MUDULE 6: ENCOUNTERS BETWEEN MULTIPLE TRADITIONS IN A PARTICULAR COUNTRYE

INTRODUCTION

Another influential perspective on complex societies has stressed the separation rather than
the interaction between members of different groups. This is the view from classic theory on "plural
societies" (Furnivall, 1947; Smith, 1966), which depicts poly-ethnic societies as consisting of
culturally distinctive groups which were integrated only through the limited interaction taking place
in a particular society and through common political leadership, usually in the hands of one of the
groups. Furnivall and Smith consider the cultural universes of the constituent groups of the "plural
society" as being by and large discrete and autonomous, largely unmodified by the limited
interaction taking place between the groups in the market-place. The metaphor describing discrete
ethnic groups as "pearls on a necklace", used by a Mauritian "pluralist" of my acquaintance
(Hookoomsing, 1986), sums up this position.

Multiple traditions may be conceived of as existing in an area, such as a polity or "plural

society", or as impinging on a person, or both. When Redfield and Marriott spoke of "little" and
"great" traditions with particular reference to India (cf. Marriott, 1955), they referred to a division of
knowledge corresponding to a hierarchical division of labor and distribution of ritual purity. Redfield
and his students saw a mutual interdependence between the segments, but left it to Dumont (1980)
to show how they form a hierarchical totality of relations. Whereas the "cultural pluralists" in the
tradition from Furnivall regard the constituent groups or segments as being forcefully integrated
politically, voluntarily integrated economically and otherwise autonomous, the views of Redfield,
Dumont and the Rhodes-Livingstone school would regard the role of multiple traditions as
something negotiable and relative. Only the latter perspectives allow us to regard plural societies as
societies.

Southeast Asia is a geographically expansive and populous region characterized by

fascinating social and cultural variation. Particularly striking to the outside observer is the region’s
ethnic and religious diversity. The majority of the countries in this region are home to dozens of
different ethnic groups (and in some cases, hundreds), many with their own distinct languages,
cultures, and styles of dress. Many of these groups have their own systems of religious belief and
practice as well.

Despite Southeast Asia’s rich ethnic and cultural diversity, there are shared values
throughout the region. The module will feature the explanation under the principle of the theory
about the “Nation as Imagined Community” by studying on the cases of re-interpreting the identity
of some Southeast Asian countries such as; Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippines and Thailand.

SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

The following are the specific learning outcomes expected to be realized by the learner after
the completion of this module:

1. Identify some of the most influential multiple traditions that occurred in some Southeast
Asian countries.
2. Discuss the process of re-interpreting the identity of the society and culture of some
Southeast Asian countries due to the encounters of multiple traditions significantly
dominating on the aria.

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 3. Analyze the impact and local responses on the different factors from the encounters
within and between traditions of some Southeast Asian countries.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

A. Preparatory Activity

Unlock the difficulties by performing this preparatory activity first.Get the

understanding of the following main concepts before you proceed to the next part of this
module by writing your understanding in the space providedafter the terms.

1. Cultural factors
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2. Cultural identity
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3. Social identity
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4. Cultural models
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5. Cultural integration
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B. Content Readings

Read the content and acquire farther detailed information by accessing the sources
provided.

ENCOUNTERS BETWEEN MULTIPLE TRADITIONS IN A PARTICULAR COUNTRY

A. RE-INTERPRETING IDENTITY: THE “NATION AS IMAGINED COMMUNITY”

Benedict Anderson, a scholar of Southeast Asia who transformed the study of

nationalism by positing that nations were “imagined communities” that arose from the
fateful interplay of capitalism and the printing press, died on Saturday night at a hotel in
Batu, Indonesia.

Dr. Anderson’s best-known book, “Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin

and Spread of Nationalism,” first published in 1983, began with three paradoxes:
Nationalism is a modern phenomenon, even though many people think of their nations as
ancient and eternal; it is universal (everyone has a nation), even though each nation is
supposedly utterly distinctive; and it is powerful (so much so that people will die for their
countries), even though on close inspection it is hard to define.

Anderson defines the nation as an "imagined political community": imagined

because the members of the smallest nation will never know most of their fellow-members,
meet them or even hear of them, yet in the minds of each lives the image of their
communion. A nation exists when a significant number of people in a community consider
them (or, in other words imagine them as to form a nation, or behave as if they formed one.

In fact, Anderson says, all communities larger than primordial villages of face-to-face
contact (and perhaps even these) are imagined. Communities are to be distinguished not by
their falsity/genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined.

The great sacred communities of the past (Christendom, the Islamic Ummah, the
Middle Kingdom) were imaginable through the medium of a sacred language and written
script.

The birth of the imagined community of the nation can best be seen if we consider
the basic structure of two forms of imagining that first flowered in Europe in the eighteen
century: the novel and the newspaper. For these forms provided the technical means for re-
presenting the kind of imagined community that is the nation.

The newspaper in particular creates and "extraordinary mass ceremony: the almost
simultaneous consumption...". This ceremony is performed in silent privacy, in the lair of the
scull. Yet each communicant is well aware that the ceremony he performs is being replicated
simultaneously by thousands or millions of others of whose existence he is confident, yet of
whose identity he has not the slightest notion. What more vivid figure for the secular,
historically clocked imagined community can be envisioned?

Implications of the concept: The Internet provides new media and new styles in
which communities can be imagined. It is more important to understand these styles of

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imagining than to argue for or against the "falsity/genuineness" of communities in
cyberspace. What are the new "ceremonies" in which participants engage? What are the
shared symbolic systems created, recreated and modified in the practices of such
communities? It can be argued that these communities can be more participatory and
democratic because the "medium of imagining" is more flexible and open for intervention
on the part of all members, compared to the newspaper, television, etc. But are they more
participatory, more equal, and more inclusive indeed?

Cultural Identity

Cultural identity is the identity or feeling of belonging to a group. It is part of a

person's self-conception and self-perception and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion,
social class, generation, locality or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture.
In this way, cultural identity is both characteristic of the individual but also of the culturally
identical group of members sharing the same cultural identity or upbringing.

Cultural (and Ethnic) Identity is a subset of the communication theory of identity

that establishes four "frames of identity" that allow us to view how we build identity. These
frames include the personal frame, enactment of communication frame, relationship frame,
and communal frame. The communal frame refers to the cultural constraints or the sense of
"right" that people live by (which varies by cultural group). Therefore, cultural (and Ethnic)
Identity becomes central to a person’s identity, how they see themselves and how they
relate to the world.

Cultural identities are influenced by several different factors such as ones religion,
ancestry, skin colour, language, class, education, profession, skill, family and political
attitudes. These factors contribute to the development of one's identity.

Since many aspects of a person's cultural identity can be changed, such as

citizenship or influence from outside cultures can change cultural traditions, language is a
main component of cultural identity.

