Physics 12 1st Semester–Midterms ● The cgs system of units takes the centimeter as

the base unit

LESSON 1: PHYSICS –Understanding The Universe
● In the British engineering system of units, lengths
through Measurement
are measured in inches, feet, yards, and miles
o 1 mile = 5280 feet
o 1 yard = 3 feet
o foot = 12 inches.

Unit OF LENGTH

● Length – 1 m is defined as the distance travelled

by light in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 second.
● Based on the definition that the speed of light is
exactly 299,792,458 m/s.

TIME

● 1 second is defined as 9,192,631,770 cycles of

the microwave radiation due to the transition
Frontiers of Modern Physics between the two lowest energy states of the
Cesium atom
● Energy and Power (Energy Demands High Risks) ● This is measured from an atomic clock using this
● Quantum Physics (Modern Technology) transition.
● Condensed Matter Physics (Advanced Computer
Processors) MASS
● Quantum Computing (Multi-Processing Capability)
● Mass – 1 kg is defined to be the mass of a
● Computational Physics (butterfly Effect)
cylinder of platinum-iridium alloy at the
● Nanotechnology (Manipulate single atom)
International Bureau of Weights and Measures
● Biophysics (molecular level biological simulation)
(Sèvres, France)
● String Theory (Theory of everything)
● Astrophysics (Dark Matter)

MEASUREMENT

● The SI unit of length is the meter

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

● An analysis of the relationships between

different physical quantities by identifying their
base quantities (such as length, mass, time, and
electric charge) and units of measure (such as
 miles vs. kilometers, or pounds vs. kilograms)
and tracking these dimensions as calculations or
comparisons are performed.

MEASUREMENT –Uncertainties and ERRORS

● Positive Error

• Tends to make a reading too high

● Negative Error
• Reading tends to be too low

SYSTEMATIC ERROR

● Instrumental Error

● Personal Errors
REPORTING UNCERTAINTIES
• Bias observer
● 𝑥±∆𝑥  𝑜𝑟 𝑦±∆𝑦
• Propagation of error • Fatigue

• Addition and subtraction • Eyestrain

• 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦;        𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 (± |∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦|) • Position of the eye relative to a scale

• 𝑥 = 78𝑔±1𝑔    𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜  𝑦 = 15𝑔±3𝑔 ● External Errors

• External conditions
• 𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦;      𝑧 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 (±|∆𝑥 + ∆𝑦|)
• Expansion of scales as temperature
• 𝑥 = 78𝑔±1𝑔    𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑠   𝑦 = 15𝑔±3𝑔 rises
 • Swelling of meter stick as humidity ● It carries no implication of mistake or blunder on
increases the part of the observer
● ERROR means the uncertainty between the
“Corrections can be made”
measured value and the standard value

RANDOM ERROR

● Positive and negative errors are equally probable

● Due to large number of factors
● A matter of chance
● “How do we increase accuracy and precision of
data gathering prone to random error?”

LAW OF STATISTICS

● Can be utilized to quantify error of measurement.

● Measures of Central Tendency
● Test of significant difference
● Probability of Occurrence
● Correlations
● Variance
PRECISION
● Standard deviations
● the degree to which repeated measurements
under unchanged conditions show the same
results.

ACCURACY

● the degree of closeness of measurements of a SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

quantity to that quantity's actual (true) value
● 340000=3.4×〖10〗^5=𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑎×〖10〗
ERROR OF MEASUREMENT ^exponent
● The human body contains approximately
● Refers to Uncertainty of reading 7,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES ● 𝑨.𝑫.=𝒅 ̅/√𝒏
● Measures the heterogeneity or evenness within a
● The number of significant figures is the number of
set of observation.
reliably known digits.
● If a number is given as an integer, you specify it Average Deviation (𝑑 ̅)
with infinite precision.
● 𝑑 ̅=(∑𝑑)/𝑛
● Leading zeroes do not count as significant digits
● Measures the accuracy of the observation.
● Trailing zeroes count as significant figures if the
decimal point is indicated PRECISION
● Trailing zeroes is not significant if the decimal
point is not indicated ● d = ∑│x - 𝑥 ̅│/( n/√𝒏) ; AD = (𝑑 ̅)/ √𝒏
● Non zero numbers are all significant ● if AD is lower, it is precise
● Zeroes between non zeroes are all significant
ACCURACY
● Only the mantissa in scientific notation indicates
the significant figures ● d = ∑│x - 𝑥 ̅│/( n) ; (𝑑 ̅) = d/n
● if d is lower, it is accurate
FORMULAS
SYNTHESIS
Arithmetic Mean 𝑥 ̅
● A measurement must be accurate and precise
● 𝒙 ̅=(∑𝒙)/𝒏
● Calibration of possible systematic errors must be
● Represents the best value obtainable from a
implemented before data gathering
series of observations.
● Data prone to random errors must be statistically validated
● The value having the highest probability of being
and supported before making any conclusions
correct

Average Deviation (𝑑)

● 𝑑 ̅=(∑𝑑)/𝑛
● Where 𝑑=∑|𝑥−𝑥 ̅ |
● Measures the accuracy of the observation.

Average Deviation of the Mean (A.D.)