Based from Sears and Zemansky’s University Physics

with Modern Physics 13th ed

During an adiabatic expansion, the temperature of 0.450 mol of Argon drops
from 50.0˚C to 10.0˚C. The argon may be treated as an ideal gas. (a) Draw a
pV- diagram for this process. (b) How much work does the gas do? © What is
the change in the internal energy of the gas?
Argon is a monatomic gas:
���������������� ��
= 12.471J mol ⋅ K
= 50.0∘C 3 ��
���� = 2
��
(b) For the work done during adiabatic
process:
�� = ������(���������������� −
������������ = 10.0∘C ������������)
= (0.450)(12.471)(50.0 − 10.0)
�� = +240 J
(c) The Δ�� can be calculated in two ������(������������ −
ways. • Use the 1st law of
����������������)
thermodynamics • Use the formula
�� =
A player bounces a basketball on the floor, compressing it to 80.0% of its
original volume. The air (assume it is essentially N2 gas) inside the ball is
originally at a temperature of 20.0˚C and a pressure of 2.00 atm. The ball’s
inside diameter is 23.9 cm. (a) What temperature does the air in the ball
reach at its maximum compression? Assume the compression is adiabatic
and treat the gas as ideal. (b) By how much does the internal energy of the
air change between the ball’s original state and at its maximum
compression?

������������ = 0.800����������������
���������������� = 2.00 atm = 2.026 × 105Pa

���������������� = 20.00C = 293.15 K

(a) To calculate for the final temperature, we use the adiabatic relation:
E1. obtain the final temperature.
��−1
= ������������������������
��������������� �� ������������ =
��−1 0
� �� ������������ 320.5 K = 47.4 C
A player bounces a basketball on the floor, compressing it to 80.0% of its
original volume. The air (assume it is essentially N2 gas) inside the ball is
originally at a temperature of 20.0C and a pressure of 2.00 atm. The ball’s
inside diameter is 23.9 cm. (a) What temperature does the air in the ball
reach at its maximum compression? Assume the compression is adiabatic
and treat the gas as ideal. (b) By how much does the internal energy of the
air change between the ball’s original state and at its maximum
compression?
= 2.026 × 105Pa
������������ =
���������������� = 20.00C =
0.800����������������
293.15 K ������������ = 320.5
���������������� = 2.00 atm
 K = 47.40C ��������
(b) Since the temperatures are ����������
now known, then we can use
�� �� =
We need to know the
0.594 mol
number of moles:
���� = ������ �� = ������(������������
− ����������������)
�������������������
= (0.594) 20.785 (47.4 − 20.0) =
���������� 338 J
��� =
Two moles of He are initially at a temperature if 27.00C and occupy a volume
of 0.0300m3. The He first expands at constant pressure until its volume has
doubled. Then expands adiabatically until the temperature returns to its initial
value. Assume that the He can be treated as an ideal gas. (a) E2. Draw a
diagram of the process in the pV-plane.
(b) What is the total heat supplied to the He in the
 process? �� = 1.25 × 104J
(c) What is the total change in internal energy of the helium?
�� = 0.00
(d) E3.What is the total work done by the helium?
(e) E4. What is the final volume of He? (that is after the adiabatic expansion).
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics determines the preferred direction of
thermodynamic processes
• Thermodynamic processes that happen in nature are irreversible •
Irreversible processes proceed spontaneously from one direction but not
the other (e.g., heat flow from hotter to colder object, energy lost due to
friction)

• Reversible processes are idealized, quasi-equilibrium processes • They can

be reversed by making an infinitesimal change in the conditions of the
system
• Systems undergoing these processes are very near thermal equilibrium with
their environments
Direction of Thermodynamic Processes
Irreversible

• Disorder/randomness – preferred
direction of nearly all processes •
Reversible Mechanical Energy to Heat –
involves increase in randomness or
disorder
Heat Engine
• Any device that transforms heat partly to work or mechanical energy • It
has a working substance that undergoes inflow and outflow of heat,
expansion and compression, and sometimes a change of phase • They must
absorb heat (QH > 0) from a relatively hot reservoir, perform some
mechanical work (W), then discard some heat (QC < 0) to a cold reservoir

The simplest engine to analyze is one that undergoes a cyclic process.

