , 1𝑓7/2 and 1𝑓3/2 to redefine the shell. Thus all the sub levels
specified by the quantum numbers 𝑛ℓ𝑗 and present between two actual magic
numbers is the realistic definition of a shell. It should also be observed that all the
sublevels belonging to the major shell between the magic numbers 20 and 50 have
odd parity except the level 1𝑔9/2 . This level has an even parity and may be called an
intruder level. Similarly existence of other higher magic numbers can be explained.
 Determination of Spin

The ground state spin (𝐽) of a nucleus refers to the total angular momentum of the
nucleus in its ground state.

For states specified by quantum numbers 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 ; ℓ is coupled to 𝑠 to produce 𝑗 then

𝑗 are coupled to obtain 𝐽 i.e. 𝐽 = 𝑗 + 𝑗 and scheme is known as 𝑗𝑗 −coupling scheme.

For states specified by quantum numbers 𝑛ℓ𝑚ℓ 𝑚𝑠 ; ℓ are coupled to produce L and
𝑠 are coupled to produce 𝑆 then 𝐿 and 𝑆 are coupled to obtain 𝐽 i.e. 𝐽 = 𝐿 + 𝑆 and
scheme is known as LS −coupling scheme.
 Determination of Spin

(i) Spin of nucleus with completely filled levels:

Consider a nucleus having (2𝑗 + 1) nucleons in 𝑛ℓ𝑗 −level so that 𝑀 = 0. The 𝐽
can have zero or any higher value. For non zero 𝐽 −values there are (2𝐽 + 1)many
body states but for 𝐽 = 0 there is only one many body state. Only state case is
favored because (2𝑗 + 1) particles can be distributed among (2𝑗 + 1) sublevels
only by one way. Hence 𝐽 = 0.
12C 16O
Examples :

𝐽=0 𝐽=0
 Determination of Spin

(ii) Spin of nucleus with one nucleon in a level:

Consider a nucleus with filled 𝑛𝑐 ℓ𝑐 𝑗𝑐 levels and one nucleon in 𝑛ℓ𝑗 level. The 𝐽 of
𝑛𝑐 ℓ𝑐 𝑗𝑐 is zero and total 𝐽 is obtained by coupling 𝑗 with 𝐽 of 𝑛𝑐 ℓ𝑐 𝑗𝑐 and is obviously
𝑗 with projection 𝑚.
Examples : 13C 13N 17O 17F

1 1 5 5
𝐽= 𝐽= 𝐽= 𝐽=
2 2 2 2
 Determination of Spin
(ii) Spin of nucleus with one nucleon missing from a level (or one hole state):
Consider a nucleus with filled 𝑛𝑐 ℓ𝑐 𝑗𝑐 levels and 2𝑗 nucleons in 𝑛ℓ𝑗 level. Let
nucleon is missing from ′ − 𝑚′ sublevel. If it would have been present then we
would have a completely filled level 𝑛ℓ𝑗 with total projection zero and angular
momentum zero.
∴ 𝑀 − 𝑚 = 0 or 𝑀 = 𝑚.
Since the coupling of the many body state with angular momentum 𝑗 (of the missing
nucleon) produces a completely occupied state of total angular momentum zero, it
follows from the angular momentum coupling rule that the former has a unique
value of 𝐽 = 𝑗. Thus the system missing one particle of state (𝑗, −𝑚) has angular
momentum 𝐽 = 𝑗 and projection 𝑀 = 𝑚. 15N

Example :
1
𝐽=
2
 Determination of Spin

Spin of 16𝑆33 :

3
𝐽=
2
 Determination of Spin

5
Spin of 33 𝐴𝑠75 and 28 𝑁𝑖61 :𝐽 =
2
3
The observed ground state spins of these nuclei are .
2
At first sight, it appears that there should be 5
nucleons in 2𝑝3/2 level to explain the observed spin
3
. But it is not the case because it would be the violation
2
of Pauli exclusion principle.
 Determination of Spin

It can be explained by stating that if the high spin level comes after low spin level,
the high spin level fills faster by pairing its particles [∵attractive pairing energy is ∝
(2𝑗 + 1)] before the low spin level can be filled completely.

