Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fall 2022
David R. Jackson
Notes 4
Functions of a Complex
Variable as Mappings
1
A Function of a Complex Variable as a Mapping
z w
y w = f ( z) v
w w= u + iv
x= x + iy
z
x u
For example, w = z 3
2
Simple Mappings: Translations
Translation :
w= A + z
where A is a complex constant.
y z v w
w= A + z w
z
z
x u
A
3
Simple Mappings: Rotations
Rotation :
i (α +θ )
=w e=
z iα
e iα
(re=
iθ
) re
where α is a real constant.
y z w
v
w = eiα z
z α z
x u
w
= =
w az ( )
a reiθ= (ar )eiθ
= =
u ax, v ay
du = a dx
⇒
where a is a real constant. dv = a dy
y z w v w
w = az
z
x u
5
A General Linear Transformation (Mapping) is a
Combination of Translation, Rotation, and Dilation
Linear transformation :
rotation
dilation
i (θ + Arg B )
w= A B ei Arg B reiθ =
A + Bz =+ A + Br e
translation
where A ,B are complex constants .
y z w v
w= A + Bz
Bz
z Arg B
x u
A
w
Im
z = x+ iy
r
1
θ
Re
θ w =1/ z
Points outside the unit circle get mapped to the inside of the unit circle.
Points inside the unit circle get mapped to the outside of the unit circle.
7
Simple Mappings: Inversions
Inversion :
1 1 1 −iθ
=
w = iθ
= e
z re r
Im Im
z
z= x0 + iy
1
1 Re
x0 Re 1z
1z
Inversions have a “circle preserving” property, i.e., circles always map to circles
(Straight lines are a special case where the radius of the circle is infinity.)
8
Circle Property of Inversion Mapping: Proof
1
w= (This maps circles into circles.)
z
1 1 u −v
z= ⇒ x + iy = ⇒ x= , y =
w u + iv u2 + v2 u2 + v2
Consider a circle: ( x − x0 )2 + ( y − y0 )2 =
a2
Hence
2 2
u −v u −v
2 2
+ 2 2
+ a1 2 2
+ a 2 2 2
+ a3 =
0
u +v u +v u +v u +v
J. W. Brown and R. V. Churchill, Complex Variables and Applications, 9th Ed., McGraw-Hill, 2013.
9
Circle Property of Inversion Mapping: Proof (cont.)
2 2
u −v u −v
2 2
+ 2 2
+ a1 2 2
+ a 2 2 2
+ a3 =
0
u +v u +v u +v u +v
Multiply by u2 + v2:
u2 v2
2 +
2 2 2
+ a1 ( u ) + a 2 ( − v ) + a3 u 2
+ v 2
(
=
0 )
u +v u +v
or
( )
1 + a1 ( u ) + a2 ( −v ) + a3 u 2 + v 2 =
0
( u − u0 )2 + ( v − v0 )2 =
b2
10
Simple Mappings: Inversions (cont.)
1 1 1 −iθ
Geometrical construction of the inversion : =
w = iθ
= e
z re r
w v
θ u
z
y w v
1 z
z w= w
z
θ 1
x θ
u
w
Shapes are not preserved!
11
A General Bilinear Transformation (Mapping) Is a Succession
of Translations, Rotations, Dilations, and Inversions
A + Bz
Bilinear (Fractional or Mobius) transformation : w =
C + Dz
where A ,B,C,D are complex constants.
Note that if D ≠ 0 ,
A + Bz A − BC D + B D ( C + Dz ) A − BC D
=w = = + B D
C + Dz C + Dz C + Dz
12
Bilinear Transformation Example: The Smith Chart
Z (d )
Let z =r + jx = where Z ( ) =R ( d ) + jX ( d ) is the impedance at z =- d on a
Z0
transmission line of characteristic impedance Z 0 , and Γ ( d ) is the generalized
reflection coefficient :
Z ( d ) − Z0 z ( d ) −1 z −1
=
Γ (d ) = = or simply Γ
Z ( d ) + Z0 z (d ) +1 z +1
r ≡ R / Z0
x Im Γ
x ≡ X / Z0
z −1 Γ
Γ =
z z +1
r Re Γ
Horizontal and vertical ines (contant reactance and resistance) are mapped into circles.
• The transformation maps half the z - plane into the entire w - plane.
• The entire z - plane covers the w - plane twice.
• The transformation is said to be two - to - one.
14
Another Representation of the Squaring
Transformation
= f ( z=
w ) z=2 r 2 ei 2θ
2
y z
180o
270o 3 90o
9
2
4
1
1
360o
x
-360o 1 2 3 0o
-270o -90o
-180o
=
Constant amplitude and phase contours of ( z ) z2
w f=
15
The Square Root Transformation
θ p + 2π k
( z ) z=
i
=
w f= 1/ 2
re 2 ,=
k 0,1
Note: The value of z1/2 on one branch is the
y negative of the value on the other branch. v
z w
Second z
branch w
x u
−π < θ p ≤ π
k =1
w
Principal branch Re ≥ 0
−π < θ p ≤ π
k =0
We say that there are two “branches” (i.e., values) of the square root function.
