Chapter Two 2.1 Vectors and the Geometry ol ce, we use three mutually perpendiculay ea (2.1). The axes shown there make 4 Ween you hold your Fight hard sO thatthe sitive y-axis, your thumb ward the po: rook down on the xy-plane from ace To locate a point in SP coordinate axes, arranged as in right-handed coordinate frame. fingers curl from the positive Pace ca joints along the positive z-axis. So when yt : ch peeite aia of the z-axis, positive angles in the Lees are measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis and around he positive z-axis. / (In a left-handed coordinate frame, the 2-axis would point downward in Figure (2.1) and angles in the plane would be positive when measured clockwise from the positive x-axis. Right-handed and left-handed coordinate frames are not equivalent.) : 0.2) y= constant a0 xmconstant (49,0) Figure 2.1 The Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) of a point P in space are the values at which the planes through P perpendicular to the axes cut the axes. Cartesian coordinates for space are also called rectangular coordinates because the axes that define them meet at right angles. Points on the x-axis have y- and Z- coordinates equal to zero. That is, they have coordinates of the form (x, 0,0).Similarly, points on the y-axis have coordinates of the form(0,y,0), and points on the z-axis have coordinates of the form (0,0,z). The planes determined by the coordinates axes are the xy-plane, whose standard equation is z = 0; the yz-plane, whose standard equation is x = 0; and the xz-plane, whose standard equation is y = 0. They meet at the origin (0,0, 0). The origin is also identified by simply 0 or sometimes the letter O. The points in a plane perpendicular to the x-axis all have the same x- coordinate, this being the number at which that plane cuts the x-axis. The y- and z-coordinates can be any numbers. Similarly, the points in a plane Perpendicular to the y-axis have a common y-coordinate and the points in a plane perpendicular to the z-axis have a common z-coordinate. To write equations for these planes, we name the common coordinate's value. The plane x = 2 is the plane perpendicular to the x-axis at x = 2. The plane y = 3 is the plane perpendicular to the y-axis at y = 3. The plane z = 5 is the plane perpendicular to the z-axis at z = 5. Distance in Space The distance between two points p, (x1, ¥4,21) and pp (x2, V2, 22) in space is lapel = V2 - 4)? + 02-1)? + — Aa? Example:(1) Find the distance between p; (2, 1, 4) and p2(—2, 3,0). Solution: — |p;p2| = (G2 —x)? + | VC2=27 Fi : =Vi6F4416 = S50 Two vectors are equal if and only if their standard position vectors are identical. Thus (v1, v2, V3) and (tt, U2, Us) are equal if and only if v, = 1, V2 = uz and v3 = us. In other words two vectors are equal if they have the same length and direction. If vis a three-dimensional vector equal to the vector with initial point at the origin and terminal point (v,, v2,v3), then the component form of v is V= (vi,V2,V3)senna de or length of the vector V= PQ = (V1, 02,03) is the The magnitu pare the symbol |v or {IVIL, where POL¥,2,) 2) terminal point. qa ay + OF yi)? + @ 0,0, 0). This vector ig nonnegative number, initial point and Q(%2,¥2» 24) WV = V0? + v2 + v3" i or O= The only vector with length 0 is the zero vect ( also the only vector with no spec! We need a way to represent of a vector. Let v = fic direction. ectors algebraically So that we can be PQ. There is one directed more precise about the direction pet line segment equal to PQ whose jnitial point is the origin (Figure 2.2). Itis the -d position and is the vector we normally use to representative of v in standar represent v. We can specify v by writing the coordinates of its terminal point (vy Vo,V3) when v is in standard position. If v is a vector in the plane its terminal point (v;, Vz) has two coordinates. x Oba, Yan 22) Pry 21) (vy V2. 