As a result, there are 3 nucleons in (2𝑝3/2 ) level instead of 4 and there are 2
nucleons in (1𝑓5/2 )level instead of 1. Now the last unpaired nucleon belongs to
3
(2𝑝3/2 ) level giving 𝐽 = .
2
 Determination of Spin

7
Spins of 22 𝑇𝑖47 and 25 𝑀𝑛55 :𝐽=
2
The last odd nucleon belong to (1𝑓7/2 ) level hence the
7 5
predicted spin is 𝐽 = but the observed value is 𝐽 = .
2 2
It can not be explained even with pairing idea.
 Determination of Spin

Isomeric State:
Another important consequence of a level of higher angular momentum (𝑗 ′ ) located
just above a level of lower angular momentum (𝑗) filling in pairs. Since 𝑗 ′ ≫ 𝑗 ;
decay of this excited state to the ground state by the emission of a 𝛾 ray is given
essentially by the transition matrix element of a single particle from the state 𝑗′ to
the state 𝑗.
𝑗′ 𝑗′

𝑗 𝑗

Ground state spin is 𝑗 Excited state spin is 𝑗′

 Determination of Spin

This decay probability is very small because (i) small energy of 𝛾 ray and (ii) large
multipolarity (which is related to the difference in the angular momenta of the two
states). A long lived excited state of a nucleus lying very close to the ground state is
called an isomeric state. We therefore expect to observe an isomeric state in all the
odd mass nuclei where pairing effects produce a ground state spin which differs
from that of the topmost single particle level of very high spin. The regions of
abundance of isomerism are called islands of isomerism. The location of these
islands in periodic table agrees very well with the regions where we expect to find a
high spin shell model level close to a low spin one.
 Determination of Spin

Excited state spin : It depends on the mode of excitation

For instance consider 13𝐶 nucleus, in ground state there are 2 neutrons 1
in 1𝑠1/2
level, 4 neutrons in 1𝑝3/2 level and 1 neutron in 1𝑝1/2 level and spin is .
2
Some of the possible mode of excitation includes
i) Neutron is excited from 1𝑝3/2 level to 1𝑝1/2 level, so that3
there are 3 neutrons
in 1𝑝3/2 level and 2 neutrons in 1𝑝1/2 level and spin is .
2
ii) Neutron5 is excited from 1𝑝1/2 level to higher levels 1𝑑5/2 or 2𝑠1/2 etc. so that
1
spin is or etc.
2 2
iii) A proton is excited from 1𝑝3/2 level to 1𝑝1/2 level, in this case there is single
proton as well as single neutron in 1𝑝1/2 level and also there is a proton hole in
1𝑝3/2 level. Spin is determined by applying rules for coupling of three angular
momenta.
 Determination of Spin

Arbitrary number of particles in a level:

2𝑗 +1
Let there be 𝑘 particles in 𝑛ℓ𝑗 level. There are 𝐶𝑘 possible antisymmetric states
and 𝐽 can have many possible values. Which 𝐽 corresponds to lowest energy
depends on residual interaction between pairs of nucleons. A pair of nucleon couple
their angular momenta to produce any even integer between 0 and 2𝑗 − 1.
We know for two identical fermi particles, that the symmetry requirement is
𝑃12 Ψ = −Ψ
and that the wave function in angular momentum coupled representation Ψ𝐽𝑀𝐽 is
connected with the wave function in uncoupled representation 𝜓𝑗1𝑚1 𝜓𝑗2 𝑚2 by
Ψ𝐽𝑀𝐽 = ෍ 𝐶(𝑗1 𝑗2 𝐽; 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑀𝐽 ) 𝜓𝑗1 𝑚1 𝜓𝑗2𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑚2
 Determination of Spin

Using the symmetry relation

𝐶 𝑗1 𝑗2 𝐽; 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑀𝐽 = (−1)𝑗1 +𝑗2 −𝐽 𝐶 𝑗2 𝑗1 𝐽; 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝑀𝐽
We have
𝑃12 Ψ𝐽𝑀𝐽 = (−1)𝑗1+𝑗2 −𝐽 Ψ𝐽𝑀𝐽
Which for 𝑗1 = 𝑗2 = 𝑗 is
𝑃12 Ψ𝐽𝑀𝐽 = (−1)2𝑗−𝐽 Ψ𝐽𝑀𝐽
For this to be consistent with antisymmetry requirement there should be (−1)2𝑗−𝐽 =
−1
1
Since 𝑗 is of the form ℓ + (where ℓ is 0 or a positive integer) and 𝐽 is an integer,
2
the above equation implies 𝐽 must be even.
 Determination of Spin

