AGRI-

AGRI-SENSING 2011 (Haifa, Israel)

Problem Statement
• The assessment of soil variability is one of the most
On-the-Go Proximal Soil important steps in site-specific management
• Conventional means to attain soil variability data are
Sensing for Agriculture incapable of accurately identifying spatial
inconsistency within a production field at an
economically feasible cost
• There is a need to develop equipment for mapping
Viacheslav I. Adamchuk soil attributes on-the-go
Department of Bioresource Engineering
McGill University

February 21, 2011

Sensor Use Approaches Nature of Sensing

Smell
Listen Touch

Real-Time Map-Based
Application Approach Look

Taste

Integrated Approach
(Real-Time with Supplemental Base Maps)

On- Electrical end Electromagnetic Sensors

On-the-
the-go Proximal Soil Sensors
Electrical Conductivity/Resistivity Sensors Dielectric Magnetic
Sensors Sensors
Electrical and Optical and Galvanic Contact
Electromagnetic Radiometric Resistivity Method

Electromagnetic Capacitively-Coupled
Induction Method Resistivity Method

Acoustic
Pneumatic • Soil type/texture • Volumetric water content • Subsurface
• Salinity • Soil type/structure soil impurities
• Water content • Salinity • Iron
• Organic matter content
• Depth variability
Mechanical Electrochemical • Soil pH / nitrate content EC1

EC2 EC5
H+
ECa
H+ EC4
H+ H+ EC3
H+ Soil Soil

1
 Galvanic Contact Resistivity Method Electromagnetic Induction Method
I B
N
M U Secondary field
A
Equipotentials Receiver
Transmitter

Primary field
Current flow
Soil
Eddy currents

Veris Technologies, Inc. Geonics Limited

(Salina, Kansas) Veris® 3100 and MSP Geonics EM-38
(Mississauga, Ontario)
(0.3 and 0.9 m) horizontal – 0.75 m
http://www.veristech.com http://www.geonics.com vertical – 1.5 m
Geocarta (Paris, France)
Geocarta ARP
http://www.geocarta.net (0.5, 1, and 2 m)
Dualem, Inc. DUALEM – 1S
Crop Tehchnologies, Inc. (Milton, Ontario)
(Spring, Texas) Soil Doctor® System co-planar – 0.4 m
(real-time approach) http://www.dualem.com perpendicular – 0.95 m
http://www.soildoctor.com

Capacitively-
Capacitively-Coupled Resistivity Pneumatic Angular Scanning
Method System (PASS)
Coaxial
Transmitter
cable
Capacitor
Metal shield as a
analogue
capacitor plate Inner wire

Insulation as
dielectric material

Soil as a
Soil
capacitor plate

Geometrics, Inc.
(San Jose, California) Geometrix OhmMapper TR1
UNL (Lincoln, Nebraska)
http://www.geometrics.com 2008-2009

Dielectric Sensor Dielectric Sensor Map

UNL (Lincoln, Nebraska) –
Retrokool (Berkeley, California)
2001-2003

3.2

3.0
Sensor Output, V

2.8

2.6
Test 1

2.4 Test 2
Average
2.2

• Silty clay loam soil 2.0

• Triple replicates 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
Gravimetric Soil Moisture, g/g
• Two tests

2
 Soil Water Content Optical and Radiometric Sensors
Gravimetric soil moisture Subsurface Soil Microwave Ground
30% Reflectance Sensors Sensors Penetrating Radar
R2 = 0.85
25%
SE = 2.7%
Laboratory measurement

Visual Image
20% Volumetric soil moisture analysis
40% • Water
Near-infrared content
15% 35% R2 = 0.85 Polarized
Laboratory measurement
SE = 3.9%
10%
30% Mid-infrared light
25% • Water content
5%
20% • Geophysical soil structure
0% 15%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% • Organic matter (carbon) content Gamma Radiometer
10%
Sensor measurement • Soil texture
5%
• Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
0% • Soil water content • Potassium
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
• Soil pH • Uranium Small Scale
Sensor measurement
• Mineral nitrogen and phosphorous • Thorium Topography

Subsurface Soil Reflectance Sensors VIS/NIR Spectrophotometer

Individual Wavelengths

660 nm
LEDs

Shank
Photodiode

Purdue University UNL

(West Lafayette, Indiana) (Lincoln, Nebraska)

Hyperspectral 1.00
Response
Notebook
Computer 0.95
DGPS Spectroradiometer
Antenna 0.90
Light 0.85
Source
Reflectance, %

0.80 Predicted Carbon Measured Carbon

0.75
0.70
Sapphire
0.65 Window
0.60
15 Nebraska soils Veris Technologies, Inc.
0.55

0.50 (Salina, Kansas)

Coulter 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Shank
Wavelength, nm
http://www.veristech.com

Integrate Soil Mapping System Mechanical Sensors

(ISMS) Soil strength sensors
Load Cell
Sensor
Draft and vertical force sensors Soil profile sensors