Energy Reservoir Model (ERM) for a Heat Engine

Thermal efficiency is defined as
Energy Reservoir Model (ERM) for a Heat Engine
• Heat engines absorb heat ���� from a source
at a relatively high temperature, perform
some mechanical work ��, and discard some
heat ���� at a lower temperature.
• For an engine that undergoes a cyclic
process:
�� = 0 �� = ��
�� = ���� + ����
�� = ���� − ����
���� > 0 is the heat absorbed
 ���� < 0 is the heat discarded
�� > 0 is the work done by the engine
Heat Engine
An aircraft engine takes 900 J of heat and discards 6400 J each cycle.
(a)What is the mechanical work output of the engine during one cycle?
(b)What is the thermal efficiency of the engine?
���� = +9000 J
���� = −6400 J

�� = ���� + ����
= 9000 J + −6400 J
= 2600 J

=2600 J
�� =�� ����
 9000 J= 0.29 = 29%
Heat Engine
Example:
A gasoline engine takes in 1.61 x 104 J of heat and delivers 3700 J of work
per cycle. The heat is obtained by burning gasoline with a heat of
combustion of 4.60 x 104 J/g.
(a) E5. What is the thermal efficiency?
(b) E6. How much heat is discarded in each cycle?
(c) What mass of fuel is burned in each cycle?
���� = 1.61 × 104J
���� = 4.60 × 104J/g Heat of combustion
�� =?

���� = ������
1.61 × 104
����= J
 �� 0.350 g
�� = ��

4 =
4.60 × 10 J/g
Internal Combustion Engine (Otto Cycle)
- Idealized thermodynamic cycle that describes the functioning of a typical
spark ignition piston engine. It is the thermodynamic cycle most found in
automobile engines.
��

��

��
��

�� ����
Adiabatic compression from state a to state
b. �� = 0 Δ�� = −��
 �� = ������(���� − ����)
Internal Combustion Engine (Otto
Cycle)��
��

��

��
��
�� ����
Isochoric process from state b to state c. • This
involves an increase in temperature . • Heat is
added to the system in this process.
 ���� = ������ ���� − ���� > 0
Internal Combustion Engine (Otto
Cycle)��
��

��
��

��
��
�� ����

Adiabatic expansion from state c to state

 d. �� = 0 Δ�� = −��
�� = ������(���� − ����)
Internal Combustion Engine (Otto
Cycle)��
��

��
��

��
��
�� ����
Isochoric process from state d to state a. • This
involves a decrease in temperature . • Heat is
 removed to the system in this process.
���� = ������ ���� − ���� < 0
Internal Combustion Engine (Otto Cycle)
E7. Express the heat
discarded ���� in terms
�� of the compression
�� ratio ��, the ratio of
heat capacities ��
�� and the temperatures
����
���� and ����. ����
�� ���� −����
= �� ���� −
���� = ������ ����
����
− ���� > 0
���� = ������ ����
− ���� < 0
 ��
�� =

����−1
�� �� 1
����= �� + �� = 1 −
�� ���� ���� ����−1
��
����
You can improve the thermal efficiency �� of an
Otto Cycle by having a large compression ratio
��.
Internal Combustion Engine (Otto Cycle)
 �� = 1 −1
����−1
Example: The Otto-cycle engine
in a Mercedes
Benz SLK230 has a compression
ratio of 8.8. What is
the ideal efficiency of the engine? Use �� = 1.40.
��SLK230 = 1 −1
(1.40 −1)
8.8 = 0.58

The engine in a Dodge Viper GT2 has a slightly

higher compression ratio of 9.6.