However state of zero angular momentum is most favored energetically by any

reasonable residual interaction. Pairing or paired state denotes pair of nucleons of
angular momentum zero.
Now it is obvious if 𝑘 is even in ground state all the nucleons are paired and 𝐽 = 0.
e.g. even-even nuclei
𝑘−1
If 𝑘 is odd there are pairs and one unpaired nucleon the 𝐽 = 𝑗 i.e. angular
2
momentum of odd nucleon in 𝑛ℓ𝑗 level. E.g. odd-even or evn-odd nuclei but with
some exception.
To which 𝑛ℓ𝑗 level last nucleon belongs? What is the ordering 𝑛ℓ𝑗 levels in a shell?
It is determined empirically by comparing the spin predicted on the basis of pairing
hypothesis and the measured one.
 Determination of Spin
Spin of odd-odd nuclei : Nordheim rule
i) Weak rule :
1 1
If 𝑗𝑝 = ℓ𝑝 + and 𝑗𝑛 = ℓ𝑛 +
2 2
1 1
or 𝑗𝑝 = ℓ𝑝 − and 𝑗𝑛 = ℓ𝑛 −
2 2
then 𝐽 ≤ (𝑗𝑛 + 𝑗𝑝 ).
ii) Strong rule :
1 1
If 𝑗𝑝 = ℓ𝑝 + and 𝑗𝑛 = ℓ𝑛 −
2 2
1 1
or 𝑗𝑝 = ℓ𝑝 − and 𝑗𝑛 = ℓ𝑛 +
2 2
then 𝐽 = 𝑗𝑛 − 𝑗𝑝 .
For odd-odd nuclei having a neutron (proton) hole and proton (neutron) particle, the rule
𝐽 = 𝑗𝑛 + 𝑗𝑝 − 1 holds fairly well.
 Magnetic Dipole Moment
Prediction of magnetic dipole moment based on simple model wave function i.e. seniority
wave function.
The seniority wave function :
Nucleon-nucleon interaction energetically favors the formation of pairs of identical nucleons
of zero angular momentum. Many nucleon wave function having paired structure and
antisymmetric under exchange of two nucleons is classified by seniority. Seniority means
number of unpaired nucleons. The most favored ground state wave function of even A
nucleus is a seniority zero state. Excited states have seniority 2, 4, 6, … A. For odd A
nucleus the ground state is a seniority one state and excited states have seniority 3, 5, 7, …
A. We know as far as spin is concerned, the completely filled major shells form an inert core
of the nucleus. In seniority wave function, the definition of inert core is extended to include
pairs of partially filled levels also. However the included paired nucleons may play role in
evaluation of electromagnetic moments. The extreme single particle model wave function is
a simple product of the single nucleon wave function and the wave function of the core
(regarded as a collective body of zero spin).
 Magnetic Dipole Moment
The magnetic dipole moment of a nucleon is 𝜇Ԧ = 𝜇Ԧℓ + 𝜇Ԧ𝑠 .
𝑒ℏ
The magnetic moment for orbital motion is 𝜇Ԧℓ = ℓ = 𝑔ℓ ℓ
2𝑀𝑐
𝑒ℏ
where is nuclear magneton
2𝑀𝑐
1𝑛𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
and 𝑔ℓ = ቊ
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
𝑒ℏ 𝑒ℏ
Similarly 𝜇Ԧ𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠 𝑠Ԧ ; 𝑔𝑠 = = 2
= 2𝑛𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 and zero for a neutron
𝑀𝑐 2𝑀𝑐
(expected). However nucleons posses anomalous intrinsic magnetic moment.
5.5850 𝑛𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
∴ 𝑔𝑠 = ቊ
−3.8256 𝑛𝑀 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
Thus the magnetic moment of a nucleon is 𝜇Ԧ = 𝑔ℓ ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 𝑠Ԧ we may define 𝑔𝑗 such that
𝜇Ԧ = 𝑔𝑗 𝑗Ԧ.
 Magnetic Dipole Moment
Ԧ 𝑗Ԧ
𝐴.
To find relation between 𝑔𝑗 , 𝑔ℓ and 𝑔𝑠 use 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑗Ԧ i.e.
𝑗2
𝑔ℓ ℓ.𝑗Ԧ +𝑔𝑠 𝑠.
Ԧ 𝑗Ԧ
𝜇Ԧ = 𝑗Ԧ
𝑗(𝑗+1)
Comparing it with 𝜇Ԧ = 𝑔𝑗 𝑗Ԧ , we have
1
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑔ℓ ℓ. 𝑗Ԧ + 𝑔𝑠 𝑠.
Ԧ 𝑗Ԧ
𝑗(𝑗 + 1)
To evaluate ℓ. 𝑗Ԧ ,
1
𝑠Ԧ = 𝑗Ԧ − ℓ i.e. 𝑠 2 = 𝑗 2 + ℓ2 − 2ℓ. 𝑗Ԧ or ℓ. 𝑗Ԧ = 𝑗 2 + ℓ2 − 𝑠 2 so that
2
1 3
ℓ. 𝑗Ԧ = 𝑗 𝑗 + 1 + ℓ ℓ + 1 −
2 4
1 3
Similarly 𝑠.Ԧ 𝑗Ԧ = 𝑗 𝑗 + 1 − ℓ ℓ + 1 +
2 4
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

