Faculty of Engineering-Mattaria

Internal combustion lab

Report

Submitted by
Mohamed Sayed Mohamed Ali
Sec. No.
9
Submitted to
ENG. Ahmed taya
Contents

1. Measurement in engine ............................................................................................................ 3

1.1. Temperature measurement ................................................................................................ 3

1.1.1. Bi-metallic strip gauges ................................................................................................ 3

1.1.2. Types of gauge s .......................................................................................................... 4

1.2. Pressure measurement ....................................................................................................... 6

2. Emission ................................................................................................................................... 7

2.1. IR gas analyzer ................................................................................................................... 7

2.1.1. Principle of Operation: .................................................................................................. 7

2.1.2. Construction and Working: ........................................................................................... 8

2.2. Gas chromatography .......................................................................................................... 8

2.3. Orsat gas analyzer .............................................................................................................. 9

2.3.1. Construction ............................................................................................................... 10

2.3.2. Method of analysis ..................................................................................................... 10

3. Engine smokes ....................................................................................................................... 11

3.1. If the exhaust smoke is black: ........................................................................................... 12

3.2. If the exhaust smoke is white: ........................................................................................... 12
3.3. If the exhaust smoke is blue or gray: ................................................................................ 13
1. Measurement in engine

1.1. Temperature measurement

Although car cooling systems are designed to maintain a fairly constant working
temperature, the actual engine temperature can vary for a number of reasons. It may even
reach such a high level that engine damage becomes a possibility.

1.1.1. Bi-metallic strip gauges

Bi-metallic strip gauges creep up to their readings gradually when you switch on the
ignition. The sensor unit allows a current, varying with the engine temperature, through to a
heater coil inside the gauge. A bi-metallic strip inside the coil bends by an amount
depending on the size of the current and deflects the needle across a calibrated scale to
give a temperature reading.

The temperature gauge provides an early warning of overheating, allowing you to stop the
car before any damage occurs. In very cold weather, the gauge can also tell you if the
engine is being overcooled (which will increase fuel consumption and engine wear). You
can then take preventative means, such as blocking off part of the radiator or changing the
thermostat.
 1.1.2. Types of gauges

There are two common types of gauge mechanism - magnetic gauges and bimetallic
gauges. You can tell which type your car has by the way it reacts when you switch on the
ignition. With magnetic instruments the needle immediately jumps to give a reading; bi-
metallic gauges move slowly to the reading after being switched on.

Temperature gauges are built into the car's instrument housing on the dashboard. The
sensor unit, however, may be in one of several locations - the thermostat housing, the
cylinder head or the upper radiator hose In all cases the sensor is arranged so the coolant
flows over it on the way out of the engine.

 Magnetic temperature gauges

The needle has a soft iron armature at its pivot, which moves by a certain amount
depending on the strength of the magnetic field between the two wire-wound coils. The
strength of the field depends on the size of the current passed into the coil from the sensor
unit.

Magnetic gauges, also called moving iron gauges, have a pair of coils, one on each side of
a pivoted iron armature that carries the needle. Sometimes the iron armature is weighted
to hold the needle in the rest position; in other cases a light hairspring does this.
The coils are connected directly to the car's electrical supply - one is earthed direct and the
other earths through the sensor, whose resistance varies with engine temperature. The
current passing through the coils produces a magnetic field which moves the armature
against the weight or spring. The amount of movement depends on the difference in the
fields produced by the two coils. This difference varies with the size of the current let
through by the sensor unit.
 Bimetallic gauges

With bi-metallic strip gauges, the current allowed through by the sensor is fed to a coil of
resistance wire wound around a bi-metallic strip that's linked to the needle.
Current flowing through the bimetallic strip causes the strip to heat up. As it does so it bends
because the two metals in the strip expand with the heat by different amounts. The bending
strip deflects the needle across the scale. The amount the strip bends depends on the amount
of current arriving at the gauge, which in turn depends on the heat of the engine.
To avoid errors caused by variations in the car's supply voltage due to electrical load and
generator speed, a voltage stabilizer is included in the instrument circuit. The voltage stabilizer
also works on the bi-metallic strip principle and keeps the instruments supplied at a steady 8 or
10 volts.

 Warning lights

Sensors for high temperature warning lights are different to those used for gauges and operate
only as switches. They only pass a current to the light when a pre-set temperature has been
exceeded.

 Sensor units

There are two types of sensor units: the semiconductor type and the bimetallic strip type.