E8. Calculate the ideal efficiency of the GT2. How

much increase in the ideal efficiency results from
this increase in the compression ratio?
Internal Combustion Engine (Otto Cycle)
Heat Engine
The pV-diagram in the figure shows a cycle of a heat engine that uses 0.250 mole
of an ideal gas having �� = 1.40. The curved part ���� of the cycle is
adiabatic.
(a) E5. Find the pressure of the gas at point ��.
���������� = ����������
���� = �� ���� 1.50.0090 = 12.3
��
������ 0.0020 atm
��
=
 process.
���� = ������ ���� − ����=1

���� =
1.50 1.013 × 105 Pa ���� = 12.3
1.013 × 105 Pa ���� = 0.0020 m3
Heat enters when there is an increase
in temperature of the gas.
The isochoric process ca involves an �� − 1�� ���� − ����
increase in temperature; therefore ���� = 5470 J
heat enters the system during this
Heat Engine
 (c) How much heat leaves this gas in a cycle,
���� =
5470 J
���� = ������(���� − ����) =
�� �������� ���� − ����
���� ����

=���� ���� − ����

���� �� − 1
and where does it occur?
���� = −3723 J
This will occur along the isobaric
(constant pressure) process bc: (d) How much work does the
engine do in a cycle? �� = ����
+ ����
= 5470 J + (−3723 J) thermal efficiency of the engine?
= 1747 J �� = 31.9%
(e) E9. What is the
Practical Refrigerator
Energy Reservoir Model of Refrigerator
• A refrigerator takes heat ���� from a cold place and gives off
heat ���� to a warmer place.
• Heat does not naturally flow from cold place to a hot place, so a
net input of mechanical work �� is needed.
Energy Reservoir Model of Refrigerator
• A refrigerator takes heat ���� from a cold place and gives off heat ����
to a warmer place.
• Heat does not naturally flow from cold place to a hot place, so a net
input of mechanical work �� is needed.

���� > 0 is the heat taken from

a cold place
���� < 0 is the heat liberated to
a hot place
�� < 0 is the work done on the
working substance
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
���� > 0 is the heat taken from a cold place
<0
���� is the heat liberated to a hot place

�� < 0 is the work done on the working

substance
�� = ���� + ����
− �� = − ���� + ����

�� = ���� − ����

The COP is defined as:

����� =
�
� �
 �
��
= ��
� ���� −
�
� ����

Coefficient of Performance (COP)

Example:
A refrigerator has a coefficient of performance of 2.10. In each cycle it absorbs
3.40 × 104J of heat from the cold reservoir.
(a) How much mechanical energy is required each cycle to operate the
refrigerator?
(b) During each cycle, how much heat is discarded to the high-temperature
reservoir?
 4
2.10 =3.40 × 10 J
��

�� = 1.62 × 104J

�� = ���� − ����
1.62 × 104J = ���� −
3.40 × 104J ���� =
4
5.02 × 10 J
������ =���� ��
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
The work done by a heat engine running at 54% efficiency is used to run a
refrigerator with coefficient of performance 2.25. If 70 kJ of heat was
absorbed by the heat engine, how much heat will the refrigerator be able
to absorb from the cold reservoir?
E10. Calculate the work done by the engine.
�� = 3.78 × 104J

������ =����
4
������ = ������ �� = 2.25 �� = 8.51 × 10 J
Coefficient of Performance (COP)
A refrigerator has a coefficient of performance of 2.25, runs on an input of
95 W of electrical power, and keeps its inside compartment at 5˚C. If you
put a dozen 1.0-L plastic bottles of water at 31˚C into this refrigerator, how
long will it take for them to be cooled down to 5˚C? (Ignore any heat that
leaves the plastic.)
E11. How much heat is taken away from the water at 31∘C to cool it at 5∘C.
Density of water = 1,000 kg/m3
Conversion: 1 m3 = 1,000 L
Specific heat of water = 4,190 J/kg ⋅ K

������. : 1.70 ℎ
Refrigerator

Conceptual Example
Suppose you decide to cool the air in the room by leaving the refrigerator
door open. Will this scheme work?

No. A refrigerator uses an input of work to transfer heat from one system to
another system. If the door is open, the two systems are really the same
system and will eventually come to the same temperature.
 nd
The Kelvin-Planck Statement of the 2 Law
It is impossible for a system to undergo a process in which it absorbs heat
from a reservoir at a single temperature and converts heat into
mechanical work, with the system ending in
the same state in which it began.