Thus
1 1 3 1 3
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑔ℓ 𝑗 𝑗 +1 +ℓ ℓ+1 − + 𝑔𝑠 𝑗 𝑗+1 −ℓ ℓ+1 +
𝑗(𝑗+1) 2 4 2 4
1 1 1 1 1 13
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑗 𝑗+1 𝑔ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 + ℓ ℓ+1
𝑔ℓ − 𝑔𝑠 + 𝑔𝑠 − 𝑔ℓ
𝑗 𝑗+1 2 𝑗 𝑗+1 2 𝑗 𝑗+1 2 4
1 1 3
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑔ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 + ℓ ℓ+1 − 𝑔ℓ − 𝑔𝑠
2 2𝑗 𝑗 + 1 4
1 1 2𝑗+1
For 𝑗 = ℓ − or ℓ = 𝑗 + =
2 2 2
1 1 2𝑗 + 1 2𝑗 + 1 3
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑔ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 + +1 − 𝑔ℓ − 𝑔𝑠
2 2𝑗 𝑗 + 1 2 2 4
1 1 1 2
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑔ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 + 4𝑗 + 8𝑗 + 3 − 3 𝑔ℓ − 𝑔𝑠
2 2𝑗 𝑗 + 1 4
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

1 1
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑔ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 + (𝑗 + 2) 𝑔ℓ − 𝑔𝑠
2 2 𝑗+1
1
𝑔𝑗 = 𝑗 + 1 𝑔ℓ + 𝑗 + 1 𝑔𝑠 + 𝑗 + 2 𝑔ℓ − 𝑗 + 2 𝑔𝑠
2(𝑗 + 1)
1 1
𝑔𝑗 = 2𝑗 + 3 𝑔ℓ − 𝑔𝑠 for ℓ = 𝑗 +
2(𝑗+1) 2
1 1 2𝑗−1
Similarly for 𝑗 = ℓ + or ℓ = 𝑗 − =
2 2 2
1 1
𝑔𝑗 = 2𝑗 − 1 𝑔ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 for ℓ = 𝑗 −
2𝑗 2
 Magnetic Dipole Moment
1
By definition magnetic moment is 𝜇𝑧 in a state |ℓ 𝑗𝑚 > with 𝑚 = 𝑗.
2
Thus 𝜇 = 𝑔𝑗 𝑗,
1
for ℓ = 𝑗 −
2
1
𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 ; 𝑔ℓ =0
1 2 𝑠
𝜇= 2𝑗 − 1 𝑔ℓ + 𝑔𝑠 = ൞ 1 1
2
𝑗 − + 𝑔𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 ; 𝑔ℓ = 1
2 2
1
and for ℓ = 𝑗 +
2
𝑗 1
− 𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 ; 𝑔ℓ = 0
𝑗 𝑗+1 2 𝑠
𝜇= 2𝑗 + 3 𝑔ℓ − 𝑔𝑠 = ൞ 𝑗 3 1
2(𝑗+1)
(𝑗 + − 𝑔𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 ; 𝑔ℓ =1
𝑗+1 2 2

These values are called Schmidt values.

