HSB 2022 N. M.

Narine
Circulation

Materials that need to be transported by animals: carbon dioxide, oxygen, minerals, glucose, amino acids,
water, hormones etc.

Importance of a transport system

Organisms need a transport system to move substances around their body so that they can:

 carry out metabolic activities e,g. respiration, growth etc.

 make organic molecules
 eliminate harmful products.

Surface area to volume ratio

Below we have two organisms, A and B which are made up of cells. Which one has the larger surface area to
volume ratio?

Features A B
Surface area
(L x B x number of sides)
Volume
(L x B x H)
Surface area/Volume ratio

Answer:

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Circulation

Benefits of having a large surface area to volume ratio

 Gases can diffuse pass through gaseous exchange surfaces faster

 Require a less complex transport system to move substances around their body

Types of circulation

1. Pulmonary circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to the lungs and then back to the heart via
the pulmonary blood vessels.

2. Systemic circulation is the movement of blood from the heart to the rest of the body and then back to the
heart.

NB: In reality, both types of circulation occur simultaneously.

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Circulation
Blood Flow through the Heart in 2 MINUTES
Structure and function of the heart
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jBt5jZSWhMI

Diagram of heart

Structure Function
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Aorta
Vena Cava
Valves

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Circulation

Initiation of heartbeat

The pacemaker is a specialized tissue within the Right atrium that initiates the heartbeat. It receives nerve
impulses from the medulla of the brain and generates an electric signal to cause the cardiac muscles to contract
and thus, it initiates the heartbeat.

Evaluation: The circulatory system

1. Name the chamber of the heart that pumps blood:

(a) To the lungs ______________________________

(b) To the right ventricle _______________________________

(c) To the aorta _______________________________

2. Name the blood vessel which transports blood:

(a) To the lungs _____________________

(b) To the left atrium ____________________

(c) To the rest of the body _____________________

(d) To the right atrium ____________________

3. Which ventricle is thicker than the other? Why?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

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Circulation

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Circulation

Blood vessels

Features Veins Arteries Capillaries

Size of lumen

Thickness of walls

Muscle and elastic

fibres
Presence of valves

Function

Table showing the differences between the various blood vessels

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Circulation

Blood pressure

Blood pressure refers to the force that is exerted on the walls of the arteries when the ventricles contract.

 Systolic blood pressure refers to the blood

pressure in your arteries when the chambers of
the heart contract.
 Diastolic blood pressure refers to the blood
pressure in your arteries when the chambers of
the heart contract. Diagram showing readings on a
sphygmomanometer (blood pressure machine)

Coronary heart disease, clogged arteries and atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular disorders https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y6QJceOAVY0

1. Atherosclerosis: build-up of fats/plaque in the arteries.

 Effects:
(i) Plaque can completely block the coronary arteries which can prevent oxygen from reaching the cardiac
muscles. This would cause the cardiac muscle to die and stop contracting which can result in a heart
attack.
(ii) The build of plaque can reduce the size of the lumen of arteries. This would cause the heart to pump
blood at a higher pressure to force the blood through the narrow opening of the arteries resulting in high
blood pressure (hypertension).

Effects of atherosclerosis – hypertension

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Circulation

Cardiovascular disorders

1. Atherosclerosis

 Causes:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

 Treatment/prevention:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

2. Hypertension – is high blood pressure.

 Effects:
(i) High blood pressure can damage the lining of arteries which can cause plaque to easily build up leading
to an increase in atherosclerosis.

(ii) High blood pressure can cause the plaque in arteries to rupture and damage the lining (endothelium) of
arteries which can trigger the formation of a blood clot. If a blood clot forms in the coronary arteries in
can result in coronary thrombosis or if a blood clot blocks an artery in the brain it can result in a stroke.

(iii) Coronary thrombosis is the blockage of the coronary artery by a blood clot. This can prevent oxygen
from reaching the cardiac muscles. This would cause the cardiac muscle to die and stop contracting
which can result in a heart attack.