Note that for a given branch (e.g., the principal branch), the square root function is not
continuous on the negative real axis. (There is a “branch cut” there.)
Principal branch
−π < θ p ≤ π Re ≥ 0
k =0 1 =1
−1 =i
The principal square root is denoted as z 1+ i
i=
2
1− i
Note: Re z ≥ 0 −i =
2
17
The Square Root Transformation (cont.)
θp
i 2 + kπ
w= f ( z )= z1 / 2= r1 / 2 e , k= 0,1, − π < θ ≤ π
y y
45o 225o
67.5o 3 22.5o 247.5o 3 202.5o
3 3
2 2
2 2
1 1
1 1
90o 270o
x x
-90o 1 2 3 0o 90o 1 2 3 180o
18
Constant u and v Contours are Orthogonal
Consider contours in the z plane on which the real quantities u ( x, y ) and v ( x, y )
are constant.
y v = constant
∇u
z w =u ( x, y ) + iv ( x, y ) = f ( z ) (analytic)
∇v
u = constant
x
The directions normal to these contours are along the gradient direction :
∂u ∂u
∇u
= xˆ + ˆy
∂x ∂y
∂v ∂v
∇v
= xˆ + ˆy
∂x ∂y
The gradients, and therefore the contours, are orthogonal (perpendicular) by the C. R. conditions :
C.R.
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v ∂u
cond's
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
∇u ⋅ ∇v =
∂x xˆ + ∂y ˆy ⋅ xˆ + ˆy = ∂x xˆ + ∂y ˆy ⋅ − xˆ + ˆy =
− + =0
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
19
Constant u and v Contours are Orthogonal (cont.)
Example: w = z 2
( )
w =( x + iy ) = x 2 − y 2 + i ( 2 xy )
2
u ( x, y=
) x2 − y 2
so
v ( x, y ) = 2 xy
Also, recall that
y
= v =
constant: xy c2
∇2u ( x, y ) =
0
∇2v ( x, y ) =
0
=u constant: =
x 2 − y 2 c1
20
Mappings of Analytic Functions are Conformal
(Angle-Preserving)
Consider a pair of intersecting paths C 1,C 2 in the z plane mapped
onto the w= u + iv plane.
w = f ( z)
y v
z γ
w
Γ1
∆z2
z0
∆z1 f ′ ( z0 ) ≠ 0 β
∆w1
w0
C1
∆w2 Γ2
γ C2 β
x u
∆w 1 ≈ f ′ ( z0 ) ∆z 1 ( ) ( )
⇒ arg ∆w 1 ≈ arg f ′ ( z0 ) + arg ∆z 1 , ∆z 1 along C1 from z0
∆w 2 ≈ f ′ ( z0 ) ∆z 2 ⇒ arg ( ∆w 2 ) ≈ arg f ′ ( z0 ) + arg ( ∆z 2 ) , ∆z 2 along C2 from z0
⇒ arg ( ∆w 2 ) − arg ( ∆w 1 ) ≈ arg ( ∆z 2 ) − arg ( ∆z 1 )
dz
Assumption : ≠0
dw
22
Constant |w| and arg(w) Contours are also Orthogonal
dz
Assumption : ≠0
dw
y Θ =constant
w
v
z
R = constant
x u
23
The Logarithm Function
w = ln ( z )
i (θ p + 2π k )
= eiθ z e
z z=
( )
⇒ ln ( z ) = ln z + i θ p + 2π k , k = 0, ±1, ±2 ,
24
Arbitrary Powers of Complex Numbers
w=z a
(a may be complex)
Use
z z= iθ i (θ p + 2π k )
=z eln z =
e z e
aln z + ai (θ p + 2π k )
=
z a
( )ln z a
e = e= e aln z
= e
aln z iaθ p i 2π ak
e e
25
Arbitrary Powers of Complex Numbers (cont.)
: f ( z ) z=
Example= 2/ 3
( a 2 / 3)
2
2
ln z i θ p i 2π k
2
z2 / 3 = e 3 e 3 e 3
2 2
2 ln z i θp
k= 0 k= 0 ⇒ z 2 / 3= e 3 e3
3
2 2 2
2 2 ln z i θ p i ( 2π )
k= 1 k= ⇒ z2 / 3= e 3 e3 e 3
3 3
2 2 4
2 4 ln z i θ p i ( 2π )
k 2 k= ⇒ z2 / 3
= e 3 e3 e 3
3 3
2 2 2 2
2 2/ 3 ln z i θ p i ( 2π ) 2 ln z i θ p starts
k =3 k=
2 =
⇒ z e=3 e 3 e e 3 e 3 ←
3 repeating!
k=4
2 8
k = =+
2
2
⇒ repeats!
3 3 3
For z p/q the repetition period is k = q (if p and q have
no common factors). For irrational powers, the
repetition period is infinite; i.e., values never repeat!
26