 Magnetic Dipole Moment
Case of Closed levels :
For antisymmetric wave function Φ the magnetic moment is given by
Φ σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝜇𝑧 (𝑖) Φ = σ𝑛ℓ𝑗 σ𝑚 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 𝜇𝑧 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚
According to Wigner-Eckart theorem the matrix element of an irreducible tensor operator
connecting eigen states of angular momentum is given by
𝑘 ′ 𝑗′ 𝑘 𝑗
𝑗𝑚 𝑇𝑞 𝑗 𝑚′ = 𝑗 |𝑇 𝑘 | 𝑗′
𝑚′ 𝑞 𝑚
where the double barred matrix element is the reduced matrix element and is independent
of 𝑚, 𝑚′ and 𝑞.
Thus the matrix element
𝑗 1 𝑗
𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 𝜇𝑧 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 = 𝑛ℓ𝑗 |𝜇| 𝑛ℓ𝑗
𝑚 0 𝑚
𝜇 being a vector operator is of rank 1.
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

The summation over 𝑚 yields

𝑗 1 𝑗 𝑗 1 𝑗 𝑗 0 𝑗
෍ =෍
𝑚 0 𝑚 𝑚 0 𝑚 𝑚 0 𝑚
𝑚 𝑚
Using the symmetry property
𝑗1 𝑗2 𝑗 𝑗 −𝑚 𝑗 𝑗1 𝑗 𝑗2
= (−1) 1 1 with 𝑗 = 2𝑗 + 1
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚 𝑗2 𝑚1 −𝑚 −𝑚2

of the C.G. coefficients, we have

𝑗 1 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 𝑗 1 𝑗 𝑗 0
෍ = ෍ =0
𝑚 0 𝑚 1 𝑚 𝑚 −𝑚 0 𝑚 −𝑚 0
𝑚
(using orthogonality of C.G. coefficients). Thus magnetic moment is zero.
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

In general the matrix element given above is zero for any operator of rank 𝑘 ≠ 0. It
simply follows from angular momentum conservation. Since a set of closed levels
produces a state |Φ > of angular momentum 𝐽 = 0, the action on it of an operator of
rank 𝑘 produces a state of angular momentum 𝑘 only. If 𝑘 ≠ 0, obviously its scalar
product with < Φ| vanishes because < Φ| has 𝐽 = 0.
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

Magnetic Moment for One Particle or One-hole State:

One-particle state:
Consider a nucleus having a set of closed levels and a single particle in level
(𝑗𝑝 , 𝑚𝑝 ). Its magnetic moment will be the sum of the magnetic moment of closed
levels system and that of the single particle. Since the magnetic moment of the
closed levels system is zero and that of single particle is Schmidt value, the
magnetic dipole moment of the nucleus will be equal to the Schmidt value.
One hole state :
Consider a nucleus consisting of closed levels but one nucleon missing from
(𝑗, −𝑚) level. Had state (𝑗, −𝑚) been filled up magenetic moment would have been
zero. Thus
Mag. Mom.= − 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 𝜇𝑧 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

𝑗 1 𝑗
− 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 𝜇𝑧 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 = − 𝑛ℓ𝑗| 𝜇 |𝑛ℓ𝑗
−𝑚 0 −𝑚
Using symmetry property
𝑗1 𝑗2 𝑗 𝑗 +𝑗 −𝑗 𝑗1 𝑗2 𝑗
= −1 1 2
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚 −𝑚1 −𝑚2 −𝑚
we have
𝑗 1 𝑗
− 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 𝜇𝑧 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 = − 𝑛ℓ𝑗 𝜇 𝑛ℓ𝑗
𝑚 0 𝑚
= 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 𝜇𝑧 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚
Which is magnetic moment of a single particle in (𝑗, 𝑚) state and is equal to the
Schmidt value.
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

Comparison of Experimental Data and Schmidt Value:

1 1
𝜇 = 𝑗 − + 𝑔𝑠
2 2
𝑗 1
𝜇=− 𝑔
𝑗 + 12 𝑠

1 𝑗 3 1
𝜇 = 𝑔𝑠 𝜇= 𝑗 + − 𝑔𝑠
2 𝑗+1 2 2

(a) Schmidt lines for nuclei with odd number of neutrons (𝑔𝑠 = −3.8256 𝑛𝑀)
, and (b) Schmidt lines for nuclei with odd number of protons (𝑔𝑠 = 5.5850𝑛𝑀)
; dots indicate experimental data
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

From above comparison we notice that there is a deviation about 0.5 -1.5 nM from
Schmidt values. Some of the nuclei like 3H, 3He, 13C, 15N etc. even lies outside the
Schmidt lines. The nuclei like 17O, 39K, 41K etc. and those having last odd nucleon in
a 𝑝1/2 level show the closest agreement. An important exception is 209Bi (a one
particle nucleus) whose magnetic moment differs from Schmidt value by more than
1 nM.
Explanation of departure from Schmidt values :
(i) Error in magnetic moment operator
(ii) Error in wave function
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

Error in magnetic moment operator may arise because of (a) Meson exchange
current (b) Difference in intrinsic moment of nucleon in free and bound state and (c)
velocity dependent spin-orbit term. But a correction of order of 0.1-0.2nM is there
due to these factors.

