SISTEM SIRKULASI

A major function of the fluid-circulating system is to remove the rock cuttings from the hole as
drilling progresses. A schematic diagram illustrating a typical rig circulating system is shown in Fig.
1.23. The drilling fluid is most commonly a suspension of clay and other materials in water and is
called drilling mud. The drilling mud travels (1) from the steel tanks to the mud pump, (2) from the
pump through the high-pressure surface connections to the drillstring, (3) through the drillstring to
the bit, (4) through the nozzles of the bit and up the annular space between the drillstring and hole
to the surface, and (5) through the contaminant-removal equipment back to the suction tank.

The principal components of the rig circulating system include (1) mud pumps, (2) mud pits, (3)
mudmixing equipment, and (4) contaminant-removal equipment. With the exception of several
experimental types, mud pumps always have used reciprocating positive-displacement pistons. Both
two-cylinder (duplex) and three-cylinder (triplex) pumps are common. The duplex pumps generally
are double-acting pumps that pump on both forward and backward piston strokes. The triplex
pumps generally are single-acting pumps that pump only on forward piston strokes. Triplex pumps
are lighter and more compact than duplex pumps, their output pressure pulsations are not as great,
and they are cheaper to operate. For these reasons, the majority of new pumps being placed into
operation are of the triplex design.

The advantages of the reciprocating positive displacement pump are the (1) ability to move high-
solids-content fluids laden with abrasives, (2) ability to pump large particles, (3) ease of operation
and maintenance, (4) reliability, and (5) ability to operate over a wide range of pressures and flow
rates by changing the diameters of the pump liners ( compression cylinders) and pistons. Example
duplex and triplex mud pumps are shown in Fig. 1.24.
The overall efficiency of a mud-circulating pump is the product of the mechanical efficiency and the
volumetric efficiency. Mechanical efficiency usually is assumed to be 90% and is related to the
efficiency of the prime mover itself and the linkage to the pump drive shaft. Volumetric efficiency of
a pump whose suction is adequately charged can be as high as 100%. Most manufacturers' tables
rate pumps using a mechanical efficiency, E m, of 90% and a volumetric efficiency, Ev, of 100%.

Generally, two circulating pumps are installed on the rig. For the large hole sizes used on the shallow
portion of most wells, both pumps can be operated in parallel to deliver the large flow rates
required. On the deeper portions of the well, only one pump is needed, and the second pump serves
as a standby for use when pump maintenance is required.

A schematic diagram showing the valve arrangement and operation of a double-acting pump is
shown in Fig. 1.25. The theoretical displacement from a double-acting pump is a function of the
piston rod diameter dr, the liner diameter d1, and the stroke length Ls. On the forward stroke of
each piston, the volume displaced is given by

π 2
d L
4 1 s
Similarly, on the backward stroke of each piston, the volume displaced is given by

π 2 2
(d ¿ ¿ 1 −d r ) L s ¿
4
Thus, the total volume displaced per complete pump cycle by a pump having two cylinders is given
by
 π
F p= (2) L s (2 d21 −d 2r ) Ev (duplex)
4
Where Ev is volumetric efficiency of the pump displacement per cycle, F p, is commonly called the
pump factor.

For the single-acting (triplex) pump, the volume displaced by each piston during one complete pump
cycle is given by

π 2
d L
4 1 s
Thus, the pump factor for a single-acting pump having three cylinders becomes

3π 2
F p= Ls Ev d1 (Triplex)
4
The flow rate q of the pump is obtained by multiplying the pump factor by N, the number of cycles
per unit time. In common field usage, the terms cycle and stroke often are used interchangeably to
refer to one complete pump revolution.

Pumps are rated for (1) hydraulic power, (2) maximum pressure, and (3) maximum flow rate. If the
inlet pressure of the pump is essentially atmospheric pressure, the increase in fluid pressure moving
through the pump is approximately equal to the discharge pressure. The hydraulic power output of
the pump is equal to the discharge pressure times the flow rate. In field units of hp, psi, and gal/min,
the hydraulic power developed by the pump is given by