Semiconductor sensors are by far the most common type and consist of a semiconductor resistor element
in a metal capsule. The resistance of the semiconductor decreases as the temperature increases. As the
engine heats up, the sensor resistance reduces, increasing the current flow to the gauge and giving a
higher reading.
The bi-metallic principle is used in a rarer type of sensor. Movement of a bi-metallic strip inside a
heating coil in the sensor opens a pair of contacts, cutting off the current to the heater and the gauge.
With the current off the strip cools and straightens out, remaking the contact so that current flows again.
This sequence is repeated rapidly, with the amount of time the contacts are closed (and the amount of
time that currents flows to the gauge) depending on the overall temperature of the sensor unit.

When the engine and sensor are hot, less electrical heating is needed to bend the strip and
open the contacts and the cooling process takes longer. This means that the contacts remain
open for longer so less overall current flows in the circuit. The needle is linked in such a way
that a low current equals a high gauge reading.
1.2. Pressure measurement

pressure transducer through glow plug or spark plug adaptor

Spark plugs with integrated pressure transducer, also called measuring spark plugs, are
suitable for measuring cylinder pressure in gasoline and gas engines without the need to
provide an additional bore in the cylinder head. Various changes to the original spark plug
occur when a pressure sensor is integrated in the body of the spark plug such as the spark
position and the maximum diameter of the isolator.
This article shows the results that can be achieved in respect of the spark and
measurement function on a state-of-the-art, turbocharged, directly-injected gasoline engine
with homogeneous mixture operation by comparing the original spark plugs with measuring
spark plugs. To this end, various engine operating points were carried out at full and partial
load by varying the lambda and spark ignition timing, which were assessed as a reference
based on water-cooled pressure sensors.
The measuring function as well as the spark function yielded good results where trade-offs
had to be made in the threshold areas of the spark timing and lambda variation carried out
with respect to the function of the measuring spark plug. These could, however, be due to
the changed installation of the ignition coil.
2. Emission

2.1. IR gas analyzer

An infrared gas analyzer is used to measure the quantity of various gas. The amount of gas is
determined by amount of a particular frequency of light absorbed by the gas when the light is
passed through the gas. Different molecules in the air absorb different frequencies of light,
measuring the absorbed frequency clearly gives the relation to the amount of particular gas in
the air.
There are dispersion and non-dispersion types of infrared analyzers. Dispersion infrared
analyzers are used in laboratories as spectrophotometers; non-dispersion infrared
analyzers (NDIR) are used for continuous measurement in industrial applications.

2.1.1. Principle of Operation:

The absorption spectrum of infrared radiation absorbed by a gas, is unique to the type of
gas, In every absorption-type, optical analyzer, the fundamental equation relating photon
absorption to substance concentration is the Beer-Lambert Law (sometimes called the
Lambert-Beer Law):

Where,
A = Absorbance
a = Extinction coefficient for photon-absorbing substance(s)
b = Path length of light traveling through the sample
c = Concentration of a photon-absorbing substance in the sample
I0 = Intensity of source (incident) light
I = Intensity of received light after passing through the sample
 2.1.2. Construction and Working:

There is two tubes in the analyzer one is filled with reference gas and other with the sample
gas or process gas which absorbs light. The reference gas is usually gases like nitrogen
which will not absorb light.
The incident light (infrared) is split into two parallel beams by the upper mirror. One beam is
used for the measurement and the other is used as the reference.
The reference light beam passes through the reference cell, which is filled with air or N2 ,
and is then reflected off the bottom mirror onto a semiconductor detector. The
measurement light beam passes through the measurement cell, and is reflected onto a
semiconductor detector in the same fashion as the reference light.
The component to be measured in the gas sample flowing through the measurement cell
absorbs some of the measurement light, thus reducing the strength of the light relative to
the strength of the reference light. The two light beams are alternately cut off from the
detector by a semi- circular rotary sector. This allows the detector to convert the difference
in the strengths of the measurement and reference light beams into an alternating electrical
signal that represents the concentration of the gas being measured.