Regarding wave function, correction due to a suitable antisymmetrization of wave

function of nucleon outside close level, called as Pauli correction, is introduced.
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

If nucleons are in one 𝑛ℓ𝑗 -level then 𝜇𝑧 is equal to Schmidt value for
antisymmetric state having seniority one.
If nucleons are distributed among various levels, the actual ground state wave
function is
Ψ0 = 𝑐0 Φ0 + ෍ 𝑐𝛼 Φ𝛼
𝛼
The Φ0 is predominant state which obeys the lowest seniority shell model idea and
𝑐𝛼 ≪ 𝑐0 .
∴ Ψ0 σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝜇𝑧 (𝑖) Ψ0 = 𝑐02 Φ0 σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝜇𝑧 (𝑖) Φ0 + 2 ෍ 𝑐𝛼 𝑐0 Φ𝛼 σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝜇𝑧 (𝑖) Φ0
𝛼≠0
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

The states Φ0 , Φ𝛼 of an odd mass nucleus having angular momentum 𝐽(= 𝑗) are
obtained by antisymmetrizing a core wave function of even nucleons coupled to a
single particle state of angular momentum 𝑗
|Φ0 > = |Φ𝑐 , 𝑗: 𝐽 = 𝑗, 𝑀 = 𝑗 >𝐴
|Φ𝛼 > = |Φ𝑐′ , 𝑗: 𝐽 = 𝑗, 𝑀 = 𝑗 >𝐴
The core state Φ𝑐′ is obtained by causing a spin polarization in the core state Φ𝑐 .
Hence correction is called core polarization correction. The core polarization
correction may be transformed to a correction of the operator by redefining the
operator as
𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝜇𝑧 = 𝑔ℓ ℓ𝑧 + 𝑔𝑠 𝑠𝑧
𝑒𝑓𝑓
with 𝑔𝑠 = 𝑔𝑠 + 𝛿𝑔𝑠 − 𝑐(ℓ, 𝑗)𝑔𝑝
 Magnetic Dipole Moment

Since 𝑐 ℓ, 𝑗 = 0 for ℓ = 0, 𝛿𝑔𝑠 can be determined by reproducing observed

magnetic moment of odd nuclei with last particle in 𝑠1/2 and found 𝛿𝑔𝑠 ≈ −0.5. For
ℓ = 1, 𝑗 = 1/2 i.e. 𝑝1/2 level the term 𝛿𝑔𝑠 and 𝑐(ℓ, 𝑗)𝑔𝑝 must cancel each other
because magnetic moment of odd nuclei having last odd nucleon in 𝑝1/2 level is in
close agreement with the Schmidt value.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

The electric quadrupole moment for a single proton is given by

𝑞0 = 3𝑧 2 − 𝑟 2 = 2𝑟 2 𝒴02 (𝜃)
where 𝒴02 (𝜃) is renormalized spherical harmonics written as
ℓ 4𝜋 ℓ
𝒴𝑚 𝜃, 𝜙 = 𝑌 (𝜃, 𝜙) with ℓ = 2ℓ + 1
ℓ 𝑚

Now the quadrupole moment operator of the entire nucleus is

𝑍 𝑍 𝐴
1
𝑄0 = ෍ 𝑞0 (𝑖) = 2 ෍ 𝑟𝑖 𝒴0 (𝜃𝑖 ) = 2 ෍ 1 − 𝜏𝑧 (𝑖) 𝑟𝑖2 𝒴02 (𝜃𝑖 )
2 2
2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
and is a tensor of second rank. 𝜏𝑧 = −1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

Completely Closed Levels:

The value of any operator of rank≠ 0 vanishes for such a system. Hence 𝑄0 is zero.
Since a set of closed levels produces a state |Φ > of 𝐽 = 0, and the action on it of an
operator of rank 𝑘 produces a state of angular momentum 𝑘 only. Thus the scalar
product of the state of angular momentum 𝑘 with < Φ| vanishes because < Φ| has
𝐽 = 0.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