99) Position vector Figure 2. PO i iti igure 2.2 A vector PQ in standard position has its initial point at the | origin. The directed line se; PQ have the same length ements PQ and v are parallel andExample:(2) Find the a) component form and b) length of the vector with initial point P(—3, 4, 1) and terminal point Q(—5, 2, 2). Solution: a) The standard position vector v representing PQ has components My = %2—% = 5 —(-3) =-2, B= — yy = -2, y= ——y=1 The component form of PQ is V=(v4, ¥2, 03) = (-2,-2,1) b) The length or magnitude of v = PQ is Wl = VC2 + Cay? + (? = v9 =3 2.1.1 Vector Algebra Operations Two principal operations involving vectors are vector addition and scalar multiplication. A scalar is simply a real number, and is called such when we want to draw attention to its differences from vectors. Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero and are used to "scale" a vector by multiplication. Let u = (14, uz, Ug) and v = (v4, V2, v3) be vectors with k a scalar. Addition: U+V= (ty + V1,U2 + V2,Us + V3) Scalar multiplication: ku = (ku, kuz, kus). We add vectors by adding the corresponding components of the vectors. We multiply a vector by a scalar by multiplying each component by the scalar. The geometric interpretation of the product ku of the scalar k and vector u.Ifk > 0, then ku has the same direction as u: if ke < 0, then the direction of eu is opposite to that of u. Comparing the lengths of u and ku, we see that Weu| = (hug)? + (leeeg)® + Cle)? = fhe? (uy? + rrp? + 52) = Vi Ju? + uz? + ug? = || lu The length of Ku is the absolute value of the scalar k times the length of u, The difference u — v of two vectors is defined by u—v = u + (—v). If u= (uy, U2, ug) and v = (v4, 2,03), then UV= (Uy — Vz, Uz — V2, Ug — v3)Example:(3) Let u = (—1,3, 1) and v = (4,7, 0). Find the components of (a) 2u+3v (b) u-v (©) Solution: (a) 2u+3v = 2(-1,3,1) + 3(4,7,0) = (—2,6,2) + (12, 21,0) = (10, 27,2) (b) u-v = (-1,3,1) - (4,7,0) = (-5,-4,)) © [ul = 13,00 = Even? +3? +2? = ivit Properties of Vector Operations Let u, v, w be vectors and a, b be scalars. l.utv=v+u 2. (utv)+ ut+(v+w) 3.ut0=u 4.u+(-u) = 5. OU=0 6. lu=u 7. a(bu) = (ab)u 8. a(u+v) =au+av 9. (a+ b)u=au+tbu Unit Vectors A vector v of length 1 is called a unit vector. The standard unit vectors are i= (1,0,0), j= ((0,1,0), and k= (0,0,1) Any vector v = (v4, V2, v3) can be written as a linear combination of the standard unit vectors as follows: V = (¥p,¥2,V3) = (V1, 0,0) + (0, 02,0) + (0,0,05) = v,(1,0,0) + ¥2(0, 1,0) + v3(0, 0,1) = vit vj +v3k We call the scalar (or number) v; the i-component of the vector y, v2 the j-component , and v3 the k-component. In component form, the vector (Figure 2.3) from P; (x1, 1» 21) t0 Po( Xp» Yar 22) is P,P; = (2 — i+ O2 —W I+ @ — 2kf OPpexl+ yh + ok Polta, ¥a.22) Figure 2.3 Whenever v ¥ 0, its length |v| is not zero and 1 iyj=1 wl iw That is , “Avi is a unit vector in the direction of y, called the direction of the nonzero vector v. Example:(4) Find a unit vector u in the direction of the vector from P,(1,0,1) to P,(3, 2,0). Solution: We divide P,P; by its length: PP, = (3-1it (2-0)j+(0~ Dk = 21+ 4-—k PiPa| = V@?