B. THE INDONESIA CASE: ANIMISM, HINDU-BUDDHISM AND ISLAM IN CENTRAL JAVA

Indonesia is a vast archipelago comprising more than 17,000 islands - contains a

population numbering around 255 million people; a number that makes Indonesia the fourth
most populous country in the world. These impressive numbers also imply that significant
cultural, ethnic, religious and linguistic diversity can expected to be found within its
boundaries, ranging from the daily Hindu rituals practiced on the island of Bali to the
prevalence of Islamic sharia law in Aceh (Sumatra) or the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer
lifestyles of the Mentawai people.

Historically the religious majority of Indonesia was Animists. Shortly after the first
century, Hinduism was introduced to Indonesia from India. Two thousand years after the
introduction of Hinduism, Indonesia was introduced to the rest of the major religions (i.e.
Christianity, Judaism, etc.)

Moreover, before a national framework was laid upon them, the various regions
experienced separate political and economic histories which still show in the current

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regional dynamics. Indonesia's national motto Bhinekka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity)
refers to the variety in the country's internal composition but also indicates that - despite all
differences in its multicultural society - there is a true sense of unity (Indonesianness) among
the people of Indonesia.

The culture of Indonesia has been shaped by long interaction between original
indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences. Indonesia is centrally-located along
ancient trading routes between the Far East, South Asia and the Middle East, resulting in
many cultural practices being strongly influenced by a multitude of religions, including Islam,
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Christianity, all strong in the major trading cities.
The result is a complex cultural mixture very different from the original indigenous cultures.

Examples of the fusion of Islam with Hinduism include Javanese Abangan belief, the
fusion of Hinduism, Buddhism and animism in Bodha, and the fusion of Hinduism and
animism in Kaharingan; others could be cited. Balinese dances have stories about ancient
Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms, while Islamic art forms and architecture are present in
Sumatra, especially in the Minangkabau and Aceh regions. Traditional art, music and sport
are combined in a martial art form called PencakSilat.

Many Indonesian combine their beliefs with one of the government-recognized

religions and register under that recognized religion. An estimated 20 million persons [8% of
the population], primarily in Java, Kalimantan, and Papua, practice animism and other types
of traditional belief systems termed "AliranKepercayaan." The government permits the
practice of the traditional belief system of AliranKepercayaan as a cultural manifestation, not
a religion. Isolated hill tribes living in the interiors of the islands of Sulawesi, Seram, or Timor
might express devotion to ancestral spirits through animal sacrifice at home.

The Dayak indigenous religion - Kaharingan, meaning "life" is a form of animism, but
for official purposes, it is categorized as a form of Hinduism. During Ramadan, the Islamic
month of fasting, peasants from Java might emphasize their Islamic faith and affiliation,
whereas in other settings animist practices would dominate. Upon closer examination, it
might be concluded that possibly 80& of the population of Indonesia might be classified as
animist. Animism existed since before Indonesia's earliest history, and has survived overlays
of great religions imported from other regions.

The approximately 65,000 Asmat people of the south-central alluvial swamps of

Irian Jaya Province are descended from a Papuan racial stock. They live in villages with
populations that vary from 35 to 2,000. The Asmat are primarily hunters and gatherers who
subsist by gathering and processing the starchy pulp of the sago palm, and by fishing and
hunting the occasional wild pig, cassowary, grubs, and crocodile. Asmat believe that all
deaths--except those of the very old and very young--come about through acts of
malevolence, either by magic or actual physical force. Their ancestral spirits demand
vengeance for these deaths. These ancestors to whom they feel obligated are represented in
large, spectacular wood carvings of canoes, shields, and in ancestor poles consisting of
human figurines. Until the late twentieth century, the preferred way a young man could
fulfill his obligations to his kin, to his ancestors, and to prove his sexual prowess, was to take
a head of an enemy, and offer the body for cannibalistic consumption by other members of
the village.

Traditionally, most of the scattered ethno-linguistic groups inhabiting the interior of

the vast island of southern Kalimantan have been labeled collectively by outsiders as Dayak.

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Religiously, they tend to be either Protestant or Kaharingan, a form of native religious
practice viewed by the government as Hindu, with an estimated 330,000 adherents. Through
its healing performances, Kaharingan serves to mold the scattered agricultural residences
into a community, and it is at times of ritual that these peoples coalesce as a group. There is
no set ritual leader nor is there a fixed ritual presentation. Specific ceremonies may be held
in the home of the sponsor.

Shamanic curing or balian is one of the core features of these ritual practices.
Because this healing practice often occurs as a result of the loss of the soul, which has
resulted in some kind of illness, the focus of the religion is thus on the body. Sickness comes
by offending one of the many spirits inhabiting the earth and fields, usually from a failure to
sacrifice to them. The goal of the balian is to call back the wayward soul and restore the
health of the community through trance, dance, and possession.

Modern recognition of the legitimacy of Kaharingan as a religious practice has been

the culmination of a long history of struggles for autonomy. Since the southern coast of
Kalimantan has long been dominated by the politically and numerically superior Muslim
Banjarese, Christian and Kaharingan adherents of the central interior sought parliamentary
recognition of a Great Dayak territory in 1953. When these efforts failed, a rebellion broke
out in 1956 along religious lines, culminating in the establishment of the new province of
Kalimantan Tengah in May 1957.

The abortive coup of 1965 proved that independence to be fragile. With the unity of
the republic at stake, indigenous religions were viewed as threats and labelled atheistic and,
by implication, communist. Caught in a no-win situation, the Dayak also were told that they
did not have an agama and thus became suspect in the anticommunist fever of the late
1960s. By the early 1970s, negotiations began between Kalimantan Tengah and the national
government over recognition of the indigenous religion of the peoples of the province. But
as late as 1979 they were unable to conform to the requirements laid down by the
Indonesian government: 1) that their belief knew only one God; 2) that a holy book or script
was present; 3) that a special building for religious services was present; and 4) that a set
number of yearly feast-days were ordered. After making changes to conform to these
criteria, in April 1980, the Kaharingan community obtained official recognition by the state
government, not as Indonesia’s sixth religion but as a branch of Hinduism.

One minority group that has been successful in gaining national and international
attention is the Toraja of central Sulawesi, with a population of approximately 650,000. This
group's prominence, beginning in the 1980s, was due largely to the tourist industry, which
was attracted to the region because of its picturesque villages and its spectacular mortuary
rites involving the slaughter of water buffalo.

An important kind of group with which Toraja have close affiliations is the
tongkonan (ancestral house), which contrasts with banua (ordinary house). Tongkonan as
social units consist of a group of people who reckon descent from an original ancestor. The
physical structures of tongkonan are periodically renewed by replacing their distinctively
shaped roofs. This ritual is attended by members of the social group and accompanied by
trance-like dances in which the spirits are asked to visit. A third important kind of affiliation
is the saroan, or village work group. These groups were probably originally agricultural work
groups based in a particular hamlet. Beginning as labor and credit exchanges, saroan have
since evolved into units of cooperation in ritual activities as well. When sacrifices and
funerals take place, these groups exchange meat and other foods.