(iv) A stroke is the blockage of an artery in the brain by a blood clot. This would prevent oxygen from
reaching the brain and cause brain cells to die. When brain cells die in the cerebellum, it can result in
loss of memory, loss of sense, paralysis, impaired speech etc.

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Circulation

Cardiovascular disorders

2. Hypertension – is high blood pressure.

Effects of hypertension – Coronary thrombosis

 Causes
_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

 Treatment/prevention:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

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Circulation

Evaluation: Circulatory system and Blood vessel

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(4 marks)
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Circulation

Components of blood

(i) Red blood cells – transport oxygen. Red blood cells are capable of transporting oxygen because they
contain an iron compound called haemoglobin. Most numerous blood cell in blood.

Diagram of various components of blood

(ii) White blood cells – the function of white blood cells is to destroy foreign invaders (pathogens) such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi etc. There are two main types of white blood cells:
 Lymphocyte – produces antibodies that destroy micro-organisms and anti-toxins that destroy toxins.
 Phagocyte – engulfs and destroys micro-organisms.

Differences:

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Circulation

Phagocytosis

Diagram showing phagocytosis

Difference between antibodies and antigen

An antibody is a molecule that destroys foreign invaders while antigens are protein molecules found on cells
such as bacteria, fungi etc. that can stimulate white blood cells to produce immune responses.

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Circulation

Components of blood

(iii)Platelets - are cells that aid in blood clotting.

Blood clotting

Damaged blood vessels and platelets release a protein called thromboplastin which converts the enzyme
prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin then acts on a protein called Fibrinogen and converts it into insoluble
Fibrin which form a network which traps platelets and RBC to form the blood clot (scab). This reaction requires
Ca salts. Vitamin K is also essential in blood clotting as it is required by the liver to make prothrombin
enzymes.

Importance of blood clotting:

(iv) Plasma – liquid portion of blood that transports water, mineral salts, carbon dioxide (hydrogen carbonate),
urea, hormones, blood cells etc.

Serum vs. plasma

Serum and plasma are both liquid components of blood. Both are mainly made up of water, minerals,
antibodies, nutrients, waste products etc. However, blood plasma contains blood cells and platelets while blood
serum does not.
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Circulation

Questions on Circulation

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Lymphatic system

Lymphatic system is a system consisting of lymph, lymph glands and lymph vessels. The lymphatic system
works closely with the circulatory system by draining excess fluid that has leaked out of capillaries.

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Lymphatic system

Formation of lymph and tissue fluid

Diagram showing lymph and tissue fluid formation

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________________

Tissue fluid vs. Lymph

Similarities:

 Tissue fluid and lymph both contain fluid that has leaked out of capillaries.
 Both consist of plasma, O2, antibodies, glucose, water, minerals, CO2 etc. but in different concentrations.

Differences:

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Lymphatic system

Components and functions of lymphatic system

 Lymph is made up of white blood cells which destroy micro-organisms.

 Lymph glands/nodes – small bean shaped structures that produce and store white blood cells. Lymph nodes
also filter pathogens from lymph and destroys them.
 Lymph vessels – drains or removes excess tissue fluid from tissues containing waste products, pathogens
etc. Lymph vessels also transport fats from villi to liver and bloodstream.

Evaluation:

(a) After sitting on a stool in the laboratory for several hours, Robert notices that his lower limbs become a bit

swollen and feel very heavy. After walking around for a while, the heavy feeling goes away. Explain how

this occurs as it relates to tissue fluid and lymph.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

(4 marks)

(b) Differentiate between the function of the lymph vessel and lymph nodes.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

(2 marks)

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Skeletal system

The skeleton is a bony framework of the body. The adult human skeleton consists of 206 bones.

Diagram of skeletal system

Main parts of skeleton:

 Axial skeleton - consists of the cranium, vertebral column and rib cage. Main function is protection of vital
organs and support of body weight.
 Appendicular skeleton – consist of the shoulder girdle, pelvic girdle and upper limb and lower limb. Girdles
provide points of attachment for limbs while limbs provide movement.