+ @P4 Cl? = EFT = V9 =3 PP, 2i+2j-k 2. 2. «1 = agrees gitsl=sk ae] 3 a3 ‘The unit vector u is the direction of P,P,.Midpoint of a Line Segment The midpoint M (Figure 2.4) of Pip ya, 1d Pe (Xp, ¥2, Zz) is the point 1 4» Ya» Za) and Pp “fais yt 4) the line segment joining points 2 2 Pua YZ) ‘mtx. N+ y2 ata) m( omar, aan mn Py(x2y Yay Z2) oO Figure 2.4 The coordinates of the midpoint are the averages of the coordinates of P, and P,. Example:(5) Find the midpoint of the segment joining P,(3,—2, 0) and P,(7,4,4). Solution: Let M is a midpoint of the segment, then 34+7 -2+4 0+ wa (SEH toe At) ( 20° 29° 2° )7 2.1.2 The Dot Product The dot product u.v ("u dot v") of vectors u= (uy, Uz, Ug) and V = (4,02, 0s) is ULV = UY, + UZv, + UgVs Example:(6) (@) — (,-2,-1).(-6.2,-3) = (1)(-6) + (-2)(2) + (1-3) = -7 () (3i+3)+k). Gi-j+2k = Q@+@cn+mMe =1, where i.i=j.j=K.k= Land ij=ik=j.i=j.k=k.i=k.j=0The dot product of a pair of two-dimensional vectors is defined in a similar fashion: (uy, U2). (4,02) = Uyvy + Upv2. ‘The dot product is a key tool for many important geometric and physical calculations in space (and the plane), not just for finding the angle between two vectors. Angle Between Vectors : When two nonzero vectors u and v are placed so their initial points coincide, they form an angle of measure 0 < @ < 7. If the vectors do not lie along the same line, the angle @ is measured in the plane containing both of them. If they do lie along the same line, the angle between them is 0 if they point in the same direction, and 7 if they point in opposite directions. The angle 0 is the angle between u and v. The formula to determine this angle. Angle Between Two Vectors: The angle between two nonzero vectors u = (t,Uz,U3) and v= (4, v2, V3) is given by UzV, + UzV2 + UgV. @ = cos (74 = a) fully In the notation of the dot product, the angle be: veel two vectors u and v is 8 = cos"? (— j \jaite/ The angle formula applies to two-dimensious! y fashion. 's is defined in a similar Example:(7) Find the angle between u = i — 2j — 2k and v = 61+ 3j+ 2k Solution: We use the formula above: u.v = (1)(6) + (-2)(8) + (-2)(2) = 6-6-4=-4 jul = J)? + 2)? + @2? = v9 = 3 Wl = (©? + G)? + Q)? = V49 =7 - 0 (fa (Gj) =e > 6 =cos (aa cos (7) = 100.98gle ABC determined by the vertices Example:(8) Find the angle @ in the trian A= (0,0),B = (35), and C = (52): Solution: The angle @ is the angle bet component forms of these two vectors are CA =(-5,,-2) and CB =(-2,3)- a ‘ vectors. First we calculate the dot product and magnitudes of these two TA TB | tween the vectors CA and CB. The | CA-TB = (5-3) + -D@)=* [cal = (y+ Cay = V9 [Bl = (Cares @ = VB Then applying the angle formula, we have ga os (2) = (aa [CA] [CB (2973 Perpendicular (Orthogonal) Vectors Two nonzero vectors u and v are perpendicular or orthogonal if the angle between them is 1/2. For such vectors, we have u-v = 0 because cos(2/2) = 0. The converse is also true. If u and v are nonzero vectors with u-v = |ullvl cos 6 = 0, then cos@ = 0 and @ = cos“10 = 2/2. “Then the veetors u and v are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if and only if u:v=0. Example:(9) To determine if two vectors are orthogonal, calculats their dot product. (a) w= (3,-2) v= (4,6) are orthogonal because u.v = (3)(4) + (-2)(6) =0 (b) u=3i-2jt+kandv= 2j + 4k are orthogonal because u.v = (0) + (-2)(2) + (A)(4) = 0 (c) 0 is orthogonal to every vector u since 0..u = (0,0,0) . (uy, U2, Us) = (0)(uy) + (0)(uz) + (0)(us) = 0Example:(10) Find the value of x, if the vectors u = (2,x,—1) and V = (-3,2,-2) are orthogonal. Solution: since u and v are orthogonal, then uv = 0, = (2)(-3) + 2x + (-1)(-2)=0 3 -64+2x42=0 3 x=2 Properties of the Dot Product If u, v, and w are any vectors and cis a scalar, then Luv=v.u 2. (cu).v =u.