2.2. Gas chromatography

Gas chromatography (GC) is a technique used for the analysis and quantification of
volatile compounds. Compounds are injected onto the gas chromatograph and flash
evaporated onto the column. This can be done using a packed or capillary column. The
column is the stationary phase and the gas is the mobile phase.
2.3. Orsat gas analyzer

An Orsat gas analyser is a piece of laboratory equipment used to analyse a gas sample
(typically fossil fuel flue gas) for its oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content.
Although largely replaced by instrumental techniques, the Orsat remains a reliable method of
measurement and is relatively simple to use
2.3.1. Construction

The apparatus consists of an intake valve which feeds into a calibrated water
or glycerin jacketed gas burette, this burette is then connected by tubing to two or more
absorption pipettes containing chemical solutions that absorb the gasses it is being used to
measure. The intake and each of the absorption pipettes are valved with stopcocks to allow
the movement of gas through the apparatus to be precisely controlled. For safety and
portability, the apparatus is usually encased in a wooden box with a handle.
The most common absorbents are:

 Potassium Hydroxide (Caustic Potash) for carbon dioxide

 Pyrogallol (Pyrogallic Acid) for oxygen
 Copper(I) chloride (ammoniacal Cuprous chloride) for carbon monoxide

Any left over gas is assumed to be nitrogen, though other absorbents or vessels can be
used to isolate additional gases. Platinum on asbestos for example can be used to
determine the hydrogen content of a sample, and The Fischer type Orsat gas analyser for
example uses a platinum electrode to explode the remaining gases with hydrogen.
The base of the gas burette is connected to a leveling bottle which typically contains slightly
acidulated water with a trace of chemical indicator (typically methyl orange) for colouration.
The small amount of acid added to the water reduces the solubility of carbon dioxide. The
leveling bottle can be lifted and lowered to enable readings to be taken at constant pressure
and to transfer the gas to and from the pipettes containing the different absorption media.
The movement of gas through the apparatus is entirely controlled using the leveling bottle
and the various stopcocks.

2.3.2. Method of analysis

By means of a rubber tubing arrangement, the gas to be analyzed is drawn into the burette
and flushed through several times. Using the stopcocks to isolate the absorption pipettes
100ml is typically withdrawn into the main burette for ease of calculation and the leveling
flask is raised until the water is level between it and the burette.
This insures that the sample is of a known volume and is in equilibrium with the pressure of
the room. The water or glycerin jacket further assures that the sample is kept at room
temperature.
The gas is then passed into the Potassium Hydroxide (caustic potash) burette by opening
the stop cock and lifting the leveling flask. This siphons water into the burette which pushes
the gas into the absorption vessel. The gas is left to stand for about two minutes and then
withdrawn, isolating the remaining gas via the stopcock arrangements. The process is then
repeated to ensure full absorption. Afterward the leveling flask is once more adjusted until
the fluid level is equal between both vessels and a measurement of the new gas volume is
taken. If 100ml of gas was present initially the new volume indicates the percentage of
carbon dioxide absorbed. If a sample after absorption contained 88ml of gas, then it would
be recorded as 12% carbon dioxide.
The same technique is repeated for oxygen, using the pyrogallol, and carbon monoxide
using the ammoniacal cuprous chloride though depending on any additional absorption
 media the process may be different. Potassium Hydroxide for example will also
absorb sulfur dioxide, and so the step to measure SO2 would need to come first.

 Other types

 Orsat-Aimer Products Orsat apparatus

 Orsat-Fischer apparatus
 Orsat-Lunge apparatus
 Orsat-Friedrichs apparatus
 Sona Orsat apparatus
 Fischer type Orsat gas analyser

3. Engine smokes

You can learn a lot about the health and well being of your car from the color of its exhaust. If
it’s operating in tip-top shape, tailpipe emissions should be nearly undetectable. If exhaust
smoke is visible, you likely have a real problem, and one that will require a skilled auto
technician to remedy.
Common causes of exhaust smoke, according to its color:
While the presence of exhaust smoke can indicate a serious car malady, there is a silver lining:
the color of that tailpipe plume can give an indication of what might be wrong, which helps to
generate a quick and efficient diagnosis.
3.1. If the exhaust smoke is black:

Black exhaust doesn’t always indicate impending doom. If your car emits a little black smoke at
start-up, but it clears up as the engine warms to operating temperature, don’t worry – that’s
normal for some cars. If it continues after the car warms up, there’s cause for concern. If that’s
the case, here are the likely culprits:

 Clogged or dirty air filter: An essential part of a vehicle’s fuel system, an air filter stops
airborne contaminants from getting sucked into car’s engine, where they can clog up the
works. The remedy is simple: replace the filter.

If the problem persists, it’s an indication that your vehicle’s air-to-fuel ratio is askew –
specifically, it is burning too rich or more fuel than air. Two of the most common reasons for
this are a malfunctioning fuel pressure regulator or leaky or clogged fuel injectors.