Bulk soil strength Vertically actuated Tip-based Tine-based

sensors sensors sensors sensors

Vertically-
operated cone Single-tip Multiple-tip Vertically
penetrometers horizontal horizontal oscillating
Optical Sensor sensors sensors sensors

Dielectric • Soil mechanical resistance Cantilever beam Direct load

UNL and Holland Scientific Sensor • Soil compaction sensors sensors
(Lincoln, Nebraska) • Water content
Retrokool (Berkeley, California) • Soil types
2008-2010 • Depth of hard (plow) pan

3
 Soil Mechanical Resistance Mapping Discrete Depth Profiling Tools
Load Cell Three Cutting
Array Blades
Tool Bar

Strain Gauges

Travel Direction
UC-Davis University of Missouri UNL
Purdue University (West Lafayette, Indiana) (Davis, California) (Columbia, Missouri) (Lincoln, Nebraska)

Example Integrated Soil Physical Properties

Soil Mechanical Resistance Map Mapping System (ISPPMS)
Compacted area Old roads UNL
(Lincoln, Nebraska)

Two wavelengths soil

reflectance sensor

Soil mechanical resistance

Soil Mechanical Resistance Yield profiler with an array of Capacitor-based
Map (20-30 cm) Map strain gage bridges sensor

Bulk Density Prediction Disc Coulter Sensor

GPS Antennae

DAQ
&

Ultrasound
Moisture Soil Mechanical Resistance Depth Sensor
R2 = 0.50 R2 = 0.19

1.8
Predic ted Bulk Density, g/mL

R2 = 0.69
1.6

1.4

Rotational
1.2
Potentiometer UNL
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
Measured Bulk Density, g/mL
(Lincoln, Nebraska)
Bulk Density

4
 Instrumented Tillage Implement Variable Depth Tillage Concept
Laptop with Signal
DAQ Card Conditioning
Unit
GPS
Antenna
Strain
Load Gauges
Cells Soil Soil Strength
Surface

Strain Depth
Gauges Sensor Custom
Protective
Load
Shin Cells

Depth
Straight
Standard Custom
Point US Patent No. 7,028,554

Acoustic and Pneumatic Sensors Electrochemical Sensors

Soil Penetration Air Permeability Ion-Selective Ion-Selective Field Effect
Noise Sensors Sensor Electrodes (ISEs) Transistors (ISFETs)

Soil Solution Agitated Soil Direct Soil

Measurement Measurement Measurement

University of Illinois University of Kentucky

(Urbana-Champaign, Illinois) (Lexington, Kentucky) Conventional
Laboratory
Analysis
Activity of selected ions
• Soil pH (H+)
• Soil clay content (type) • Soil structure/tilth • Potassium content (K+)
• Soil compaction • Water content • Residual nitrogen (NO3--N)
• Depth of hard (plow) pan • Soil type • Sodium content (Na+)

Automated Soil Testing Automated Soil pH Mapping Systems

Soil cutters Purdue University
(West Lafayette, Indiana)

Shank

Coring tube

Mixing ISFET Electrode

Water jet
~50 g soil core

Sample collection
Add 20 ml DI H2O for calibration Purdue University
Cleaning (West Lafayette, Indiana) US Patent No. 6,356,830

5
 Mobil Sensor Platform (MSP) Direct Soil Measurement
Purdue University
(West Lafayette, Indiana) Ion-selective
Veris Technologies, Inc. Electrodes
(Salina, Kansas)
UNL (Lincoln, Nebraska)

Water Nozzle

Soil Sampler

EC Surveyor 3150

Veris Technologies, Inc.

(Salina, Kansas)
Soil pH Manager
http://www.veristech.com

Example
Soil pH Mapping Mapping Alternatives
Directed Soil Sampling
On-the-Go Sensing Soil Sampling

MSP pH
Soil pH Maps of Directed Field Interpolated
a Kansas Field Universal
Sampling Average Grid Map
MSP pH

Adjusted
MSP pH

Shifted
MSP pH
Universal MSP pH = InterceptUniversal + SlopeUniversal ⋅ MSP pH

Adjusted MSP pH = InterceptField − specific + SlopeField − specific ⋅ MSP pH

On-the-Go Mapping Conventional 1 ha Grid Sampling

Shifted MSP pH = Shift Field − specific + MSP pH

Soil pH Maps Evaluation Antimony Electrode

9 9
IA1 IA1
8 R2 = 0.47 IL1 8 R2 = 0.25 IL1
IL2
KS1
IL2
KS1 Sandy and
Lab pH

Lab pH

7 7
KS2 KS2 7.0
6
NE1
OK1 6
NE1
OK1 stony soils
5
WI1
1:1 line 5
WI1
1:1 line R2 = 0.99
Reg Reg
4 4 6.5 SE = 0.23
Soil pH Antimony Electrodes