(ev) = c(u.v) 3. u.(vtw)=u.v+u.w 4, wus ful? 5.0.u = 0. 2.1.3 The Cross Product In studying lines in the plane, when we needed to describe how a line was tilting, we used the notions of slope and angle of inclination. In space, we want @ way to describe how a plane is tilting. We accomplish this by multiplying two vectors in the plane together to get a third vector Perpendicular to the plane. The direction of this third vector tells us the “inclination” of the plane. The product we use to multiply the vectors together is the vector or cross product, the second of the two vector multiplication methods we study in calculus. Cross products are widely used to describe the effects of forces in studies of electricity, magnetism, fluid flows, and orbital mechanics. This section presents the mathematical properties that account for the use of cross products in these fields, The Cross Product of Two \ ecto We start with two nonzero vectors u and v in space. If u and v are not Parallel, they determine a plane. We select « unit vector n perpendicular to the plane by the right-hand rule. This means that we choose n to be the unit (normal) vector that points the way your right thumb points when your fingers curl through the angle 0 from u to y. Then the cross product u x v (“u cross v”) is the vector defined as follows. uxv= (ul |v|sin@) nthe cross product is a vector. For this reas on it’s fu and v, and applies only to vectors in space, of and v because it is a scalar multiple of to both mas it makes sense to define the cross ‘abs 0. If one or both of u and v are is way, the cross product of two arallel or one or both of them Unlike the dot product, also called the vector product The vector u x v is orthogonal n. Since the sins of 0 and ™ are both product of two parallel nonzero vectors zero, we also define uv [0 be zero. Thi vectors u and v is zero if and only ifu and v are are zero, Parallel Vectors Nonzero vectors u al nd v are parallel if and only if ux v=O. Properties of the Cross Product If u, v, and w are any vectors 1. (ru) x (sv) = (rs)(u x v) 3. uxv =—-(vxu) 5. Oxu=0 and r, s are scalars, then 2.ux(vtw)=uxvtuxw 4. (vtw)xu=vxutwxu 6. ux (vx w) = (u.w)v — (u.v)w When we apply the definition to calculate the pairwise cross products of i, j, and k, we find (Figure 2.5) ixj=-QGxi)=k woN jxk=—-(kxj) =i eae, kxi=-Gxk) =j \ and Diagram for recalling ixi=jxj=kxk=0 ee oe keixj=-Gx) J=kxi=-dxk) =5x (k xj) Figure 2.5 The pairwise cross products of i,j, and k.Calculating the Cross Product as a Determinant Ifu=uitujt+ugk and v= vi + vj + vgk, then to Jack uy Uz Ug V, V2 V3) uxv= Example:(11) Find u x vandv x uifu=2i+j+kandv=—4i+3j+k. Solution: ij x ot, 72) 2 uxv=|2 1 a=|P ti it k efeat 3 il fo Wl, gl = -2i-6j + 10k vxu=—(uXv) = 2i + 6j-10k Example:(12) Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of P(1,—1,2), Q(2,0,-1) and R(O, 2,1). Solution: Since P x PR is perpendicular to the plane, its direction nis a unit vector perpendicular to the plane. PQ =(2-1)i+ (41) + (-1-Dk=i4) PR=(0-1)i+(2+1j+ 1-2 taba k poxreeli J Blew -3. 