Lecture # 7-8 (Spring-2022)

Functions and Relations

Facilitator: Dr. Shahid Munir Shah

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 1
 Class Learning outcomes
After completing this lecture, students should be able to:
• Understand basic set theory
• Define relation as a subset of Cartesian product.
• Define Universal Relation (UR).
• Demonstrate relations by mapping method.
• Demonstrate directed graphs to describe relations.
• Demonstrate Matrix representation of relations.
• Understand the types of relations i.e. reflexive, symmetric, anti symmetric and transitive
• Demonstrate equivalence relations.
• Demonstrate partial ordering.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 2
 Set Theory

Actually, you will see that logic and set theory are very closely related.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 3
What is set
A set is “a set is a collection of distinct elements”

For Example; A set of students in Discrete Structures class, A set of consonants of English
alphabets etc.

Sets can be represented in three different forms.

1. Tabular : A = {1,2,3,4}
2. Descriptive : N is set of natural numbers
3. Set builder natation : 𝑥/𝑥 ∈ 𝑁⋀1 ≤ x ≥ 10

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 4
 Some Set Notations
1. aA “a is an element of A”
“a is a member of A”
2. aA “a is not an element of A”
3. A = {a1, a2, …, an} “A contains a1, …, an”
4. Order of elements is insignificant
5. It does not matter how often the same element is listed (repetition doesn’t count).

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 5
 Examples for Sets
• A= “empty set / null set”
• A = {z} Note: z  A, but z  {z}
• A = {{b, c}, {c, x, d}} set of sets
• A = {{x, y}} Note: {x, y} A, but {x, y}  {{x, y}}
• A = {x | P(x)} “set of all x such that P(x)”
P(x) is the membership function of set A
x (P(x)  xA)
• A = {x | x N  x > 7} = {8, 9, 10, …}
“set builder notation”

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 6
 Examples for Sets
“Standard” Sets:
What is their
• Natural numbers N = {0, 1, 2, 3, …} builder notation
form
• Integers Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
• Positive Integers Z+ = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
• Real Numbers R = {47.3, -12, , …}
• Rational Numbers Q = {1.5, 2.6, -3.8, 15, …}

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 7
Equal Sets
If, A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B= {2, 1, 3, 3, 5, 4, 4}, C= {1,2,3} then.

A = B but A ≠ C

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 8
 Set Equality Examples
Sets A and B are equal if and only if they contain exactly the same elements.

Examples:
•A = {9, 2, 7, -3}, B = {7, 9, -3, 2} : A=B

•A = {dog, cat, horse}, A≠B

B = {cat, horse, squirrel, dog} :

•A = {dog, cat, horse},

B = {cat, horse, dog, dog} : A=B

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 9
 Subsets
AB “A is a subset of B”
A  B if and only if every element of A is also an element of B.
We can completely formalize this:
A  B  x (xA xB)
Examples:   A for any set A (but  
A may not hold for any set A)
A = {3, 9}, B = {5, 9, 1, 3}, A B? true A  A for any set A

A = {3, 3, 3, 9}, B = {5, 9, 1, 3}, A  B ? true

A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 3, 4}, A  B? false

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 10
Proper and Improper Subsets
AB “A is a proper subset of B”
A  B  x (xA  xB)  x (xB  xA)
or
A  B  x (xA  xB)  x (xB xA)

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 11
 Cardinality of Sets
If a set S contains n distinct elements, n  N,
we call S a finite set with cardinality n.

Examples:
A = {Mercedes, BMW, Porsche}, |A| = 3

B = {1, {2, 3}, {4, 5}, 6} |B| = 4

C=∅ |C| = 0

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 12
All possible subsets of a set
If A = {1,2} then,

{ }, {1,2}, {1}, {2} are all possible subsets of A.

The set of all possible subsets of a set is called Power Set.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 13
 The Power Set
P(A) “power set of A” (also written as 2A)
P(A) = {B | B  A} (contains all subsets of A)
Examples:
A = {x, y, z}
P(A) = {, {x}, {y}, {z}, {x, y}, {x, z}, {y, z}, {x, y, z}}
A=
P(A) = {}
Note: |A| = 0, |P(A)| = 1

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 14
 Set Operations
Union: AB = {x | xA  xB}

Example: A = {a, b}, B = {b, c, d}

AB = {a, b, c, d}

Intersection: AB = {x | xA  xB}

Example: A = {a, b}, B = {b, c, d}

AB = {b}
Cardinality: |AB| = |A| + |B| - |AB|

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 Set Operations
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is empty, that is, they share no elements:
AB = 

The difference between two sets A and B contains exactly those elements of A that are not in B:
A-B = {x | xA  xB}

Example: A = {a, b}, B = {b, c, d}, A-B = {a}

Cardinality: |A-B| = |A| - |AB|

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 16
 Set Operations
The complement of a set A contains exactly those elements under consideration that are not in
A: denoted Ac .
Ac = U-A

Example: U = N, B = {250, 251, 252, …}

Bc = {0, 1, 2, …, 248, 249}

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 17
Venn Diagrams to represent set
operations

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 Subset Useful Rules by Venn Diagram
•A = B  (A  B)  (B A)
•(A  B) (B  C)  A  C (see Venn Diagram)

B
A C

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 19
Reading Assignment
Section 2.2.4

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Membership tables to represent set
operations
Example;
Use a membership table to show that A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Solution:

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 21
Multisets and their operation
Example 21, page 143 of the text book

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Set identities

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 Set Identity

How can we prove A(BC) = (AB)(AC)?