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 The flexibility of these affiliations is partly responsible for the intensity of the
mortuary performances. Because there is some ambiguity about one's affiliation (that is,
one's claims to descent are not only based on blood relationships but also on social
recognition of the relationship through public acts), Toraja people may attempt to prove the
importance of a relationship through elaborate contributions to a funeral, which provides an
opportunity to prove not only a person's devotion to a deceased parent, but also a person's
claim to a share of that parent's land. The amount of land an individual inherits from the
deceased might depend on the number of buffalo sacrificed at a parent's funeral. Sometimes
people even pawn land to get buffalo to kill at a funeral so that they can claim the land of
the deceased. Thus, feasting at funerals is highly competitive.

The Toraja have two main kinds of rituals. Those of the east-- known as rites of the
rising sun and the rising smoke--are concerned with planting fertility and abundance.
Following the rice harvest are rituals of the west centering on the setting sun, consisting
primarily of funerals. Both involve the sacrifice of water buffalo, pigs, and chickens as
offerings to the ancestors, and a complex distribution of the meat among the living.

It is difficult to describe the Balinese version of Hinduism in the same doctrinal terms
as Islam and Christianity, since this unique form of religious expression is deeply interwoven
with art and ritual, and is less closely preoccupied with scripture, law, and belief. Balinese
Hinduism lacks the traditional Hindu emphasis on cycles of rebirth and reincarnation, but
instead is concerned with a myriad of local and ancestral spirits. As with kebatinan, these
deities are thought to be capable of harm. This is not really Hinduism, but is rather animism.

Balinese place great emphasis on dramatic and aesthetically satisfying acts of ritual
propitiation of these spirits at temple sites scattered throughout villages and in the
countryside. Each of these temples has a more or less fixed membership; every Balinese
belongs to a temple by virtue of descent, residence, or some mystical revelation of
affiliation. Some temples are associated with the family house compound, others are
associated with rice fields, and still others with key geographic sites. Ritualized states of self-
control (or lack thereof) are a notable feature of religious expression among the people,
famous for their graceful and decorous behavior. One key ceremony at a village temple, for
instance, features a special performance of a dance-drama (a battle between the mythical
characters Rangda the witch and Barong the dragon), in which performers fall into a trance
and attempt to stab themselves with sharp knives.

The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian
island of Java. They number approximately 30 million. Although Sundanese religious
practices share some of the Hindu-Buddhist beliefs of their Javanese neighbors -- for
example, the animistic beliefs in spirits and the emphasis on right thinking and self-control
as a way of controlling those spirits -- Sundanese courtly traditions differ from those of the
Javanese. The Sundanese language possesses an elaborate and sophisticated literature
preserved in Indic scripts and in puppet dramas. These dramas use distinctive wooden dolls
(wayanggolek, as contrasted with the wayangkulit of the Javanese and Balinese), but
Sundanese courts have aligned themselves more closely to universalistic tenets of Islam than
have the elite classes of Central Java.

The striking variations in the practice and interpretation of Islam -- in a much less
austere form than that practiced in the Middle East -- in various parts of Indonesia reflect its
complex history, introduced piecemeal by various traders and wandering mystics from India.

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These historical processes gave rise to enduring tensions between orthodox Muslims and
more syncretistic, locally based religion. On Java, for instance, this tension was expressed in
a contrast between santri ["white" - Orthodox Muslims] and abangan [people who are
nominally Muslim and who, in fact, are followers of kebatinan, an indigenous blend of native
and Hindu-Buddhist beliefs with Islamic practices sometimes also called kejawen, agama
Jawa, or Javanism. The word is derived from the Javanese abang, which means "red."]

Most Javanese peasants, particularly those in Central Java, resist the universalism of
Islam and its political connotations. They favor a more moderate blend of Islamic practice
with an indigenous Javanism, expressed in household feasts, pilgrimages to local temples
and shrines, and belief in local spirits. For many Javanese peasants, the spiritual world is
richly populated with deities who inhabit people, things, and places, and who are ever ready
to cause misfortune. Believers seek to protect themselves against these harmful spirits by
making offerings, enlisting the aid of a dukun (healer), or through spiritual acts of self-
control and right thinking.

In contrast to the Mecca-oriented philosophy of most santri, there was the current
of kebatinan, which is an amalgam of animism, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic -- especially Sufi
-- beliefs. This loosely organized current of thought and practice, was legitimized in the 1945
constitution and, in 1973, when it was recognized as one of the agama. As a body of belief,
kebatinan is administered by the Department of Education and Culture rather than by the
Department of Religious Affairs. President Suharto counted himself as one of its adherents.

Kebatinan is generally characterized as mystical, and some varieties were concerned

with spiritual self-control. Although there were many varieties circulating, kebatinan often
implies pantheistic worship because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and
ancestral spirits. These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings,
artifacts, and grave sites of important wali (Muslim saints). Illness and other misfortunes are
traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice
of a dukun or healer is sought. Kebatinan, while it connotes a turning away from the militant
universalism of orthodox Islam, moves toward a more internalized universalism. In this way,
kebatinan moves toward eliminating the distinction between the universal and the local, the
communal and the individual.

With approximately 62% of the country's population, Java has a population of over
150 million, of whom 97.3 percent are officially Muslim. Only 5-10 percent followAgami
Islam Santri, with 30 percent following AgamiJawi. The rest are only nominal Muslims, called
abangan, whose religion is based more on animism, mysticism, Javanese Hinduism and
Javanese Buddhism. Thus perhaps as much as 90% of the Population of Java is animist.

Multiculturalism can, likewise, be an asset to Indonesia. True multiculturalism

creates room for people to collaborate and remain tolerant in the midst of disagreement. A
genuine engagement with diversity is a source of social capital, which needs to be taken care
of regardless of place or time.

Many Indonesian Muslims still practice a rather syncretistic mix of beliefs, combining
Islam with other cultural and religious traditions. They are often criticized by Muslim purists
for their eclecticism.

C. THE VIETNAMESE CASE: CHINESES HEGEMONY AND LOCAL RESPONSE

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The First Chinese Domination of Vietnam

The first Chinese domination is a period in Vietnamese history during which Vietnam
was under Chinese rule from the north. It is the first of four periods of Chinese domination
of Vietnam, the first three of which are almost continuous and referred to as Bắcthuộc
("Northern domination").

In 111 BC, the powerful Chinese Han dynasty conquered the Nam Việt (which in Chinese
translates to "land of the southern barbarians") kingdom during its expansion southward
and incorporated what is now northern Vietnam, together with much of modern Guangdong
and Guangxi, into the expanding Han empire. Vietnamese resistance to Han rule culminated
in the rebellion of the Trưng Sisters, who expelled the Han in 40 AD and briefly ruled
Vietnam until being defeated by the returning Han Chinese army in 43 AD.

