Renewable Energy Technologies

(ME6148)

Performance Analysis of Liquid Flat Plate Collector

Dr. K. S. Reddy
Heat Transfer & Thermal Power Lab.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
CHENNAI-600 036
1
ksreddy@iitm.ac.in, Phone : 2257 4702(O), 2257 6702®
 Performance Analysis of Liquid Flat Plate Collector
An energy balance on absorber plate under steady
state conditions yields useful heat gain(Qu)
Qu = AcS - QL
Where
S – Solar flux absorbed by the collector
Ac – Aperture of the collector
QL – Heat loss from the collector Qu
The flux incident on the top cover is given as
IT = Ibrb + Idrd +(Ib+Id)rr

The flux absorbed in the collector (S) is given as

S = (ατ)eff .IT
S = Ibrb(ατ)b + Idrd (ατ)d +(Ib+Id)rr (ατ)d
Where
α – absorptivity of the absorber plate
τ – transmissivity of the glass cover
 Overall Heat Loss Coefficient
Heat loss from the collector (QL) is given as

QL = UL Ac (Tpm-Ta)

Where UL = overall loss coefficient Tpm = average temperature of the absorber plate
Ac = area of the collector Ta = temperature of the surrounding air
The heat loss from the collector (QL) is the sum of the heat loss from the top, the bottom and the
sides. Thus QL = QT + QB +QS

The heat loss from the top (QT) is given as QT = UT AC (Tpm-Ta)

The heat loss from the bottom(QB) is given as QB = UB AC (Tpm-Ta)

The heat loss from the sides (QS) is given as QS = US AC (Tpm-Ta)

The overall heat loss coefficient (UL) is given in terms of top, bottom & side loss coefficients
UL = UT + UB +US

It is noted that the definition of each of the coefficients is based on the area Ac and the
temperature difference (Tpm-Ta).

The overall loss coefficient is an important parameter since it is a measure of all the losses.
Typical values range from 2 to 10W/m2.K
 Top Heat Loss Coefficient
Heat loss from the collector (QT) is evaluated by considering convection and re-radiation losses
from the absorber plate in the upward direction.
In a steady state, the heat transferred by convection and
radiation between Tsky
- the absorber plate and the first cover
- the first cover and the second cover Ta
- the second cover and the surroundings Tc2
must be equal
Tc1
QT Tpm
Calculation of the top loss coefficient

hw = wind heat transfer coefficient

= 5.7+3.8Vw W/m2K
 Heat Transfer Coefficient between Inclined Parallel Plates
The natural convection heat transfer coefficient for the enclosed
space between the absorber plate and the first cover or between
two covers is calculated by using one of the following correlation
suggested by Buchberg et al

NuL = 1; RaL cosβ < 1708

NuL = 1+ 1.446(1-1708/ RaL cosβ); 1708< RaL cosβ < 5900

NuL = 0.229 (RaL cosβ)0.252; 5900< RaL cosβ < 9.23x104

NuL = 0.157 (RaL cosβ)0.285; 9.23x104< RaL cosβ < 106

 Transmissivity of the Cover
The transmissivity of the cover system of a collector can be obtained by considering reflection-
refraction and absorption separately
τ = τr τa
Where τr = transmissivity obtained by considering only reflection and refraction and
τa = transmissivity obtained by considering only absorption

Transmissivity Based on Reflection-Refraction

Incident beam Ibn Reflected beam Ir

Medium -1

Medium -2

Refracted beam
 Transmissivity of the Cover
Transmissivity Based on Reflection-Refraction
Incident beam Ibn Reflected beam Ir
The reflectivity is related to the angle of incidence
and refraction by
ρ = ½ (ρI + ρII) Medium -1
ρI and ρII are the reflectivities of the two
components of polarization
Medium -2