Method I: logical equivalent Method-2

xA(BC) (using
membership
 xA  x(BC) table)
 xA  (xB  xC)
 (xA  xB)  (xA  xC) (distributive law)
 x(AB)  x(AC)
 x(AB)(AC)
Every logical expression can be transformed into an equivalent expression in set theory
and vice versa.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 24
Set Identities
Using set identities prove that

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 25
 Cartesian Product
A × B = {(a, b) ∣ a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B}.

A = {good, bad}, B = {student, prof}

(bad, prof)}
A B = { (good, student), (good, prof), (bad, student),
(prof, bad)}
B A = { (student, good), (prof, good), (student, bad),

Example:
A = {x, y}, B = {a, b, c}
A X B = {(x, a), (x, b), (x, c), (y, a), (y, b), (y, c)}

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 26
 Cartesian Product important Concepts
A = 

A = 

For non-empty sets A and B: AB  AB  BA

The Cartesian product of two or more sets is defined as:

A1A2…An = {(a1, a2, …, an) | aiAi for 1  i  n}

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 27
 … and the following mathematical
appetizer is about…

Functions

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 29
 Functions
A function f from a set A to a set B is an assignment of exactly one element of B to each
element of A.
We write
f(a) = b
if b is the unique element of B assigned by the function f to the element a of A.

If f is a function from A to B, we write

f: AB
(note: Here, ““ has nothing to do with if… then)

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 30
 Functions
If f:AB, we say that A is the domain of f and B is the codomain of f.

If f(a) = b, we say that b is the image of a and a is the pre-image of b.

The range of f:AB is the set of all images of all elements of A.

We say that f:AB maps A to B.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 31
Functions
Let us take a look at the function f:PC with
P = {Linda, Max, Kathy, Peter}
C = {Boston, New York, Hong Kong, Moscow}

f(Linda) = Moscow
f(Max) = Boston
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = New York

Here, the range of f is C.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 32
 Functions
Let us re-specify f as follows:

f(Linda) = Moscow
f(Max) = Boston
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = Boston

Is f still a function? yes

What is its range? {Moscow, Boston, Hong Kong}

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 33
 Functions
Other ways to represent f:

x f(x) Linda Boston

Linda Moscow
Max New York

Max Boston
Kathy Hong Kong
Hong
Kathy
Kong
Peter Moscow
Peter Boston

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 34
 Functions
If the domain of a function f is large, it is convenient to specify f with a formula, e.g.:
f:RR
f(x) = 2x
This leads to:
f(1) = 2
f(3) = 6
f(-3) = -6
…

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 35
 Functions
Determine if each of the following equations represents a function or not. Explain your decision.
Describe the type of relation or function, and its graph.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 36
 Functions
Let f1 and f2 be functions from A to R.
Then the sum and the product of f1 and f2 are also functions from A to R defined by:
(f1 + f2)(x) = f1(x) + f2(x)
(f1f2)(x) = f1(x) f2(x)

Example:
f1(x) = 3x, f2(x) = x + 5
(f1 + f2)(x) = f1(x) + f2(x) = 3x + x + 5 = 4x + 5
(f1f2)(x) = f1(x) f2(x) = 3x (x + 5) = 3x2 + 15x

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 37
 Functions
We already know that the range of a function f:AB is the set of all images of elements a  A.

If we only regard a subset S  A, the set of all images of elements s  S is called the image of S.

We denote the image of S by f(S):

f (S) = {f (s) | s  S}

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 38
Functions
Let us look at the following well-known function:
f(Linda) = Moscow
f(Max) = Boston
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = Boston

What is the image of S = {Linda, Max} ?

f(S) = {Moscow, Boston}

What is the image of S = {Max, Peter} ?

f(S) = {Boston}

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 39
 Properties of Functions
Some functions never assign the same value to two different domain elements. These
functions are said to be one-to-one.

A function f:AB is said to be one-to-one (or injective), if and only if

 a, b  A (f (a) = f (b)  a = b)

In other words: f is one-to-one if and only if it does not map two distinct elements of A
onto the same element of B.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 40
Properties of Functions
And again… g(Linda) = Moscow
f(Linda) = Moscow g(Max) = Boston
f(Max) = Boston g(Kathy) = Hong Kong
g(Peter) = New York
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong
f(Peter) = Boston Is g one-to-one?

Is f one-to-one? Yes, each element is assigned a

unique element of the image.