During the next several hundred years of Chinese colonization and domination,
Sinification of the newly conquered Nanyue was brought about by a combination of Han
imperial military power, regular settlement and an influx of Han Chinese refugees, officers
and garrisons, merchants, scholars, bureaucrats, fugitives, and prisoners of war. At the same
time, Chinese officials were interested in exploiting the region's natural resources and trade
potential. In addition, Han Chinese officials also seized fertile land conquered from
Vietnamese nobles for newly settled Han Chinese immigrants. Han rule and government
administration brought new influences to the indigenous Vietnamese and the rule of
Vietnam as a Chinese province operated as a frontier outpost of the Han Empire. The Han
dynasty was desperate to extend their control over the fertile Red River Delta, in part as the
geographical terrain served as a convenient supply point and trading post for Han ships
engaged in the growing maritime trade with various South and Southeast Asian Kingdoms as
well as establishing it as a prominent trading post with Ancient India and the Roman Empire.
During the first century of Chinese rule, Vietnam was governed leniently and indirect with no
immediate change in indigenous policies. Initially, the practice of indigenous Vietnamese
was governed at the local level but was ruled out in favor of replacing indigenous
Vietnamese local officials with newly settled Han Chinese officials. Han imperial bureaucrats
generally pursued a policy of peaceful relations with the indigenous population, focusing
their administrative roles in the prefectural headquarters and garrisons, and maintaining
secure river routes for trade. By the first century AD, however, the Han dynasty intensified
its efforts to assimilate its new territories by raising taxes and instituting marriage and land
inheritance reforms aimed at turning Vietnam into a patriarchal society more amenable to
political authority.

The Vietnamese paid heavy tributes and imperial taxes to the Han mandarins to
maintain the local administration and the military. The Chinese vigorously tried to assimilate
the Vietnamese peacefully either through forced sinicization or through brute Chinese
political domination. The Han dynasty sought to assimilate the Vietnamese as the Chinese
wanted to maintain a unified cohesive empire through a "civilizing mission" as what the
Chinese regarded the Vietnamese as uncultured and backward barbarians and regarded
their "Celestial Empire" as the supreme centre of the universe. Under Chinese rule, Han
dynasty officials imposed much of Chinese culture, including Chinese Buddhism, Taoism, and
Confucianism, its imperial examination system, and mandarin bureaucracy. However,
implementation of a foreign administrative system and sinification was not easy as frequent
uprisings and rebellions were indicative of Vietnamese resistance to these changes. Some
Vietnamese welcomed the chance to assimilate as what they considered Chinese culture, to

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be a more civilized, advanced and superior culture. Though the Vietnamese incorporated
advanced and technical elements they thought would be beneficial to themselves, the
unwillingness to be dominated by outsiders, the desire to maintain political autonomy and
the drive to regain Vietnamese independence signified Vietnamese resistance and hostility
to Chinese aggression, political domination and imperialism on Vietnamese society. Han
Chinese bureaucrats sought to impose much of Chinese high culture onto the indigenous
Vietnamese including bureaucratic Legalist techniques and Confucian ethics, education, art,
literature, and language. The conquered and subjugated Vietnamese had to adopt the
Chinese foreign writing system, Confucianism, veneration of the Chinese emperor at the
detriment of the loss of their native spoken language, culture, ethnic and national identity.

The Effect of Chinese Domination in Vietnam

How and to what extent have Vietnam’s governance structures been converged
toward or diverged from the Chinese model of political organization and rule? Similarities of
governance structures in Vietnam and China are primarily the result of analogy or the fact
that both regimes have faced comparable challenges first with regard to their respective
national revolutionary struggles and later the establishment and institutional fostering of
communist rule, acted under similar conditions and pursued similar goals which have
resulted in the part convergence of the two countries’ political institutions, structures, and
practices that occurred without the direct exercise of influence. The most prominent
example of chasing analogous objectives certainly refers to the economic reform processes
toward market systems and the integration in global economic structures without touching
the main pillars of the respective political orders. Overall, the convergence of governance
systems in Vietnam and China lies in principles and policy (the value system of reform)
rather than in structures and polity. Vietnam’s learning from China is more a “path
imitation” than “model imitation.”

The culture of Vietnam has undergone changes over the millennia. According to
scholarly sources, the culture of Vietnam originated from Nam Việt, an ancient kingdom of
the Baiyue people in East Asia which shared characteristics of Han Chinese cultures and the
ancient Dong Son Culture, considered one of the most important progenitors of its
indigenous culture, during the Bronze Age. Nam Việt was annexed by China in 111 BC,
leading to the first Chinese domination of Vietnam lasting over a millennium that propelled
Chinese influences onto Vietnamese culture in terms of Confucian ideology, governance, and
the arts.

Following independence from China in the 10th century, successive Vietnamese

imperial dynasties flourished as the country embarked on a southward expansion that
annexed territories of the Champa and Khmer civilizations, which resulted in regional
variances of modern-day Vietnamese culture. During the French colonial period in the mid-
19th century, Vietnamese culture absorbed European influences including architecture,
Catholicism, and the adoption of the Latin alphabet, which created the new ChữQuốcngữ
writing system that replaced the previous Chinese characters and ChữNôm scripts.

During the socialist era, Vietnamese culture was characterized by government-

controlled propaganda, which emphasized the importance of cultural exchanges with fellow
communist nations such as the Soviet Union, China, and Cuba. Following the ĐổiMới
reforms, Vietnam has continuously absorbed various influences from Asian, European, and
American cultures. Part of the East Asian cultural sphere, Vietnamese culture has certain

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characteristic features including ancestor veneration and worship, respect for community
and family values, and manual labor religious belief. Important cultural symbols include
dragons, turtles, lotuses, and bamboo.

The occupation of Vietnam by China, sometimes referred to as "Bắcthuộc" in

Vietnamese began in 111 BC, and is usually considered to have ended in 938 AD. A fourth,
relatively brief, 20-year punitive invasion by the Ming dynasty, 400 years later, is usually
excluded by historians in discussion of the main, almost continuous, period of Chinese
occupation from 111 BC to 938 AD, as is the brief occupation of northern Vietnam by
Chinese forces at the end of the Second World War.

The four periods of Chinese occupation do not correspond to the modern borders of
Vietnam but to Vietnam as a cultural entity. During the first three Chinese periods of
occupation, Vietnamese society was primarily in the northern part of modern Vietnam. Ten
centuries of Chinese occupation left a substantial demographic footprint, with settlement by
large numbers of ethnic Han-Chinese, while opening up Vietnam for trade. Against this the
second period of Chinese occupation saw almost 500 years of revolt and war, though the
third period (603-939) was more harmonious.

