δ

Stress

!
"
"

# !
$
"

$ !
$
$ "

1
 ε= = %&'()* $ +) &%

Δ= 2 #$

Δ= 4 #$
0.2

Δ= 6 #$
0.2

0.2
!

-
, -,

,
. 2. . .
normal stress - - -
/ 2/ / /
1 1 21 1
normal strain
2 2 22 2

2
 • Hooke’s Law: .
- / .
- 3  45
3 3 /3

• Definition of strain:
1
, 45 1  2
2

• Equation for the deformation,

.2
1
/3

. +

3
 . +

Necking = Poisson Effect

4
 .

. / *

10

5
 , 0

11

+ 0
=5>8 9:58;;,  -
.
/ ?@A ?

3$7#$885#$7 9:58;;,  -
.
/

Since the cross-sectional area of the specimen keeps decreasing

as the load increases, the use of the initial cross-sectional area
(A0) does not provide the actual stress in the specimen.

12

6
 . 1+ 1

13

2 3 ’ ! *

• Below the yield stress

- 3⋅ 2 3 ’ !
3 Modulus of Elasticity
29000 ksi MsteelN

• Strength is affected by alloying, heat

treating, and manufacturing process but
Modulus of Elasticity is not.

14

7
 4 5' 6 $ ( *

In the case of ductile materials, the

onset of yield is not characterized by a
horizontal portion of the stress-strain
curve.
Fy
For such materials, the yield strength,
Fy is usually defined by the 0.2% offset
method. The yield strength at 0.2%
offset, is obtained by drawing through
the point of the horizontal axis of
abscissa ε = 0.002 a line parallel to the
initial straight-line portion of the stress-
strain diagram.

15

• If the strain disappears when the

stress is removed, the material is
said to behave elastically.
% !

• The highest stress for which this

, occurs is called the elastic limit.

) • When the strain does not return

to zero after the stress is
removed, the material is said to
, behave plastically.
Stress-strain characteristics of ductile material
loaded beyond yield, unloaded and then reloaded.

16

8
 , ’ )
Axial Loading Only:

. -O
-O O
3
/
-P -Q 0 P 0  V$W   Q 0
Y Z
+ %(7

[ Z X The elongation in the longitudinal direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the lateral directions.

P Q R0
Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain P Q
S T T T
longitudinal strain O O

17

) –
*
If a specimen made of a ductile
material were loaded in
compression instead of tension,
the stress-strain curve obtained
would be essentially the same.

For a given steel, the yield

strength and the MOE are
almost the same in both tension
and compression.

' 8'

*( 8 *(

Such materials are said to be isotropic.

18

9
 ) –/ *

' +
*( "

' #

For most brittle materials, ' 99 ' .

Such materials are said to be anisotropic.

19

'

Structural members or machines must be designed such that the

working stresses are less than the allowable stress which is a fraction of
the ultimate strength of the material.

-actual \ -allowable

-b ultimate stress
Factor of safety   `. 9.
-all allowable stress

1 - 20

20

10
 '

-b ultimate stress
Factor of safety   `. 9.
-all allowable stress

Considerations for a proper Factor of Safety :

• uncertainty in material properties
• uncertainty of loadings
• uncertainty of analyses
• number of loading cycles
• types of failure – ductile or brittle
• maintenance requirements and deterioration effects
• importance of member to structures integrity - redundancy
• risk to life and property

1 - 21

21

'

' -'

-'

'

.'

1. We note that portion DH of the stress-strain diagram is curved and does not show
any clearly defined yield point. This is referred to as the Bauschinger effect.
2. Reverse loadings into the plastic range, therefore, are seldom allowed, and only
under carefully controlled conditions.

22

11