Refracted beam

1 ρI ρI(1-ρI)2

ρI2(1-ρI)
1-ρI
The trasmissivity τr is given by an expression ρI(1-ρI)
similar to that for ρ. Thus
τ= ½ (τI + τII)
(1-ρI)2
 FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS
• Temperature distribution between two tubes can W/2
be derived, if we temporarily assume that the
temperature gradient in the flow direction is Tb
x Δx
negligible.
δ
Bond
- The distance between the tubes is W, W Tf
the tube diameter is D, and the sheet
has a thickness δ. Di
(W-D)/2 D
- Hence this can be assumed as a fin of
length (W-D)/2.
- The elemental region of width Δx and x
the unit length in the flow direction.
SΔx
Energy balance on the element yields Tb
x Δx
 dT   dT  dT
S x  U L x(T  Ta )   k     k  0
 dx x  dx  x x  k
dT  k x x
dx
x dx
Dividing by Δx, the equation yields, (W-D)/2
d 2T U L  S  ULΔx(T-Ta)
  T  Ta  
dx 2
k  UL 
S is the absorbed solar energy.
 Flat Plate Collector
Boundary conditions,
dT
 0, T  Tb
dx x 0 x (W  D )/2

Two variables can be defined, m and Ψ

UL
m
k
The above differential equation is of the form,

dT
Which has boundary conditions  0,
dx x 0

General solution

Applying boundary conditions and rearranging the equations,

 Temperature distribution between tubes
The energy conducted per unit length of the tube can be obtained by Fourier law,

k and δm/UL is just 1/m. Equation, accounts for energy collected on only one side of the tube.
For both sides, the energy collection is

Also

Considering the concept of fin efficiency,

Where

The function F is the standard fin efficiency for straight fins with rectangular profile
 Temperature distribution between tubes
Useful energy gain in the tube,

Total energy can be obtain by summing q’fin and q’tube .

Ultimately, the useful energy must be transferred to the fluid

The resistance for the heat flow to the fluid results from the bond and the tube to fluid
resistance.
The useful gain can be expressed in terms of two
resistances as

• Di, is the inside tube diameter and hfi, is the heat transfer coefficient between the fluid and
the tube wall.
• The bond conductance Cb, can be estimated from the knowledge of the bond thermal
conductivity kb. The average bond thickness γ and the bond width b.
 Collector efficiency factor
The bond conductance Cb, can be estimated as

Whiller and Saluja(1965) have shown by experiments that the bond conductance should be
effectively more than 30W/moC, for the effective performance of the collector,

Eliminating Tb, from the equations, the useful energy gain is given by

The collector efficiency factor is given by,

At a particular location, F! represents the ratio of the actual useful energy gain to the useful
gain that would result if the collector absorbing surface had been at the local fluid temperature.

Also
 Temperature distribution in the flow direction
The useful energy gain per unit flow length as calculated form equation is ultimately transferred
to the fluid. The fluid enters the collector at temperature Tf,i and increases in temperature until at
the exit Tf,o.

Fluid Flow

Δy
y
we can express an energy balance on the fluid flow through a single tube of length Δy as,

Where ṁ is the total collector flow rate and n is the number of parallel tubes.

Dividing by Δy, finding the limit as Δy approaches to zero and substituting the equation for q’ u we
obtain,
 Temperature distribution in the flow direction
If we assume F’ and UL are independent of position, then the solution for the fluid temperature
at any position y,

If the collector has a length L in the flow direction, then the outlet fluid temperatures Tfo is found
by substituting L for y in the equation, the quantity nWL is the collector area Ac.

Collector Heat Removal Factor and Flow factor

It is the convenient to define a quantity that relates the actual useful energy gain of a collector
to the useful gain if the whole collector surface is at the fluid inlet temperature. This quantity is
called the collector heat removal factor FR. In equation form it is

It can be expressed as,

 Collector Heat Removal Factor and Flow factor
From the equation of temperature distribution along the flow direction, it can be expressed as,

Collector Flow factor (F’’) is defined as the ratio of FR to F’.

The useful heat can be expressed as,

Critical radiation level

It is convenient to rewrite the equation for the useful heat in the following form

Critical radiation level is the value of GT that makes the term in the brackets identically zero, that
is, where the absorbed radiation and loss terms are equal.

The collector output can now be written in terms of the critical radiation level:

The equations for Qu indicate that for the collector to produce useful output, that is, for Qu>0, the
absorbed radiation must exceed the thermal losses and GT must be greater than GTc
 Mean fluid and plate temperatures
To evaluate the collector performance, it is necessary to know the overall loss coefficient and
internal fluid heat transfer coefficients. However, both UL and hfi are to some degree functions of
temperature. The mean fluid temperature can be found by integrating equation for thermal
distribution from 0 to L.