In addition to administration, and making Chinese the language of administration,

the long period of Chinese occupation introduced Chinese techniques of dike construction,
rice cultivation, and animal husbandry. Chinese culture, having been established among the
elite mandarin class, remained the mainstream current among that elite for most of the next
1,000 years (939-1870s) until the loss of independence under French Indochina. This cultural
affiliation to China remained true even when militarily defending Vietnam against attempted
invasion, such as against the Mongol Kublai Khan. The only significant exceptions to this
were the 7 years of the strongly anti-Chinese Hồ dynasty which banned the use of Chinese
(among other actions, triggering the fourth Chinese invasion), but the aftermath of the
expulsion of the Ming saw a rise in vernacular chữnôm literature. Although 1,000 years of
Chinese rule left many traces, the collective memory of the period reinforced Vietnam's
cultural and later political independence.

The nearly 1000-year period of Chinese rule had some profound impacts on
Vietnamese culture, and this was no accident. China was very confident in its belief that it
was the greatest society in the world, and attempted to convert all Vietnamese peoples into
Chinese citizens, a process called sanitization. Sanitization had practical applications as well;
the Chinese governors believed Vietnam was less likely to rebel if the people all thought of
themselves as Chinese and gave up their Vietnamese identity.

To achieve this, Vietnamese customs, traditions, and even clothing and hairstyles
were prohibited by law. The Vietnamese people were forced to dress in Chinese manners,
adhere to Chinese rituals, and learn to read and speak the Chinese language. This process
was both a success and failure. Chinese mannerism and styles became widely (and in some
cases enthusiastically) adopted. China was a cultural epicenter of East Asia, so many
Vietnamese people were already excited to try Chinese things. Plus, as the Chinese came in,
they brought with them the most advanced architectural and building technologies in that
part of the world. Vietnam was able to grow economically and politically largely thanks to
Chinese infrastructure.

When we talk about East Asia, we're usually talking about China. China is a big
nation, and historically was the dominant power in this part of the continent. However, it

11
wasn't the only culture of East Asia, and it would be a mistake to act like all East Asian
societies are basically Chinese. They're not. In fact, some had to fight long and hard to
secure that fact. One example is Vietnam. Vietnam has had an interesting relationship with
China throughout history. Through various economic, cultural, or military means, China has
exerted a lot of influence onto Vietnam. But Vietnam is not China, and the Vietnamese
people are not Chinese.

D. THE PHILIPPINE CASE: SPANISH COLONIALISM AND LOCAL RESPONSES

The colonial experiences of the Philippines have greatly influenced the preservation
of the nation’s literary cultural heritage and built cultural heritage. Apparently, colonial
experience has defined how heritage is treated and conserved. The colonial legacy has set a
precedent that destroys the old practices, ways of life, structures and edifices to favor the
creation of a new set of world order, thus setting a culture of neglect and disregard for
cultural heritage conservation. Apparently, the politics of memory and the quest for a new
identity has influenced how heritage conservation is defined and perceived. From the time
before the Philippines were discovered by the Europeans and the way the nation was passed
on from one colonizer to another, minimal sense of heritage conservation was developed.

The perception that anything related to the historical past is a sign of antiquity and
underdevelopment has comprised the way present communities perceive development.
Henceforth, cultural heritages are given the least importance unless its relationship with
economic activities has been clearly established. This study connects the implications of the
Philippines’ rich colonial experience to approaches of heritage conservation in the country
and in the end presents a way of how to possibly reverse some of its impact. The study
presents an exploratory and descriptive approach using case studies of heritage districts in
the Philippines that illustrate how a practice of cultural neglect can be converted to culture
of concern and conservation through the development of creative industry and culture
capital.

Spanish Colonization in the Philippines

Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan successfully led the European expedition to

Philippines in the service of the King of Spain. On 31 March 1521 at Limasawa Island,
Southern Leyte, as stated in Pigafetta's Primo ViaggioIntorno El Mondo (First Voyage around
the World), Magellan solemnly planted a cross on the summit of a hill overlooking the sea
and claimed for the king of Spain possession of the islands he had seen, naming them
Archipelago of Saint Lazarus. The invasion of Philippines by foreign powers however didn’t
begin in earnest until 1564. After Magellan's voyage, subsequent expeditions were
dispatched to the islands.

Four expeditions were sent: Loaisa (1525), Cabot (1526), Saavedra (1527), Villalobos
(1542), and Legazpi (1564) by Spain. The Legazpi expedition was the most successful as it
resulted in the discovery of the tornaviaje or return trip to Mexico across the Pacific by
Andrés de Urdaneta. This discovery started the Manila galleon trade1, which lasted two and
a half centuries. In 1570, Martín de Goiti having been dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon2,
conquered the Kingdom of Maynila (now Manila). Legazpi then made Maynila the capital of
the Philippines and simplified its spelling to Manila. His expedition also renamed Luzon
Nueva Castilla. Legazpi became the country's first governor-general. The archipelago was

12
Spain's outpost in the orient and Manila became the capital of the entire Spanish East Indies.
The colony was administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain (now Mexico) until 1821
when Mexico achieved independence from Spain. After 1821, the colony was governed
directly from Spain.

Spain had three objectives in its policy toward the Philippines, its only colony in Asia:
to acquire a share in the spice trade, to develop contacts with China and Japan in order to
further Christian missionary efforts there, and to convert the Filipinos to Christianity. Only
the third objective was eventually realized, though not completely because of the active
resistance of both the Muslims in the south and the Igorot, the upland tribal peoples in the
north. Philip II, king of Spain explicitly ordered that pacification of the Philippines be
bloodless, to avoid a repetition of Spain's sanguinary conquests in the Americas. Occupation
of the islands was accomplished with relatively little bloodshed, partly because most of the
population (except the Muslims) offered little armed resistance initially. However there have
been several incidents of atrocities committed by the Spanish authorities, one of the most
incredible acts of heinous torture took place in the Fortress of Sebastian Intra Mores in
Manila where there was a dungeon known as the Black Hole. The prison had only two small
apertures, one three feet square in the ceiling, the other a little gated hole in the floor
through which the sea could be seen washing underneath. The Spanish authorities used to
confine state prisoners in the hole to the brimful without food and water and just sufficient
air to prevent them from dying immediately. Physical torture was meted out to the
unmanageable prisoners.

During most of the Spanish colonial period, the Philippine economy depended on
the Galleon Trade which was inaugurated in 1565 between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico.
Trade between Spain and the Philippines was via the Pacific Ocean to Mexico (Manila to
Acapulco), and then across the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Ocean to Spain (Veracruz to
Cádiz). Manila became the most important center of trade in Asia between the 17th and
18th centuries. All sorts of products from China, Japan, Brunei, the Moluccas and even India
were sent to Manila to be sold for silver 8-real coins3 which came aboard the galleons
(Spanish ships) from Acapulco (city in Mexico). These goods, including silk, porcelain, spices,
lacquer ware and textile products were then sent to Acapulco and from there to other parts
of New Spain, Peru and Europe. The European population in the archipelago steadily grew
although natives remained the majority. They depended on the Galleon Trade for a living. In
the later years of the 18th century, Governor General Basco introduced economic reforms
that gave the colony its first significant internal source income from the production of
tobacco and other agricultural exports. In this later period, agriculture was finally opened to
the European population, which before was reserved only forthe natives.