∆ pq
PH=
1714
For a given hydraulic power level, the maximum discharge pressure and flow rate can be varied by
changing the stroke rate and liner size. A smaller liner will allow the operator to obtain a higher
pressure, but at a lower rate. Due to equipment maintenance problems, pressures above about
3,500 psig seldom are used.
The flow conduits connecting the mud pumps to the drillstring include (1) a surge chamber, (2) a 4-
or 6-in. heavy-walled pipe connecting the pump to a pump manifold located on the rig floor, (3) a
standpipe and rotary hose, (4) a swivel, and (5) a kelly. The surge chamber (see Fig. 1.26) contains a
gas in the upper portion, which is separated from the drilling fluid by a flexible diaphragm. The surge
chamber greatly dampens the pressure surges developed by the positive-displacement pump. The
discharge line also contains a pressure relief valve to prevent line rupture in the event the pump is
started against a closed valve. The standpipe and rotary hose provide a flexible connection that
permits vertical movement of the drillstring. The swivel contains roller bearings to support the
rotating load of the drillstring and a rotating pressure seal that allows fluid circulation through the
swivel. The kelly, which is a pipe rectangular or hexagonal in cross section, allows the drillstring to be
rotated. It normally has a 3-in.-diameter passage for fluid circulation to the drillstring.

Example 1.3

Compute the pump factor in units of barrels per stroke for a duplex pump having 6.5-in. liners, 2.5-
in. rods, 18-in. strokes, and a volumetric efficiency of 90%.

Solution. The pump factor for a duplex pump can be determined using Eq. 1.10:

π
F p= ( 2 ) Ls ( 2 d 21−d 2r ) E v
4
π
F p= ( 2 )( 18 ) ¿
4
= 1991,2 in3/Stroke

Recall that there are 231 in 3 in a U.S gallon and 42 U.S gallons in U.S barrel. Thus, converting to the
desired field unit yields
 3
1991,2∈¿ gal bbl
x 3
x =0,2052 bbl/stroke ¿
stroke 231 ¿ 42 gal
Mud pits are required for holding an excess volume of drilling mud at the surface. This surface
volume allows time for settling of the finer rock cuttings and for the release of entrained gas bubbles
not mechanically separated. Also, in the event some drilling fluid is lot to underground formations,
this fluid loss is replaced by mud from the surface pits. The settling and suction pits sometimes are
dug in the earth with a bulldozer but more commonly are made of steel. A large earthen reserve pit
is provided for contaminated or discarded drilling fluid and for the rock cuttings. This pit also is used
to contain any formation fluids produced during drilling and well testing operations.

Dry mud additives often are stored in sacks, which are added manually to the suction pit using a mud
mixing hopper. However, on many modern rigs bulk storage is used and mud mixing is largely
automated. Liquid mud additives can be added to the suction pit from a chemical tank. Mud jets or
motor-driven agitators often are mounted on the pits for auxiliary mixing.
The contaminant-removing equipment includes mechanical devices for removing solids and gases
from the mud. The coarse rock cuttings and cavings are removed by the shale shaker. The shale
shaker is composed of one or more vibrating screens over which the mud passes as it returns from
the hole. A shale shaker in operation is shown in Fig. 1.27. Additional separation of solids and gases
from the mud occurs in the settling pit. When the amount of finely ground solids in the mud
becomes too great, they can be removed by hydrocyclones and decanting centrifuges. A
hydrocyclone (Fig. 1.28) is a coneshaped housing that imparts a whirling fluid motion much like a
tornado. The heavier solids in the mud are thrown to the housing of the hydrocyclone and fall
through the apex at the bottom. Most of the liquid and lighter particles exit through the vortex
finder at the top. The decanting centrifuge (Fig. 1.29) consists of a rotating cone-shaped drum which
has a screw conveyor attached to its interior. Rotation of the cone creates a centrifugal force that
throws the heavier particles to the outer housing. The screw conveyor moves the separated particles
to the discharge.
When the amount of entrained formation gas leaving the settling pit becomes too great, it can be
separated using a degasser. A vacuum chamber degasser is shown in Fig. 1.30. A vacuum pump
mounted on top of the chamber removes the gas from the chamber. The mud flows across inclined
flat surfaces in the chamber in thin layers, which allows the gas bubbles that have been enlarged by
the reduced pressure to be separated from the mud more easily. Mud is drawn through the
chamber at a reduced pressure of about 5 psia by a mud jet located in the discharge line.

A gaseous drilling fluid can be used when the formations encountered by the bit have a high
strength and an extremely low permeability. The use of gas as a drilling fluid when drilling most
sedimentary rocks results in a much higher penetration rate than is obtained using drilling mud. An
order-of-magnitude difference in penetration rates may be obtained with gas as compared with
drilling mud. However, when formations are encountered that are capable of producing a significant
volume of water, the rock cuttings tend to stick together and no longer can be easily blown from the
hole. This problem sometimes can be solved by injecting a mixture of surfactant and water into the
gas to make a foam-type drilling fluid. Drilling rates with foam are generally less than with air but
greater than with water or mud. As the rate of water production increases, the cost of maintaining
the foam also increases and eventually offsets the drilling rate improvement.