Consider the following cases:

1. Heat absorbed and work done during
an isothermal expansion of an ideal
gas.
2. Heat absorbed and work done during a
cycle with adiabatic compression,
isothermal expansion and adiabatic
expansion.
nd
The Clausius Statement of the 2
Law
It is impossible for any process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat
from a cooler to a hotter body.
The two statements are equivalent
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Carnot Engine
• How efficient can an engine be given two
heat reservoirs at temperatures TH and TC?
Answered in 1824 by Sadi Carnot by
developing a hypothetical, idealized heat
engine that has the maximum possible
efficiency consistent with the 2nd Law of
Thermodynamics.

Father of Thermodynamics
Reversible Processes: Revisited
• A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can be turned back
such that both the system and the surroundings return to their original
state, with no other change anywhere in the universe.
• Conversion of work into heat is an irreversible process.
• Heat engine works to partially reverse this conversion.
• No work must be done by friction, viscous forces, or other dissipative forces
that produce heat.
• Heat conduction can only occur isothermally.
• The process must be quasi-static so that the system is always in an
equilibrium state (or infinitesimally near an equilibrium state)
Carnot Engine
• Carnot thought that if we want to convert
heat to work with as much efficiency, we
must avoid all irreversible processes such
as heat flow
• For a cycle to be reversible, the processes
involved must be isothermal and
adiabatic
Carnot Cycle
1. Quasi static isothermal absorption
of heat from a hot reservoir
2. Quasi static adiabatic expansion
to a lower temperature
3. Quasi static isothermal
exhaustion of heat to cold
reservoir
4. Quasi static compression back to
the original state.
Carnot Engine
• The efficiency of the Carnot
engine is obtained via:

�� =��
����= 1 −����
����
• Relating ���� with ���� through
the adiabatic processes, we will
get ����=����
����
����
• The efficiency of a Carnot engine
depends only on the temperatures of
the two reservoir.
 ��
�� = 1 − ��

����
Carnot Engine
A Carnot engine whose high-temperature reservoir is at 620 K takes in 550 J
of heat at this temperature in each cycle and gives up 335 J to the low
temperature reservoir. (a) How much mechanical work does the engine
perform during each cycle? (b) What is the temperature of the low
temperature reservoir? (c)What is the thermal efficiency of the cycle?
(a) ���� = ���� =
550 J −335 J ��
���� = =?
620 K
 �� = ���� + ���� = 550 J + (−335 J)

(b)
= 215 J ���� =?

��
����= �� ����= 620−335
���� �������� = 378 K
�������� = 550
Carnot Engine
 3
�� = 4.89 × 10 J
E12.
�� = 4500 J

E13.
Carnot Cycle
• Because each step in the Carnot cycle is reversible, the entire cycle may
be reversed.
• Coefficient of Performance of a Carnot Refrigerator
• Carnot engine and refrigerator are IDEALIZATIONS
Carnot’s Theorem
• No engine can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating
between the same two temperatures.
• All real engines are less efficient than the Carnot engine because they
do not operate through a reversible cycle.
The Kelvin Temperature Scale
• Carnot efficiency is valid for any working substance, not just the ideal gas.
• All Carnot engines operating between the same two temperatures have
the same efficiency, irrespective of the nature of the working substance. •
Hence, the ratio QC/QHshould be the same for all Carnot engines operating
at TH and TC.
• We can then define a temperature scale which is truly absolute

• At absolute zero, we can say that the internal energy is minimum

The Third Law of Thermodynamics

States that we can never reach absolute zero (0 K)

• The more closely we approach absolute zero, the more difficult it is to
get closer
“It is impossible to reach absolute zero in a finite number of
thermodynamics steps.”
Irreversibility and Disorder
Consider a box containing ideal gas of mass �� and temperature �� is
moving along a frictionless table.