During Spain’s 333 year rule in the Philippines, the colonists had to fight off the
Chinese pirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which was Limahong in 1574),
Dutch forces, Portuguese forces, and indigenous revolts. Moros from western Mindanao and
the Sulu Archipelago also raided the coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas and
occasionally captured men and women to be sold as slaves. On April 25, 1898, the Spanish–
American War began with declarations of war. On May 1, 1898, the Spanish navy was
decisively defeated in the Battle of Manila Bay by the Asiatic Squadron of the U.S. Navy led
by Commodore George Dewey aboard the USS Olympia. Thereafter Spain lost the ability to
defend Manila and therefore the Philippines.

The Filipino movement against Spanish authorities had both violent and non-violent
proponents. Jose Rizal was the most prominent face of the moderate opposition to the

13
Spanish rule who advocated political reforms of The Philippines under Spain. Jose Rizal was a
man of incredible intellectual power, with amazing artistic talent as well. He excelled at
anything that he put his mind to - medicine, poetry, sketching, architecture, sociology. In
1882, he traveled to Spain to complete his medical degree. While in Europe, José Rizal
became part of the Propaganda Movement, connecting with other Filipinos who wanted
reform. He also wrote his first novel, Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not/The Social Cancer), a
work that detailed the dark aspects of Spain's colonial rule in the Philippines, with particular
focus on the role of Catholic friars. The book was banned in the Philippines, though copies
were smuggled in. Rizal returned to the Philippines in 1892. Although the reform society he
founded, the Liga Filipino (Philippine League), supported non-violent action, Rizal was still
exiled to Dapitan, on the island of Mindanao. In August 1896, Katipunan, a nationalist
Filipino society founded by Andres Bonifacio, revolted. Though Rizal had no ties to the
group, and disapproved of its violent methods, Rizal was arrested shortly thereafter. After a
show trial, Rizal was convicted of sedition and sentenced to death by firing squad. Rizal's
public execution was carried out in Manila on December 30, 1896, when he was 35 years
old. His execution created more opposition to Spanish rule.

On May 19 1898, Filipino radical revolutionary Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the

Philippines from self-exile in Hong Kong aboard an American naval ship and on May 24 took
command of Filipino forces. Filipino forces had liberated much of the country from the
Spanish. On June 12, 1898 Aguinaldo issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence
declaring independence from Spain and later established the First Philippine Republic.
Filipino forces then laid siege to Manila, as had American forces. The Americans entered into
a pact with the Spanish governor general in which they agreed to fight a mock battle before
surrendering Manila to the Americans. The Battle of Manila took place on August 13 and
Americans took control of the city. In the Treaty of Paris (1898) ending the Spanish–
American War, the Spanish agreed to sell the Philippines to the United States for $20 million
which was subsequently narrowly ratified by the U.S. Senate. With this action, Spanish rule
in the Philippines formally ended. However the sovereignty status of The Philippines
remained unchanged till 1946, as the void left by Spain was immediately filled with the
U.S.A. The Philippines was illegally ceded to the United States at the Treaty of Paris for
US$20 million, together with Cuba and Puerto Rico. A Filipino-American War broke out as
the United States attempted to establish control over the islands. The war lasted for more
than 10 years, resulting in the death of more than 600,000 Filipinos. The little-known war
has been described by historians as the "first Vietnam", where US troops first used tactics
such as strategic hamleting and scorched-earth policy to "pacify" the natives.

The United States established an economic system giving the colonizers full rights to
the country's resources. The Spanish feudal system was not dismantled; in fact, through the
system of land registration that favored the upper Filipino classes, tenancy became more
widespread during the US occupation. Native elites, including physicians trained in the
United States, were groomed to manage the economic and political system of the country.
The U.S. also introduced western models of educational and health-care systems which
reinforced elitism and a colonial mentality that persists to this day, mixed with the Spanish
feudal patron-client relationship. Eventually after the second world war, where Filipino
forced fought alongside U.S.A to thwart the Japanese force, Philippine independence came
on July 4, 1946, with the signing of the Treaty of Manila between the governments of the
United States and the Philippines. The treaty provided for the recognition of the
independence of the Republic of the Philippines and the relinquishment of American
sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.

14
Spanish Influence on Language, Culture, and Philippine History

To administer the Philippines, the Spaniards extended their royal government to the
Filipinos. This highly centralized governmental system was theocratic. There was a union of
Church and State. The Roman Catholic Church was equal to and coterminous with the State.
Therefore, the cross as well as the scepter held sway over the archipelago. While the State
took care of temporal matters, the Church took care of spiritual matters and hence
preoccupied itself with the evangelization and the conversion of the Filipino inhabitants
from their primal religion to Roman Catholicism. The Spanish friars wanted the Philippines to
become the "arsenal of the Faith" in Asia. In the process, the Spanish Catholic missionaries
helped in the implantation of Castilian culture and civilization on Philippine soil. This is
because Spanishness was equated with Catholicism. The two terms were virtually
synonymous with one another. One was not a genuine Spaniard if he was not a faithful
Roman Catholic believer.

The imposition of the Roman Catholic faith upon the Filipino population
permanently influenced the culture and society of the Philippines. This is due to the fact that
the Spanish friars who undertook the immense task of evangelizing the Filipino natives
looked at their missionary work and endeavor as involving more than simple conversion. By
Christianizing the Filipinos, the Spanish Catholic missionaries were in effect remodelling
Filipino culture and society according to the Hispanic standard. They would be Hispanizing
the Filipinos, teaching them the trades, manners, customs, language and habits of the
Spanish people. This influence is evident even in the way we tell time ("alas singko y
media"), in the way we count ("uno, dos, tres"), and in the family names we carry ( De la
Cruz, Reyes, Santos, etcetera).

The Filipino populace embraced Spanish Roman Catholic Christianity almost

unquestioningly. The Spanish authorities congregated the scattered Filipino population into
clustered village settlements, where they could more easily be instructed and Christianized
under a friar’s eye. This policy paved the way for the emergence of the present system of
politico-territorial organization of villages, towns, and provinces. At the same time, the
compact villages which were literally under the bells of the Roman Catholic Church
permitted the regular clergy to wake up the villagers each day summon them to mass, and
subject them to religious indoctrination or cathechismal instruction. This process enabled
the Church to play a central role in the lives of the people because it touched every aspect of
their existence from birth to growth to marriage to adulthood to death. Whether the natives
clearly understood the tenets and dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church is of course
another matter. Some scholars claim that the Spaniards only superficially Christianized the
Filipinos, most of who learned to recite the prayers and chants by rote, without any idea as
to their meaning. Some native inhabitants became only nominal Christians. At any rate,
there is no denying the fact that many Filipinos defended the Catholic faith devotedly.