One proton outside the set of closed levels :

1
Let the proton be in state |𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑚
>, then quadrupole moment is expectation value
2
of 𝑞0 when state has 𝑚 = 𝑗.
1 1 1 1
𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑗 𝑞0 𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑗 = 2 𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑗 𝑟 2 𝒴02 𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑗
2 2 2 2
1 2 1
= 2 ℓ 𝑗𝑗 𝒴0 ℓ 𝑗𝑗 𝑅𝑛ℓ 𝑟 2 𝑅𝑛ℓ
2 2
∞
𝑗 2 𝑗 1 2
1 2 2
=2 < ℓ 𝑗 𝒴 ℓ 𝑗 > න 𝑅𝑛ℓ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑗 0 𝑗 2 2
0
1 𝑘 ′
1
′ 1 ℓ+ℓ′ +𝑘 𝑗
𝑘 𝑘 𝑗′
Using < ℓ 𝑗 𝒴 ℓ 𝑗 >=
2 1 + (−1) (−1)
2 2 1/2 0 1/2
 Electric Quadrupole Moment
∞
1 1 𝑗 2 𝑗 𝑗 2 𝑗 2 2
𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑗 𝑞0 𝑛ℓ 𝑗𝑗 = 2 න 𝑅𝑛ℓ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2 2 𝑗 0 𝑗 1/2 0 1/2
0
Substituting values of C.G. coefficients from tables
∞
we have
2𝑗 − 1 2 2
𝑄0 = − න 𝑅𝑛ℓ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2(𝑗 + 1)
0
1 1
For 𝑗 = , expression is zero and for 𝑗 > ; 2𝑗 − 1 > 0 also radial integral is
2 2
positive thus quadrupole moment of one particle state is negative i.e. oblate charge
distribution or flattened with respect to z-direction.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

We know angular momentum is perpendicular to plane of motion of the particle. In

the present case angular momentum is in z-direction because the maximum possible
projection 𝑚 = 𝑗 is along z-axis only. Hence plane of motion is confined in x-y
plane that is the charge distribution is flattened with respect to z-direction.
Proton one-hole state :
Let proton is missing from (𝑗, −𝑚) state, then quadrupole moment is given by
𝑗 2 𝑗
− 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 𝑞0 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 = − < 𝑛ℓ𝑗 𝑞 𝑛ℓ𝑗 >
−𝑚 0 −𝑚
𝑗1 𝑗2 𝑗 𝑗 +𝑗 −𝑗 𝑗1 𝑗2 𝑗
Using = −1 1 2 we have
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚 −𝑚1 −𝑚2 −𝑚
𝑗 2 𝑗
− 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 𝑞0 𝑛ℓ𝑗 − 𝑚 = − < 𝑛ℓ𝑗 𝑞 𝑛ℓ𝑗 > = − 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 𝑞0 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚
𝑚 0 𝑚
Thus quadrupole moment of proton hole state is equal and opposite to that of
particle state.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

It is interesting to note that a nucleus having an odd neutron is also found to have a
significant quadrupole moment.
e.g. observed quadrupole moment of 17O (16O+n) is nearly -3 fm2.
Consider now 17F (16O+p), where last proton is in 1𝑑5/2 level its quadrupole
momentum is obtained by using ∞
2𝑗 − 1 2 2
𝑄=− න 𝑅𝑛ℓ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
2(𝑗 + 1)
0
∞ 2 2 1/3 2
Roughly ‫׬‬0 𝑅𝑛ℓ 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 ≈ 𝑟0𝐴 for 𝑟0 = 1.2 𝑓𝑚 𝑡𝑜 1.4 𝑓𝑚 the integral is nearly
2𝑗−1
from 9.5 to 13 and for 𝑗 = 5/2 the factor ≈ 0.57. Thus 𝑄 comes out to be
2(𝑗+1)
nearly -4.6 fm2 to -7.5 fm2. Thus 𝑄 of 17O is comparable with that of 17F.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