A second procedure that often is used when a water-producing zone is encountered is to seal off the
permeable zone. The water-producing zones can be plugged by use of (1) low-viscosity plastics or (2)
silicon tetrafluoride gas. A catalyst injected with the plastic causes the plastic to begin to solidify
when it contacts the hot formation. Silicon tetrafluoride gas reacts with the formation water and
precipitates silica in the pore spaces of the rock. Best results are obtained when the water-producing
formation is isolated for fluid injection by use of packers. Also, sufficient injection pressure must be
used to exceed the formation pressure. Since this technique requires expending a considerable
amount of rig time, the cost of isolating numerous water zones tends to offset the drilling rate
improvement.

Both air and natural gas have been used as drilling fluids. An air compressor or natural gas pressure
regulator allows the gas to be injected into the standpipe at the desired pressure. An example rig
circulating system used for air drilling is shown in Fig. 1.31. The injection pressure usually is chosen
so that the minimum annular velocity is about 3,000 ft/min. Also shown are small pumps used to
inject water and surfactant into the discharge line. A rotating head installed below the rig floor seals
against the kelly and prevents the gas from spraying through the rig floor. The gas returning from the
annulus then is vented through a blooey line to the reserve pit, at least 200 ft from the rig. If natural
gas is used, it usually is burned continuously at the end of the blooey line. Even if air is used, care
must be taken to prevent an explosion. Small amounts of formation hydrocarbons mixed with
compressed air can be quite dangerous.

The subsurface equipment used for drilling with air is normally the same as the equipment used for
drilling with mud. However, in a few areas where the compressive rock strength is extremely high, a
percussion tool may be used in the drillstring above the bit. A cutaway view of an example
percussion device is shown in Fig. 1.32. Gas flow through the tool causes a hammer to strike
repeatedly on an anvil above the bit. The tool is similar in operation to the percussion hammer used
by construction crews to break concrete. Under a normal operating pressure of 350 psia, the
percussion tool causes the bit to hammer the formation about 1,800 blows/min in addition to the
normal rotary action. Penetration rates in extremely hard formations have been improved
significantly by use of this tool.

SISTEM ROTARI
The rotary system includes all of the equipment used to achieve bit rotation. A schematic diagram
illustrating the arrangement and nomenclature of the rotary system is shown in Fig. 1.33. The main
parts of the rotary system are the (I) swivel, (2) kelly, (3) rotary drive, (4) rotary table, (5) drillpipe,
and (6) drill collars.
The swivel (Fig. 1.34) supports the weight of the drillstring and permits rotation. The bail of the
swivel is attached to the hook of the traveling block, and the gooseneck of the swivel provides a
downward-pointing connection for the rotary hose. Swivels are rated according to their load
capacities. The kelly is the first section of pipe below the swivel. The outside cross section of the
kelly is square or hexagonal to permit it to be gripped easily for turning. Torque is transmitted to the
kelly through kelly bushings, which fit inside the master bushing of the rotary table. The kelly must
be kept as straight as possible. Rotation of a crooked kelly causes a whipping motion that results in
unnecessary wear on the crown block, drilling line, swivel, and threaded connections throughout a
large part of the drillstring.

A view of a kelly and kelly bushings in operation is shown in Fig. 1.35. The kelly thread is right-
handed on the lower end and left-handed on the upper end to permit normal right-hand rotation of
the drillstring. A kelly saver sub is used between the kelly and the first joint of drillpipe. This
relatively inexpensive short section of pipe prevents wear on the kelly threads and provides a place
for mounting a rubber protector to keep the kelly centralized.

An example rotary table is shown in Fig. 1.36. The opening in the rotary table that accepts the kelly
bushings must be large enough for passage of the largest bit to be run in the hole. The lower portion
of the opening is contoured to accept slips that grip the drillstring and prevent it from falling into the
hole while a new joint of pipe is being added to the drillstring. A lock on the rotary prevents the
table from turning when pipe is unscrewed without the use of backup tongs.

Power for driving the rotary table usually is provided by an independent rotary drive. However, in
some cases, power is taken from the drawworks. A hydraulic transmission between the rotary table
and the rotary drive often is used. This greatly reduces shock loadings and prevents excessive torque
if the drillstring becomes stuck. Excessive torque often will result in a twist-off- i.e., a torsional failure
due to a break in the subsurface drillstring.