2.5 Acre Grid 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 Field Average

9
Grid Sampling pH Field Average pH

9 9 6.0
8
R2 = 0.60 IA1
IL1 8
R2 = 0.60 IA1
IL1
IL2 IL2
KS1 KS1
Lab pH

Lab pH

7 7
KS2 KS2
6
NE1
6
NE1 5.5
OK1 OK1
WI1 WI1
5 1:1 line 5 1:1 line
Reg Reg
4 4
5.0
Raw MSP 4 5 6 7 8 9 4 5 6 7 8 Universal
9 MSP
Unprocessed MSP pH Universal MSP pH

9 9
4.5
R2 = 0.81 IA1 R2 = 0.81 IA1
8 IL1 8 IL1
IL2 IL2
KS1 KS1
Lab pH

Lab pH

7 7
KS2 KS2
6
NE1
OK1 6
NE1
OK1 4.0
WI1 WI1
5 1:1 line
Reg
5 1:1 line
Reg
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0
4 4
Soil pH Glass Electrodes
Adjusted MSP4 5 6 7
Adjusted MSP pH
8 9 4 5 6 7
Shifted MSP pH
8
Shifted
9
MSP

6
 Portable Probe On-
On-the-
the-Spot Measurement of Soil pH
Portable Probe Reference Lab
8.0

7.5

7.0 Plot A
Plot B
6.5 Plot C
6.0 Average Plot A

Soil pH
Average Plot B
5.5 Average Plot C

5.0

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0
0 ~8 10 ~ 18 20 ~28 30 40 10 – 20 50
Depth, cm

Integrated Direct Soil Measurement VRT Prescription

UNL 7.5
2
(Lincoln, Nebraska) 7.0
R = 0.93 (0.96 means)
RMSE (Precision) = 0.12 pH 8.0
LR = f (buffer pH)
Measured soil pH and predicted buffer pH

6.5 Reg. SE (Accuracy) = 0.16 pH Predicted buffer pH

7.5 Measured soil pH
Measured pH

1:1 line
6.0
( ) Buffer pH = f (soil pH, CEC)
7.0
5.5
R2 = 0.91
15 Nebraska soils 5.0 6.5

with fixed field 4.5

pH 6.0
600
Predicted exchangable K

Measured soluble K and predicted

Measured soluble K
water content 4.0
5.5 1:1 line
4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

exchangeble K, mg kg -1
Reference pH
5.0
400
4.5 R2 = 0.68 R2 = 0.94
100 1000
4.0
Measured soluble potassium, mg/kg

2
R = 0.35 (0.61 means)
Measured nitrate-nitrogen, mg/kg

RMSE (Precision) = 0.19 pNO3

6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
pK Reg. SE (Accuracy) = 0.12 pNO3 Measured buffer pH
200 R2 = 0.65

10 100

2 0
R = 0.52 (0.62 means)
0 200 400 600
RMSE (Precision) = 0.13 pK

1
Reg. SE (Accuracy) = 0.15 pK
10
pNO3 K rate = f (exchangeable K) Measured exchangeble K, mg kg-1

10 100 1000 1 10 100

Reference soluble potassium (AAS), mg/kg Reference nitrate-nitrogen (CR), mg/kg Exchangeable K = f (soluble K, CEC)

Integrated Multiple Data Layers Applicability of On-

On-the-
the-Go Soil Sensors

Soil property H+ H+
H+ H+
H+

Soil texture (clay, silt and sand) Good OK Some

Soil organic matter or total carbon Some Good

Soil pH & Clay & OM Soil water (moisture) Good Good

Soil salinity (sodium) OK Some

Soil compaction (bulk density) Good Some

Depth variability (hard pan) Some OK Some

= Lime Recommendation
Soil pH Some Good

Residual nitrate (total nitrogen) Some Some OK

Other nutrients (potassium) Some OK

CEC (other buffer indicators) OK OK

Maps produced by Veris Technologies, Inc. (Salina, Kansas)

7
 Targeted Soil Sampling Objective Function
• Directed sampling should be used to
calibrate and/or validate sensor data OF = 5 S opt ⋅ Dopt − pH ⋅ Dopt − EC ⋅ H cr − pH ⋅ H cr − EC
• Directed samples should be collected from
relatively homogeneous field areas away
from the boundary and other transitional • S-optimality
areas • D-optimality (soil pH)
• D-optimality (soil EC)
• Directed samples should cover the entire
range of sensor-based measurements, • H-criteria (soil pH)
especially toward low and high ends • H-criteria (soil EC)
• Directed samples should be physically
spread across the entire field
• It should be possible to process multiple
sensor-based data layers

Summary
• On-the-go soil sensors can provide high
density information about soil properties
• Many sensor approaches are past initial
commercialization stage
• Sensor fusion provides the ability to separate
various agronomic effects
• Site-specific sensor calibration and validation
are essential steps of the mapping process
• Laboratory soil analysis remains a required
supplementary practice http://bse.unl.edu/adamchuk
E:mail: viacheslav.adamchuk@mcgill.ca