Reference

According to (Crystal, 1992) "reference is the relationship between a linguistic expression and
the entity in the external world to which it refers; also called the referential meaning of the
expression".

As for (Yule, 1996), "it is an act by which a speaker uses a word, or words, to enable a
listener to identify someone or something".

Archer defines reference as "the relations which hold between linguistic expressions (such as
noun phrase) and what they stand for in the world". Archer's definition of reference hints at the
semantic reference, since the pragmatic definition is based on the context and the role of the
speaker in conveying the intended message.

"Reference most descriptions refer to different referents (persons, objects, notions) on each
occasion when they are used. The function of picking out an object in the world which matches a
linguistic description is called referring" (Grundy, 2000).

Reference, then, is clearly tied to the speaker's goals (to identify something) and the speaker's
beliefs (can the listener be expected to know that particular something?) in the use of language.
(Yule, 1996)

Reffering Epressions:

1. The act of using a linguistic form to enable the listener to identify the point of the talk,
which depends on the speaker’s intention and belief.
2. Linguistic forms:
• Pronouns: He, She, They, We
• Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
• Article: the, a, an
• Comparatives: the same as, as such, alike, look like, different from

Types of Reference:

1. Exosphere: (situational, looking outward)

Exophoric Reference, which occurs when a pronoun, word, or phrase that is shown is not
mentioned in the sentence. That is, the person involved in the sentence is not mentioned,
but the writer/reader already knows who the pronoun, word or phrase is.
2. Endophora: (textual, looking inward)
refers to the phenomenon of expressions that derive their reference from something
within the surrounding text (endophors). Occurs when a designated pronoun, word, or
phrase is mentioned in a sentence.
3. Anaphora: (looking backward)
Anaphoric Reference, which occurs when a pronoun/word/phrase indicates something
that is mentioned earlier than a sentence.
4. Cataphora: (looking forward)
 Cataphoric reference is the opposite of Anaphoric Reference, which occurs when a
pronoun, word or phrase is mentioned after the first sentence.

No. Sentences Exospher Endophora Anaphor Cataphora

e a
1. all right everybody, go ahead and have a
seat.
2 i am here with students at Wakefield High
School in Arlington Virginia.
3. I know that for many of you today is the
first day of school.
4. it's your first day in a new school so it's
understandable if you're a little nervous.
5. I imagine there are some seniors out there
who are feeling pretty good right now
6. my family lived overseas, I lived in
Indonesia for a few years.
7. she didn't have the money to send me where
all the American kids went to school.
8. I'm here because i want to talk with you
about your education..
9. I talked about responsibilities a lot, i talked
about teachers responsibility for inspiring
students.
10. I talked about your parents responsibility
for making sure you stay on track and you
get your homework done.

Inference

While 'reference' is mainly related to the writer or speaker's goals and beliefs, 'inference' is the
reader or listener's task to connect or relate which entity the speaker intends with a specific
referring expression. (Yule, 1996)

Therefore, for creating an adequate reference there must be a mutual knowledge (in the
speaker and listener's minds) and context about a particular referring expression so that the
listener can identify the intended referent. (Archer, 2012) (Yule, 1996)

Grundy (2000) describes inference as "a feature of the utterance or its correspondence to
known facts this feature leads the hearer to suspect that the literal meaning is not the (only)
meaning that the speaker seeks to convey". This suggests that communication is not merely a
matter of a speaker encoding a thought in language and sending it as spoken message through
space, or as a written message on paper, to a receiver who decodes it. This is clearly insufficient
 simply because the receiver must not only decode what is received but also draw an inference as
to what is conveyed beyond what is stated (meaning behind the meaning). (Grundy, 2000)
Since successful reference does not only depend on the speaker but also on the listener, we
have to include the notion of inference, which denotes the process of decoding the pragmatic
meaning of an utterance. In order to do so, the listener uses additional knowledge to make sense
of what has not been explicitly said.

If reference is made by and depends on the speaker's intention, inference (conclusion) is the
listener's job to make a conclusion in order to have an interpretation of the meaning with the
speaker (the speaker's intention), which shows the process of decomposing the pragmatic
meaning of an utterance. To do so, the listener uses additional knowledge to understand what has
not been said explicitly (direct delivery).

No. Sentence Inference

1. all right everybody, go ahead and have a seat.
2. i am here with students at Wakefield High
School in Arlington Virginia.
3. I know that for many of you today is the first
day of school.
4. it's your first day in a new school so it's
understandable if you're a little nervous.
5. I imagine there are some seniors out there
who are feeling pretty good right now
6. my family lived overseas, I lived in Indonesia
for a few years.
7. she didn't have the money to send me where
all the American kids went to school.
8. I'm here because i want to talk with you about
your education..
9. I talked about responsibilities a lot, i talked
about teachers responsibility for inspiring
students.
10. I talked about your parents responsibility for
making sure you stay on track and you get
your homework done.
Everyone please sit down.
I was with high school students in Virginia.
I know that all of you are new students in this
school.
It's okay to be nervous when you first enter
school.
There are still many good seniors in school.
My family used to live in Indonesia.
My mother did not have the money to send me to
school.
My presence is here to provide educational
knowledge for you.
I'm talking about all the responsibilities.
I'm talking about your parents to have good
parenting.

References:

Archer, D., Aijmar, K. & Wichmann, A. (2012). Pragmatics. New York: Routledge.
Crystal, D.(1992). An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Languages. Oxford: Blackwell.
Grundy, P. (2000). Doing Pragmatics.London: Hodder Education.
Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Misnana. (2021). Apa itu Anaphoric, Cataphoric, dan Exophoric Reference ?.
Gillon, Brendan. Grammatical Structure and its Interpretation: An Introduction to natural
Language Semantics. MIT Press. Chapter 4.
Suminto. (2022). Redaksi Haloedukasi. Reference dan Inference dalam Pragmatics.