Through the Church and its zealous missionaries, the Filipinos learned new
techniques and procedures involving the cultivation of agricultural crops introduced from
Mexico, one of Spain’s colonies in the New World. For example, prior to the imposition of
Castilian rule, the Filipinos practiced swiddening or slash-and-burn agriculture. This farming
technique involved clearing a hillside or a patch of land, cutting down the trees, burning the
trunks, the branches and the leaves, removing the rocks, and then planting through the use
of a pointed stick to create a hole on the ground into which seeds were thrown. Then the
farmer simply waited for harvest time to arrive. This situation changed when the

15
missionaries taught the Filipino natives horticultural techniques requiring intensive
cultivation of land through better irrigation and water management so as to lessen their
dependency on rainfall. In addition to teaching the Filipinos new farming methods and
introducing to them new crops such as maize, avocado, tomato, and cacao, from which the
nutritious drink of chocolate was derived, the Spanish friars taught the rudiments of reading
and writing to the natives, not to mention useful trades such as painting, baking and
locksmithing.

In the course of Spanish colonization in the Philippines, the friars constructed

opulent Baroque-style church edifices. These structures are still found today everywhere
across the country and they symbolize the cultural influence of Spain in Filipino life. The
opulence of these edifices was clearly visible in the ornate facades, paintings, and sculpture,
as well as in the behavioral patterns of the people and in the intricate rituals associated with
Roman Catholic churches. While it is true that the Spaniards exploited labor in the
construction of the imposing Baroque-style sanctuaries for Roman Catholic worship, it is also
true that these same edifices became the means by which Filipino artistic talents and
inclinations were expressed. The carpenters, masons, craftsmen, and artisans were mainly
Filipinos. In this way, the Roman Catholic Church and religion influenced Filipino
architectural and building style, even as the rituals and festivities of the Church influenced
Filipino dances, songs, paintings, and literary writings. Through these influences, the Church
afforded the Filipinos abundant opportunities for both solemn rites and joyous festivities
and celebrations known as "fiestas." The services inside the Catholic churches often spilled
out into the thoroughfare in the form of colorful and pageant-filled religious processions in
which the rich and the poor participated. Dining, drinking, and merrymaking often followed
or accompanied such religious activities. During these feasts, Spanish culinary specialties like
"paella" (a dish consisting of a mixture of rice, chicken and shellfish), "arrozvalenciana"
(glutinous rice and chicken cooked in coconut milk), and "lengua" (sauteed ox-tongue usually
with mushroom sauce) became part of the local table fare. The rites and feasts served to
provide relief from the drudgery of humdrum village existence, to release pent-up social and
economic frustrations, or to foster community spirit and unity.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that the Spaniards enriched the Filipino languages
through lexicographic studies produced by the friars. Many Spanish words found their way
into the Tagalog and Visayan languages. The Spanish words somehow fitted into the
phonetic patterns of the Filipino languages. These Spanish words like "mesa" (table),
"adobo" (marinated cooked food), and others are commonly used today in the daily practical
transactions of the Filipinos with each other. Ironically, the friars came up with excellent
studies on Filipino culture and languages even as they sought to overthrow this same culture
through their implantation of Spanish civilization.

The influences from Spain have become permanently embedded in Filipino culture.
The Filipino people themselves have internalized them. They cannot be undone anymore.
For good or bad, they have catapulted the Filipinos into the world of Spanish culture, into
the world of Spanish civilization and its products. Nevertheless, it must be said that the
Filipinos did not receive the cultural influences from Spain sitting down. They responded in a
way that demonstrated their capacity to master the new and to balance the new against the
old, in a way that called for their capacity to bring values and principles to bear with a critical
and informed judgment, and in a way that called for them to be able to sift what is essential
from what is trivial. Thus they responded selectively to the novelties the Spaniards brought
with them to the Philippine Islands. The Filipinos accepted only those that fitted their
temperament, such as the "fiesta" that has become one of the most endearing aspects of

16
life in these islands, and made them blend with their indigenous lifestyle to produce a
precious Philippine cultural heritage.

E. THE THAI CASE: SEVERAL, DISTINC RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS IN INTERPLAY

Religions in Thailand

Religion in Thailand has a fascinating cultural history that can be seen through the
many sacred sites and temples scattered throughout the country. Excluding the law that
states the King must be Buddhist, there is no official Thailand religion, meaning all Thai
people enjoy religious freedom. However, Buddhism is the most common Thailand religion
with approximately 95% of the population following this Theravada religion. The remaining
population follows the Muslim religion (4.6%), Catholic Christians (0.7%) with the remaining
1% divided between Hindu, Sikh and Jewish religions.

There is no official state religion in the Thai constitution, which guarantees religious
freedom for all Thai citizens, though the king is required by law to be a Theravada Buddhist.
The main religion practiced in Thailand is Buddhism, but there is a strong undercurrent of
Hinduism with a class of brahmins having sacerdotal functions.[2] The large Thai Chinese
population also practices Chinese folk religions, including Taoism. The Chinese religious
movement Yiguandao (Thai: Anuttharatham) spread to Thailand in the 1970s and it has
grown so much in recent decades to come into conflict with Buddhism; in 2009, it was
reported that each year 200,000 Thais convert to the religion.[3][needs update] Many other
people, especially among the Isan ethnic group, practice Tai folk religions. A significant
Muslim population, mostly constituted by Thai Malays, is present especially in the southern
regions.

Buddhism - Thailand's Buddhist population is largely of the Theravada traditional, however

has also adopted Chinese and folk beliefs such as ancestor worship. Buddhism is the
Thailand religion responsible for the majority of the country's spectacular temples, with
Buddhist temples renowned for their tall domes, golden statues, unique architecture and
amazing detail.

Islam - Thailand's Muslim population is scattered throughout the country with the largest
concentration found on the southern peninsula and in Bangkok. Islam is the second largest
Thailand religion and is a multicultural religion comprised of a number of ethnic groups
including Indonesia, China, Malaysia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Cambodia.

Hinduism - Hindu population totals in the thousands, yet is less than 1% of the national
population. This Thailand religion is the remaining influence of the Khmer Empire and many
Hindu deities form the namesakes of some of Thailand's most well-known places. Hinduism
also influences the remaining Buddhist population of Thailand with many people also
worshipping Hindu deities such as Shiva, Indra and Ganesh. The main Hindu practices which
remain today include blessings by holy strings, holy water poured from conch shells and
Brahmin rituals.

Judaism - Judaism as a Thailand religion dates all the way back to the 17th Century; however
Jewish communities make up only a very small part of the Thai population. An estimated
1,000 people follow Judaism, the majority of which are said to reside in Chiang Mai,
KohSamui, Phuket and Bangkok.