The possible reason may be core polarization effects which arises due to interaction
of odd neutron with the core. Specially the quadrupole type polarization of the
proton charge distribution of the core is responsible for the entire 𝑄 of odd neutron
nuclei. Core contribution is also present in odd proton nuclei.
Core Contribution :
The admixed ground state wave function is
Ψ0 = 𝑐0 Φ0 + ෍ 𝑐𝛼 Φ𝛼
𝛼
∴ Ψ0 σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝑞0 (𝑖) Ψ0 = 𝑐02 Φ0 σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝑞0 (𝑖) Φ0 + 2 ෍ 𝑐𝛼 𝑐0 Φ𝛼 σ𝐴𝑖=1 𝑞0 (𝑖) Φ0
𝛼≠0
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

The states Φ0 and Φ𝛼 are

|Φ0 > = |Φ𝑐 , 𝑗: 𝐽 = 𝑗, 𝑀 = 𝑗 >𝐴
|Φ𝛼 > = |Φ𝑐′ , 𝑗: 𝐽 = 𝑗, 𝑀 = 𝑗 >𝐴
Thus the matrix element in correction term is
𝑗 2 𝑗
Φ𝛼 𝑄0 Φ0 = < Φ𝑐′ 𝐽′ , 𝑗: 𝐽 = 𝑗 𝑄 Φ𝑐 0 , 𝑗: 𝐽 = 𝑗 >
𝑗 0 𝑗
𝑗 2 𝑗 ′
Φ𝛼 𝑄0 Φ0 = 𝑈(𝑗0𝑗2; 𝑗𝐽 )(−1) < Φ𝑐′ 𝐽′ 𝑄 Φ𝑐 0 >
′ 𝐽
𝑗 0 𝑗
The 𝑈-function is equal to 1 when 𝐽′ = 2 and zero otherwise.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

Thus
𝑗 2 𝑗
Φ𝛼 𝑄0 Φ0 = < Φ𝑐′ 𝐽′ = 2 𝑄 Φ𝑐 0 >
𝑗 0 𝑗
𝑗 2 𝑗 0 2 2
= < Φ𝑐′ 𝐽′ = 2 𝑄 Φ𝑐 0 >
𝑗 0 𝑗 0 0 0
𝑗 2 𝑗
= < Φ𝑐′ 𝐽′ = 2, 𝑀′ = 0 𝑄0 Φ𝑐 𝐽′ = 0, 𝑀′ = 0 >
𝑗 0 𝑗
In the case of odd neutrons nuclei having even number of protons in their lowest
seniority state Φ0 𝑄0 Φ0 is zero and hence the correction is the entire quadrupole
moment. For odd proton nuclei Φ𝛼 𝑄0 Φ0 is non vanishing.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

Information about nature of excited core state:

i) Φ𝑐′ has to have 𝐽′ = 2
ii) Φ𝑐′ is obtained from Φ𝑐 by exciting only one (not more than one) particle from
occupied |𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 > to unoccupied |𝑛′ ℓ′ 𝑗 ′ 𝑚′ > state because 𝑄0 is a single
particle type operator. Thus
< Φ𝑐′ 𝑄0 Φ𝑐 > =< 𝑛′ ℓ′ 𝑗 ′ 𝑚′ 𝑄0 𝑛ℓ𝑗𝑚 >
and is non zero if (a)𝑚 = 𝑚′ (b) ℓ, ℓ′ have same parity (c)ℓ, ℓ′ , 2 satisfy angular
momentum coupling rules (d) j, 𝑗 ′ , 2 satisfy angular momentum coupling rules and
(e) radial integral is non vanishing.
iii) If Φ𝑐 is a closed core shell then Φ𝑐′ is 1h-1p proton state and lowest excitation
must be across two major shells because of the parity requirements.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

iv) If Φ𝑐 is non closed shell core then Φ𝑐′ may be excited by (i) promoting one
proton from fully occupied or from partially occupied levels across two major shells
(ii) even number of protons from one level to another partially filled levels of the
same major shell.
 Electric Quadrupole Moment

The comparison of the predicted value of the quadrupole moment with the
experimental data shows that the odd mass nuclei with deformed core have 𝑄 one or
two order of magnitude larger than single particle value. On the other hand in case
of odd mass nuclei having spherical core the difference in 𝑄 value from
experimental value is small not of the order of magnitude. The observed non-zero 𝑄
of odd neutron nuclei is close to the estimation made by replacing odd neutron by a
proton. We may interpret it as the core polarization modifies the charge of last odd
particle to eeff. For neutron eeff is close to proton charge e and for proton it is e plus a
charge of same order of magnitude .