Power swivels or power subs installed just below a conventional swivel can be used to replace the
kelly, kelly bushings, and rotary table. Drillstring rotation is achieved through a hydraulic motor
incorporated in the power swivel or power sub. These devices are available for a wide range of
i:otary speed and torque combinations. One type of power sub is shown in Fig. 1.37. T

he major portion of the drillstring is composed of drillpipe. The drillpipe in common use is hot-rolled,
pierced, seamless tubing. API has developed specifications for drillpipe. Drillpipe is specified by its
outer diameter, weight per foot, steel grade, and range length. The dimensions and strength of API
drillpipe of grades D, E, G, and S-135 are shown in Table 1.5. Drillpipe is furnished in the following
API length ranges.

Range 2 drill pipe is used most commonly. Since each joint of pipe has a unique length, the length of
each joint must be measured carefully and recorded to allow a determination of total well depth
during drilling operations.

The drillpipe joints are fastened together in the drillstring by means of tool joints (Fig. 1.38). The
female portion of the tool joint is called the box and the male portion is called the pin. The portion of
the drillpipe to which the tool joint is attached has thicker walls than the rest of the drillpipe to
provide for a stronger joint. This thicker portion of the pipe is called the upset. If the extra thickness
is achieved by decreasing the internal diameter, the pipe is said to have an internal upset. A
rounded-type thread is used now on drill pipe. The U.S. Standard V thread was used in early drillpipe
designs, but thread failure was frequent because of the stress concentrations in the thread root. A
tungsten carbide hard facing sometimes is manufactured on the outer surface of the tool joint box
to reduce the abrasive wear of the tool joint by the borehole wall when the drillstring is rotated.

The lower section of the rotary drillstring is composed of drill collars. The drill collars are thickwalled
heavy steel tubulars used to apply weight to the bit. The buckling tendency of the relatively
thinwalled drillpipe is too great to use it for this purpose. The smaller clearance between the
borehole and the drill collars helps to keep the hole straight. Stabilizer subs (Fig. 1.39) often are used
in the drill collar string to assist in keeping the drill collars centralized.

In many drilling operations, a knowledge of the volume contained in or displaced by the drillstring is
required. The term capacity often is used to refer to the cross-sectional area of the pipe or annulus
expressed in units of contained volume per unit length. In terms of the pipe diameter. d. the capacity
of pipe. Ap,. is given by

π
Ap= d2
4
Similarly, the capacity of an annulus, Aa, in terms of the inner and outer diameter, is

π 2 2
Aa = ( d −d )
4 2 1
The term displacement often is used to refer to the cross-sectional area of steel in the pipe
expressed in units of volume per unit length. The displacement, As, of a section of pipe is given by

π 2 2
A s= (d −d )
4 1
Displacements calculated using Eq. 1.15 do not consider the additional fluid displaced by the thicker
steel sections at the tool joints or couplings. When a more exact displacement calculation is needed,
tables provided by the tool joint or coupling manufacturer can be used. Table 1.6 gives average
displacement values for Range 2 drillpipe, including tool joint displacements.

Example 1.4

A drillstring is composed of 7 ,000 ft of 5-in., 19.5-lbm/ft drillpipe and 500 ft of 8-in. OD by 2. 75-in.
ID drill collars when drilling a 9.875-in. borehole. Assuming that the borehole remains in gauge,
compute the number of pump cycles required to circulate mud from the surface to the bit and from
the bottom of the hole to the surface if the pump factoris0.1781 bbl/cycle.

Solution. For field units of feet and barrels, Eq. 1.13 becomes

Ap= ( π4 d )¿ . ( 231gal¿ . )( 42bblgal ) ¿

2 2
3
Using Table 1.5, the inner diameter of 5-in., 19.5 lbm/ft drillpipe is 4.276 in.; thus, the capacity of the
drillpipe is

4,276 2
=0,01776 bbl/ ft
1.029,4
and the capacity of the drill collars is

2,76 2
=0,00735 bbl /ft
1.029,4
The number of pump cyles required to circulated new mud to the bit is given by

[ 0,01776 ( 7.000 )+ 0,00735(500)] bbl

=719 cycle
0,1781bbl/cycle
Similiary, the annualar capacity outside the drillpipe is given by
2 2
9,875 −5
=0,0704 bbl/ ft
1.029,4
And the annular outside the drill collars is

9,8752−8 2
=0,0326 bbl/ ft
1.029,4
The pump cycles required to circulate mud from the bottom of the hole to the surface is given by

[ 0,0704 ( 7.000 ) +0,0326(500)] bbl

=2.858 cycle
0,1781bbl/cycle