231 PQxPR=/1 1 -3=[, “3li-| -1 3 -1 i = 8i+4j+4k POXPR 81+ 4j+4k SO ae OS eee [Pox PR| Ve? +4? +42 8it4j+4k 1 =— = ait jth Nem verse)Area of a Parallelogram ; Tf u = agi + tg) + ugk and v = 91 + va) + vols then the a: ux vis Ju x v| = [ul|viisin 4lin| = lullvl sin . where mis a unit yeotor, This is the area of parallelogram determined by w and v Figure 2.6),]ul being the base of the parallelogram and |vj[sin 6| the height. ‘Area = base « height = [ullv|siné Juxvl Figure 2.6 The parallelgram determined by u and v. Example:(13) Find a vector perpendicular and the area of the triangle with vertices P(1, 1,0), Q(2,1,-1) and R(-1,1,2). Solution: The vector PG x PR is perpendicular to the plane because it is perpendicular to both vectors. In terms of components, PO =(2-Dit A+ Dit (-1- Ok =i+2j-k PR = (-1-1i+ (14 Dj + (2- Ok = -2i + 2j + 2k = at ij k POxPR=|1 2 RELA 3-4), ) 1 1 =2 Zi-[S Thiele denote | ‘The area of the parallelogram determined by P, QandRis — |P@ x PR| = |6i + 6kl = VO? +6? = {2(36) = 6v2. ‘The triangle's area is half of this, or 3V2.Example:(13) Find the areas of the parallelograms whose vertices are A(1,0), B(O, 1), C(-1,0) and D(0,—1). Solution: AB = -i+j and AD =-i-j = ABxAD= Area = AB x AD = 2 Example:(14) Find a formula for the area of the triangle in the xy-plane with vertices at (0,0), (a,,a,) and (by, by). Solution: If A = ayi+ aj and B = byi + b,j, then i a: a; AxB=|a a, 0|=|)) ple by be p . eat a ay) = the triangle’s areais 2/4 x B| = al Volume of a parallelepiped ‘The product is called the triple scalar product of u, v, and w (in that order). As you can see from the formula Iu x v).w] = lux vl|wl|cos 4], the absolute value of the product is the volume of the parallelepiped determined by u, v, and w (Figure 2.7), The number |u x v| is the area of the base parallelogram. The number |w]|cos 4] is the parallelepiped’s height. ‘Volume = area of base - height lux vilw||cos6| =l@xy)- wl Figure 2.7 The number |(u x v)~ wis the volume of «a parallelepipedhe volume of @ parallelepiped by treatin, The number |(u x v)-wl is! ; the a a and : and of w and w as the base planes of the parallelepipeg determined by u, v, and w, we see that (u x v).w= (v x wus (w Xx v0 ve Since the dot product is commutative, We also ha (u xv): w=u(vxw) The triple scalar ee can be evaluated as a determinant usp, [ur U2 Uz 3 - wit ly v,|kl-w (u x v).w= le 1 V2 Mel —walst wl tM ley val =W1 |v, “y We is Paes Ua) Uy, Uz Us My V2 V3 lw, We WS Example:(15) Find the volume of the parallel surfaces determined by u=i+2j—-k, v=—2i+3k, and w = 7j— 4k. Solution: Using the rule for calculating determinants, we find (u x v).w= Apa I-20 3 | =-23 0 7 -4 The volume is |(u x v).w|= 23 units cubed. Another method: 6i-j+4k 2 0 (u x v).w = (6i-j+ 4k): (7j)- 4k) = 0-7- 16 = -23 ‘The volume is |(u x v).w|=23 units cubed,Exercises (2 — 1) 1 - Sketch the coordinate axes and then include the vectors u , v , uxv as a vectors starting at the origin, a) u k, v=j+k b) u=itj, vai-j c) u=j42k, vai 2 - Find the angles between the vectors a) u=V3i-7j, v=v3itj—2k b) u=i+v2j-V2k, v=-i+j+k 3-a. Find the area of the triangle determined by the points P, Q, and R. b. Find a unit vector perpendicular to plane POR. 1) P(,-1,2), Q(2,0,-1), —R(0,2,-1) 2) P(2,-2,1), Q(3,-1,2), R@,-1,1) 3) P(-2,2,0), Q(0,1,-1), — R(—1,2,-2) 4— Prove that (a) |A x Bl? = |A|?|B|? — (A- B)? (b) (Ax B)(Cx D) = (A-C)(B-D) — (A-D)(B-) 5 —Find the volume of the box ( 0 = (0,0,0), B= (11,2) and C Helepi -d) determined by the vectors 13)