No, Max and Peter are mapped onto

the same element of the image.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 41
Properties of Functions
How can we prove that a function f is one-to-one?
Whenever you want to prove something, first take a look at the relevant definition(s):
 a, b  A (f (a) = f (b)  a = b)
Example: If two different x
f:RR values provide same
y values then the
f(x) = x2 function is not on-
one

Disproof by counterexample:
f(3) = f(-3), but 3  -3, so f is not one-to-one.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 42
 Properties of Functions
… and yet another example:
f:RR
f(x) = 3x
One-to-one:  a, b  A (f (a) = f (b)  a = b)
To show: f(a)  f(b) whenever a  b (indirect proof)
f (x) = x 2-2x ??
ab
 3a  3b
 f(a)  f(b),
so if a  b, then f(a)  f(b), that is, f is one-to-one.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 43
Properties of Functions
A function f : AB with A, B  R is called strictly increasing, if
 a, b  A (a < b  f (a) < f (b)),
and strictly decreasing, if
 a , b  A ( a < b  f (a) > f (b)).

Obviously, a function that is either strictly increasing or strictly decreasing is one-to-one.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 44
 Properties of Functions
A function f: AB is called onto, or surjective, if and only if for every element b  B there is an
element a  A with f (a) = b.

In other words, f is onto if and only if its range is its entire codomain.

A function f: AB is a one-to-one correspondence, or a bijection, if and only if it is both one-to-

one and onto.

Obviously, if f is a bijection and A and B are finite sets, then |A| = |B|.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 45
 Properties of Functions
Examples:

In the following examples, we use the arrow representation to illustrate functions f : A  B.

In each example, the complete sets A and B are shown.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 46
 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston
Is f injective?
No.
Max New York
Is f surjective?
No.
Kathy Hong Kong
Is f bijective?
No.
Peter Moscow

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 47
Properties of Functions
Linda Boston

Is f injective?
Max New York
No.
Is f surjective?
Kathy Hong Kong
Yes.
Is f bijective?
Peter Moscow No.

Paul

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 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston

Is f injective?
Max New York
Yes.
Is f surjective?
Kathy Hong Kong No.
Is f bijective?
Peter Moscow No.

Lübeck

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 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston

Max New York

Is f injective?
No! f is not even
Kathy Hong Kong
a function!

Peter Moscow

Lübeck

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 Properties of Functions
Linda Boston

Is f injective?
Max New York
Yes.
Is f surjective?
Kathy Hong Kong
Yes.
Is f bijective?
Peter Moscow
Yes.

Helena Lübeck

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Summary (properties of functions)

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 Inversion
An interesting property of bijections is that they have an inverse function.

The inverse function of the bijection f:AB is the function f-1:BA with
f-1(b) = a whenever f(a) = b.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 53
Inversion
Example: The inverse function f-1 is given
by:

f(Linda) = Moscow f-1(Moscow) = Linda

f-1(Boston) = Max
f(Max) = Boston f-1(Hong Kong) = Kathy
f(Kathy) = Hong Kong f-1(Lübeck) = Peter
f-1(New York) = Helena
f(Peter) = Lübeck
f(Helena) = New York Inversion is only possible for
bijections
Clearly, f is bijective. (= invertible functions)

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 54
 Inversion
C P f
Linda Boston
f-1

Max New York f-1:CP is no function,

because it is not defined for all
elements of C and assigns two
Kathy Hong Kong images to the pre-image New
York.

Peter Moscow

Helena Lübeck

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 55
Composition
The composition of two functions g:AB and f:BC, denoted by fg, is defined by

(fg)(a) = f(g(a))

This means that

• first, function g is applied to element aA,
mapping it onto an element of B,
• then, function f is applied to this element of
B, mapping it onto an element of C.
• Therefore, the composite function maps
from A to C.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 56
 Composition
Example:

f(x) = 7x – 4, g(x) = 3x,

f:RR, g:RR

(fg)(5) = f(g(5)) = f(15) = 105 – 4 = 101

(fg)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(3x) = 21x - 4

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 57
 Composition
Composition of a function and its inverse:

(f-1f)(x) = f-1(f(x)) = x

The composition of a function and its inverse is the identity function i(x) = x.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 58
 Graphs
The graph of a function f:AB is the set of ordered pairs {(a, b) | aA and f(a) = b}.

The graph is a subset of AB that can be used to visualize f in a two-dimensional coordinate
system.

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 59
 Floor and Ceiling Functions
The floor and ceiling functions map the real numbers onto the integers (RZ).

The floor function assigns to rR the largest zZ with z  r, denoted by r.

Examples: 2.3 = 2, 2 = 2, 0.5 = 0, -3.5 = -4

The ceiling function assigns to rR the smallest zZ with z  r, denoted by r.

Examples: 2.3 = 3, 2 = 2, 0.5 = 1, -3.5 = -3

Spring 2022 DR. SHAHID MUNIR SHAH, FACULTY OF IT, SALIM HABIB UNIVERSITY, KARACHI 60