��റ����

The box then have an inelastic collision with the wall and the box stops
��
moving. Before collision: ���������� =12��������

2
+32������
Ordered mechanical energy
Random, unordered energy
��′ 3
After collision: ���������� = 0 + 2������′
An increase in the system and the environment’s disorder correspond to an
irreversible process.
Entropy
Entropy (��) provides a quantitative measure of
disorder. • It is a function of the state variables of the
system.
• The change in entropy (Δ��) for a reversible process can be calculated
using: �������
����������
���
Δ�� = න is JK
��������������
;
�� SI unit of ��

���������� is the amount of heat the flow in or out of the

system during a reversible process at temperature ��
• Since the entropy is a state function, then we just must know the initial
state and the final state to calculate the change in entropy.
Entropy Calculation (Isothermal Process)
Isothermal process is a reversible process:
�� =����
Example: (Entropy change in melting)
What is the change of entropy of 1 kg of ice that is melted reversibly at 0°C
and converted to water at 0°C. The heat of fusion of water is ���� = 334 ×
103J/kg.

��
�� = ��=+������
3
��=+(1.00 kg)(334 × 10 J/kg)
273.15 K

= +1.22 × 103J/K
 The change in entropy is positive which means that the
disorder of the system (water) increases. Ice -> water
Entropy Calculation (Isothermal
Process)Free expansion of an ideal gas is an
irreversible process.

�� ��
��
 ��

�� 2��
Since �� depends only on the initial and final state, then we can think of
a reversible process that will also give the same initial and final state.
1 න ������
��= �� �� =1�������� ln����
��
����������
Δ�� = න �� ����= ���� ln2
Entropy Calculation (Isobaric Heating Process)
Isobaric heating is an irreversible process: ��
Isobaric heating from temperature ��1 ��2
�� to �� + ���� is reversible for
infinitesimal temperature
1 2 ��
difference.

����
�� + ���� �� + ���� � ��
��
=������
���� ����
���� ��
�� + ���� ����
= �����
 ������

ln��2
�� =
��1
This process is reversible because heat flows
at almost constant temperature ��.
Entropy Calculation (Isobaric Heating Process)
You make tea with 0.250 kg of 85.0˚C water and let it cool to temperature
(20.0˚C) before drinking it. (a) Calculate the entropy change of the water
while it cools. (b) The cooling process is essentially isothermal for the air in
your kitchen. Calculate the change in entropy for the air while the tea
cools. If all the lost by the water goes into the air. What is the total entropy
change of the system tea + air?
������������ �� ��
ln 2 1
= ������ ��
= ���� ⋅ ln 2
 ��1
E14. Solve for the entropy change of the water while it
cools. Δ������������ = −210 J/K
(b) The air absorbs the heat released by the water, but its temperature
remain the same �������� = +232 J/K

������������ = ������������ + �������� = +22 J/K

Entropy Calculation (Isobaric Heating Process)
A physics student immerses one end of a copper rod in boiling water at 100˚C and the
other end in an ice-water mixture at 0˚C. The sides of the rod are insulated. After
steady-state conditions have been achieved in the rod, 0.120 kg of ice melts in a
certain time interval. For this time interval, find (a) the entropy change of the boiling
water; (b) the entropy change of the ice-water mixture; (c) the entropy change of the
copper rod; (d) the total entropy of the entire system.
(a) The heat given off by the boiling water is equal to the heat absorbed in melting
0.120 kg of ice.
0.120 334 × 103
������= −
 ��
������= − ����������
− ��
������ = ��������

(b) For the ice-water mixture: ������=0.120 334 × 103

(100 + 273.15)= −107 ��/��

������=������������
(0 + 273.15)= +147 ��/��
������ =+ ����������
(c) The amount of heat that enters the rod any cross-section is just equal to the amount
of heat that leaves it. Thus, �������� = 0.
(d) The entire entropy of the system is:
Δ������������ = Δ������ + Δ������ + Δ�������� = −107 + 147 + 0 =
+39 J/K
Reversible versus Irreversible

• Reversible – total change in entropy of the universe is zero (ΔSsys ≠ 0) •

Reversible Cyclic – total change in entropy of the system is zero (ΔSsys= 0,
ΔSsurroundings = 0)
• Irreversible – total change in entropy of the universe is greater than zero
(ΔSsys ≠ 0)
• Irreversible Cyclic - total change in entropy of the system is zero (ΔSsys= 0)
but the total change in entropy of the universe is nonzero (ΔSsurroundings > 0)
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

“No process is possible in which the total entropy decreases, when all
systems taking part in the process are included.”