17
Christianity - Introduced by European missionaries, Christianity has been a Thailand religion
since the 1550s and has since played an important role in the modernization of the country
yet it represents less than 1% of the national population. Five of Christianity's major
denominations have been recognized in Thailand including The Southern Baptists, The
Church of Christ in Thailand, The Roman Catholic Church, The Evangelical Fellowship of
Thailand and The Seventh-Day Adventists. Despite not being recognized8, missionaries from
the Church of Jesus Christ of the Latter Day Saints have also been active in Thailand for
years.

According to official census data over 90% of Thais follow Buddhism. However, the
religious life of the country is more complex than how it is portrayed by such statistics. Of
the large Thai Chinese population, most of those who follow Buddhism have been integrated
into the dominant Theravada tradition, with only a negligible minority having retained
Chinese Buddhism. Otherwise, a large part of the Thai Chinese has retained the practice of
ethnic Chinese religion, including Taoism, Confucianism and Chinese Salvationist religions
(such as Yiguandao and the Church of Virtue). Despite being practiced freely, these religions
have no official recognition, and their followers are counted as Theravada Buddhists in
statistical studies. Also, many Thai and Isanpractice their ethnic Tai folk religion.

Muslims are the second largest religious group in Thailand at 4% to 5% of the

population. Thailand's southernmost provinces — Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat and part of
Songkhla and Chumphon — have large populations of Muslims, consisting of both ethnic
Thai and Malay. Christians, mainly Catholics, represent just over 1% of the population. A
small but influential community of Sikhs in Thailand and some Hindus, mostly live in the
country's cities and are engaged in retail commerce. There is also a small Jewish community
in Thailand, dating back to the 17th century.

Theravada Buddhism is the main religion in Thailand and remains a strong element
in Thai culture. It draws on influences from Hinduism and animism, and the official Thai
calendar is based on the Eastern version of the Buddhist Era (BE), 543 years in advance of
the Gregorian (or Western) calendar. More than 94% of the populations identify themselves
as believers of Theravada Buddhism, with around 4.5% following Islam (predominantly Sunni
Muslim in the southern provinces) and less than 1% Christian. There are also small minorities
of Sikhs and Hindus, as well as a Jewish community who established themselves in Thailand
during the 17th century.

SOURCES:

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagined_community
2. https://people.ucalgary.ca/~bakardji/community/imagined_communities.html
3. https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/item8
4. https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2017/07/03/essay-multiculturalism.html
5. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/
multiculturalism-some-lessons-indonesia
6. https://en.qantara.de/content/syncretism-in-indonesia-where-islam-mixes-with-old-
rituals
7. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/indonesia/religion-animist.htm
8. http://bauzon.ph/leslie/papers/spinfluence.html

18
C. Application

After reading the content, you are now ready to answer the following questions and
perform the suggested activities.

CHALLENGE YOUR SELF

1. Fill in the table by identifythe most influential multiple traditions that occurred and
its impact to some of the given Southeast Asian countries.

Countries Multiple Traditions General Impact

Indonesia

Vietnam

Philippines

Thailand

2. In a concise statement discuss the process of re-interpreting the identity of the

society and culture of some Southeast Asian countries due to the encounters of
multiple traditions significantly dominating on the aria. Write your answer on the
space provided below given country.

a. Indonesian
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

19
 _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

b. Vietnam
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

c. Philippines
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

d. Thailand
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. Express your analysis on the impact and local responses to a particular aspect of the
culture and society of a particular country from the encounters within and between
traditions.

a. The impact of the animism, and Hinduism to culture of the Islamic society in
Central Jakarta.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

b. The impact of the Chinese domination to the socio-political condition of

Thailand.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

20
 c. The impact of the Spanish Colonization to the dominant religious and socio-
cultural belief of the Philippines.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

d. The impact of the several distinct religious traditions to the Buddhist Thai.
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

TRY THIS OUT

1. Make a list of cultural practices, beliefs, art and other aspects of their modern
culture of some Southeast Asian countries as indication of the impact of their
encounter between multiple traditions that dominated in their country.
2. Write an essay that focuses on what the Philippines could have been as a nation if it
had not been colonized by Spain. Would our country have been different?

21
ASSESSMENTS

TEST 1.Analyze what particular Southeast Asian Country is having the following situational
cases given in each item, below are the choices, answer only the letter and write it on the
blank before the number.

A. Indonesia C. Philippines
B. Vietnam D. Thailand

_______ 1. During the first century of Chinese rule, this country was governed leniently and
indirect with no immediate change in indigenous policies.
_______ 2. During most of a colonial power, this country’s economy was depended on the
Galleon Trade which was inaugurated in the 1565.
_______ 3. The main religion practiced in this country is Buddhism, but there is a strong
undercurrent of Hinduism with a class of Brahmins having sacerdotal functions in
their government.
_______ 4. Historically the religious majority of this country was Animists.
_______ 5. The culture of this country has been shaped by long interaction between original
indigenous customs and multiple foreign influences.
_______ 6. During the socialist era, the culture of this country was characterized by
government-controlled propaganda, which emphasized the importance of cultural
exchanges with fellow communist nations such as the Soviet Union, China, and
Cuba.
_______ 7. Historically, the people of this country were forced to dress in Chinese manners,
adhere to Chinese rituals, and learn to read and speak the Chinese language.
_______ 8. The imposition of the Roman Catholic faith upon the population of this country
permanently influenced its culture and society.
_______ 9. The people of this country are often criticized by Muslim purists for their
eclecticism.
_______ 10. This country is having a distinct type of Buddhism belief which was drawn from the
influences of Hinduism and animism.

TEST 2. Identification. Identify the one being referred by the following statements. Write
your answer on the blank before the number.

___________________________ 1. The main religion in Thailand and remains as a strong

element in Thai culture.
___________________________ 2. The second largest Thailand religion and is a multicultural
religion comprised of a number of ethnic groups including
Indonesia, China, Malaysia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and
Cambodia.

22
___________________________ 3. The celebration which shows abundant opportunities for
both solemn rites and joyous festivities for the Filipinos as
an evident of the Spanish influence.
___________________________ 4. An ancient kingdom of the Baiyue people in East Asia
where the culture of Vietnam originated which also means
in Chinese “land of the southern barbarians.”
___________________________ 5. A group of Muslims in Indonesia whose religion is based
more on animism, mysticism, Javanese Hinduism and
Javanese Buddhism.
___________________________ 6. Indonesia's national motto which means Unity in Diversity.
___________________________ 7. The name of the period in Vietnam during the Chinese
occupation that began in 111 BC, and is usually considered
to have ended in 938 AD.
___________________________ 8. A group of Filipino intellectuals connecting with one other
who wanted reformduring the Spanish occupation.
___________________________ 9. A scholar of Southeast Asia who transformed the study of
nationalism by positing that nations were “imagined
communities.
___________________________ 10. It is part of a person's self-conception and self-perception
and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class,
generation, locality or any kind of social group that has its
own distinct culture.

TEST 3. Essay Type.

1. In a concise statement, explain your understanding about the idea behind the principle of
“Nation as Imagined community.” How this principle related to the realization and
internalization of the cultural identity of a nation.

23