Also

The equation of useful heat energy is given by,

Comparing with the equation of mean plate temperature,

The above equation can be solved in an iterative manner.

 Effective transmittance-absorptance product
In order to account for the thermal losses due to the absorption of solar radiation by the glass,
effective transmittance-absorptance product is introduced.

• The cover absorptance is given by, α=1-τa. Where τ is the transmissivity of the cover. The
difference between the amount of radiation absorbed with consideration cover absorptance
and without cover absorptance is given by,

• The temperature difference Tp-Tc can be expressed as

• Where Ut is the top loss coefficient and is equal to Up-cUc-a/(Up-c+Uc-a), The

temperature difference Tp-T’c can be expressed as

Therefore
 Effective transmittance-absorptance product

• It can also be written as

• The quantity D, represents the reduction in collector losses due to absorption in the
cover but can be considered an additional input in the collector equation. The useful
gain of a collector is then,

• The transmittance-absorptance product of the cover can be obtained by an equation

• The general analysis for a cover system for n identical plates yields,
 Heat capacity effects in flat plate collectors

• The general energy balance equation of the collector,

• The subscripts c and p represents the cover and plate; Up-c is the loss co-efficient
from the plate to the cover and t is time. The energy balance on the cover yields.

• Assuming (Tc-Ta)/(Tp-Ta) remains constant at steady state, we get

• Assuming dTa/dt=0, Differentiating the above equation with respect to time,

• Adding first and second equations for energy balance and substituting the above
relation,
 Heat capacity effects in flat plate collectors

• The term in the square brackets on the left hand side represents the effective heat
capacity of the collector (mC)e.
• If S and Ta, remains constant for some period t, the solution to equation is given by,

Different collector configurations

Tubes Collector plate Ut Cover

Configuration. 1:
Ub

Configuration. 2:
D

W
Configuration. 3:
 Collector characterizations
• The collector can be characterized by varying no. of parameters based on its
complexity.
• The most reliable model includes all the terms in the equation for heat loss,
– temperature dependent FR,
– temperature dependent UL,
– angular dependent (τα)av.

• The third parameter can be replaced by incident angle modifier defined as the ratio
of (τα)b/(τα)n, as bo.
• Hence this three parameter model can be represented as [ FR(τα)n, FRUL, bo ].

Collector performance tests

• The standard method for measuring collector performance is given by ASHRAE or
EU standard.
• Collector thermal performance tests is divided into three parts,
– Determination of instantaneous efficiency.
– Determination of effect of angle of incidence of solar radiation.
– Determination of collector time constant.
 Determination of instantaneous efficiency

• The basic equation for useful energy gain for any system is given by,

• Useful gain of the collector can be given by,

• Equation for instantaneous efficiency,

• European practice is to base collector test results on Tf,av , the arithmetic

average of fluid inlet and outlet temperatures.
 ASHRAE Method
• Plot between ηi and (Ti-Ta)/GT, is a straight line if UL, FR, and (τα)n are all constant.
• The intercept will be FR(τα)n. and the slope will be –FRUL, it can be shown in the
figure below.

• A scatter of data is expected in the graph, as there are some variations in,
– beam, diffuse and ground reflected components.
– Temperature dependence of FR.
– Angle of incidence.
– Wind velocity.
 FLOW DISTRIBUTION IN COLLECTORS
• The performance of the collector is based on the assumption that the flow is uniform over all
the risers, in single and multiple collector units.
• With non-uniform flow rates, variable FR results in the risers.
• Dunkle and Davey calculated the pressure drop along the headers for the common situation
of water entering the bottom header at one side and leaving top header on other side. The
calculations are made based on the assumptions,
– Flow is turbulent in the header
– Flow is laminar in the risers
• Pressure distribution is found out at both risers and headers, figure shows the pressure
distribution in the top and bottom headers.

• The pressure drops from bottom to top is high at the

center portions than at the end portions.

• This shows that, high flow rate exists at the end risers
and lower flow rate exists at the central risers.

• This effect can also be found out experimentally by

measuring the temperature of the risers across the width
of the collectors.
THANK YOU