 Bad fuel pressure regulator: A vehicle’s fuel system is designed to work within a specific
range of pressure, which is controlled by a fuel pressure regulator. If the regulator is on the
fritz, the pressure will fluctuate outside of the system’s specified range. If it falls too low,
there may not be enough fuel reaching the engine to start it. Too much pressure may result
in over-fueling, which can make your engine run rough and deliver poor fuel mileage,
among other things. The remedy is to replace the fuel pressure regulator.

 Leaky or clogged fuel injectors: Fuel injectors are small electro-mechanical devices used
to spray a predetermined amount of atomized gasoline (a mist of gasoline) into a vehicle’s
intake manifold, which is directly in front of the intake valve. The gas is drawn into the
combustion chamber and mixed with a predetermined amount of oxygen to optimize the
efficiency of the burn or combustion event. The remedy is to repair the fuel injectors.

3.2. If the exhaust smoke is white:

Does the exhaust smoke quickly dissipate after leaving the tailpipe? If so, it is probably the
result of condensation building up within your car’s exhaust system. This is a common sight
when cars, even modern ones, are first started in the morning. If it continues well after start-up,
then you may have serious trouble. White exhaust smoke often happens when an engine
burns coolant that has leaked into the combustion chamber. The following are the most
common culprits:

 Blown head gasket: This is not so great news, but your engine’s structural integrity has
most likely not been compromised, so it’s not ruinous. An engine essentially consists of an
engine block and a cylinder head. The block is where the cylinders and coolant
passageways are located, and the head is where the valves and rocker arms reside. The
head gasket is placed between the two to seal the connection. If it is damaged or
compromised, coolant can find its way into the combustion chamber. This is a costly, but
fixable, issue.

 Damaged cylinder head: This fix is more of a Greek tragedy. Most of the explosive action
happens in the cylinder head, where the combustion chamber is located. A cracked or
extremely warped cylinder head will cause the engine to lose compression and misfire.
 Why? There’s too much heat. Overheating puts undue stress on all of an engine’s metal
components, especially the cylinder head, which is at the center of the heat production in a
car. Excessive heat, normally caused by a cooling system failure, can cause the head
gasket to fail, which in turn can cause the cylinder head to crack as components warp and
pressure builds. This is not an easy fix. Heads have very precisely milled surfaces to
provide a smooth and flush fit with all the connecting parts. You’re better off replacing the
head altogether. Depending on the age and value of your car, you might consider buying a
new vehicle.

 Cracked engine block: Call a crash cart: your car engine is dead. As we said above, the
block houses the cylinders and their components inside a cooled and lubricated crankcase.
It’s cast from one piece of metal – typically iron or aluminum – to be extremely strong and
sturdy. It also supports the rest of the engine’s components. Cracked blocks are virtually
impossible to repair. An engine swap is the only reliable remedy, but that can be extremely
expensive and thus sometimes not worth the investment. Depending on the age and value
of your car, you may want to consider cutting your losses and buying a new car.

3.3. If the exhaust smoke is blue or gray:

Thick blue or gray smoke is an indication of the vehicle burning oil, which means that oil is
somehow leaking into your engine’s combustion chamber. Burning oil like this can cause a
wide range of issues from reduced fuel economy to less-than-stellar acceleration. There
may also be an increase in hydrocarbon emissions, as well as damage to the catalytic
converter.

 Malfunctioning valve stem seal: Valve stem seals regulate the amount of oil applied to
the valve stem interface, which is then used to lubricate the valve guide and ultimately the
combustion chamber. The remedy is to replace the seal (an often costlier fix that involves a
partial rebuild) or rebuild or replace the engine. Valve seals normally fail due to a clearance
problem between the valve and the valve guide in the cylinder head. When they become
loose, the valve is able to “rock” side to side in the bore and thus hogs out the seal. A
cylinder head rebuild or replacement is often the recommended fix.

 Failed piston rings: Failed piston rings (or loose piston-to-bore clearance) are more rare of
an issue than malfunctioning valve guide seals, but it still happens from time to time.
The telltale sign of a valve guide seal problem or a piston (or piston ring) issue is when the
smoke happens. If you are sitting at a stop for 30 to 60 seconds and as soon as you begin
to throttle, the car lets out a puff of bluish grey smoke (and then clears up), that’s a dead
ringer for a valve guide issue. If you see smoke only under heavy acceleration, that is
indicative of a piston or piston ring problem.