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Skeletal system

1. Identify the bones which make up the:

(a) Upper limb
_________________________________________________________________________________

(b) Lower limb

_________________________________________________________________________________

1. What is the longest bone in the body?

_____________________________________________________________________________________

2. State five functions of the skeleton

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

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Skeletal system

Structure of a long bone

Diagram of a long bone (humerus)

Skeletal tissues

Skeletal tissues Properties Function

Bone Hard living tissue Same as skeleton
Cartilage Soft flexible tissue  Acts as a shock absorber
 Reduce friction at joints
Ligament Yellow elastic fibres Connect bone to bone
Tendon White inelastic fibres Cone muscle to bone
Table showing Skeletal tissues

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Skeletal system

Joints

A joint is the point of attachment between two bones. Most joints allow the rigid skeleton to move. There are
three types of joints:

(i) Fixed joints or immovable joints. The bones are joined firmly together by fibrous connective tissue which
allows no movement, e.g. the sutures of the cranium.

(ii) Partially movable joints or cartilaginous joints. The bones are separated by cartilage pads which allow
slight movement, e.g. the intervertebral disks of vertebrae.

(iii) Moveable joints or synovial joints. These joints are covered with cartilage and synovial fluid. There are
two types of moveable joints:
 Hinge joints
 Ball and socket joints

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Skeletal system

Joints

Types of moveable joints (synovial joints)

(i) Hinge joint – a type of moveable joint that allows movement in one plane e.g.

(ii) Ball and socket joint – a type of moveable joint that allows rotational movement e.g.

A ball and socket joint

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Skeletal system

Types of Vertebrae: Cervical, Thoracic and Lumbar

On average, there are 33 vertebrae in the vertebral column.

Diagram of the vertebral column

Diagram of a __________________
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Skeletal system

Antagonistic muscles

Antagonistic muscles are muscles that work in opposition to each other e.g. biceps and triceps in the upper limb.

Movement of the forearm (upper limb)

Upon lifting the lower arm (flexing), the biceps contract while the triceps relax. Upon lowering the lower arm
(extending), the triceps contract while the biceps relax.

Diagram showing the antagonistic muscles of the upper limb

Types of muscles

# Types of muscles Function Location

1 Smooth

2 Skeletal

3 Cardiac

Table showing the three main types of muscles

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Skeletal system

Importance of locomotion to man

 Allows man to find food

 Allows man to find shelter
 Allows man to find mates
 Allows man to escape from predators
 Exercise builds muscle tone

Benefits of exercise

 Exercise increases muscle tone. Muscle tone refers to resistance of muscles to stretching forces. Muscles
that have high muscle tone do not stretch easily and thus maintain tension that is required for lifting objects.
 Exercise increases the mitochondria in cells
 Exercise lowers blood glucose level as glucose is broken down to release energy during respiration. This is
also a form of treatment for individuals with diabetes.
 Exercise burns fats stored under the skin to provide energy which prevents obesity
 Exercise breaks down the plaque in arteries to prevent

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Skeletal system

Assignment - Factors that adversely affect the skeletal system

1. Explain how the following situations in Figure 1, Figure 2: Wearing flat heels vs. high heels
2 and 3 can affect the skeletal system and ways of
(c) Incorrect lifting technique (3 marks)
correcting them:
(a) Bad posture when sitting or standing (3 mks)

Figure 3: Incorrect lifting vs. correct lifting

2. Arthritis is a physiological disease that can cause

Figure 1: Bad posture certain parts of the joint to wear away.

(a) Define the term arthritis. (1 mark)

(b) Wearing high heels (4 marks) (b) Draw, label and annotate a hinge joint to show
how arthritis can affect it. (7 marks)
(c) Explain how arthritis can affect movement at a
joint. (2 marks)

Due date:

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